Alterations in cyclin-dependent kinase 2 function during differentiation of primary human keratinocytes

Targeted inhibition of BET proteins in HPV-16 associated head and neck squamous cell carcinoma reveals heterogeneous transcription response

Integrated human papillomavirus (HPV-16) associated head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) tumors have worse survival outcomes compared to episomal HPV-16 HNSCC tumors. Therefore, there is a need to differentiate treatment for HPV-16 integrated HNSCC from other viral forms. We analyzed TCGA data and found that HPV+ HNSCC expressed higher transcript levels of the bromodomain and extra terminal domain (BET) family of transcriptional coregulators. However, the mechanism of BET protein-mediated transcription of viral-cellular genes in the integrated viral-HNSCC genomes needs to be better understood. We show that BET inhibition downregulates E6 significantly independent of the viral transcription factor, E2, and there was overall heterogeneity in the downregulation of viral transcription in response to the effects of BET inhibition across HPV-associated cell lines. Chemical BET inhibition was phenocopied with the knockdown of BRD4 and mirrored downregulation of viral E6 and E7 expression. Strikingly, there was heterogeneity in the reactivation of p53 levels despite E6 downregulation, while E7 downregulation did not alter Rb levels significantly. We identified that BET inhibition directly downregulated c-Myc and E2F expression and induced CDKN1A expression. Overall, our studies show that BET inhibition provokes a G1-cell cycle arrest with apoptotic activity and suggests that BET inhibition regulates both viral and cellular gene expression in HPV-associated HNSCC.

Targeting cyclin-dependent kinases in rheumatoid arthritis and psoriasis - a review of current evidence

INTRODUCTION

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory disease associated with synovial proliferation and bone erosion, which leads to the structural and functional impairment of the joints. Immune cells, together with synoviocytes, induce a pro-inflammatory environment and novel treatment agents target inflammatory cytokines. Psoriasis is a chronic immune-mediated skin disease, and several cytokines are considered as typical mediators in the progression of the disease, including IL-23, IL-22, and IL-17, among others.

AREA COVERED

In this review, we try to evaluate whether cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK), enzymes that regulate cell cycle and transcription of various genes, could become novel therapeutic targets in RA and psoriasis. We present the main results of in vitro and in vivo studies, as well as scarce clinical reports.

EXPERT OPINION

CDK inhibitors seem promising for treating RA and psoriasis because of their multidirectional effects. CDK inhibitors may affect not only the process of osteoclastogenesis, thereby reducing joint destruction in RA, but also the process of apoptosis of neutrophils and macrophages responsible for the development of inflammation in both RA and psoriasis. However, assessing the efficacy of these drugs in clinical practice requires multi-center, long-term clinical trials evaluating the effectiveness and safety of CDK-blocking therapy in RA and psoriasis.

KDM6A addiction of cervical carcinoma cell lines is triggered by E7 and mediated by p21CIP1 suppression of replication stress

Expression of E7 proteins encoded by carcinogenic, high-risk human papillomaviruses (HPVs) triggers increased expression of the histone H3 lysine 27 demethylase KDM6A. KDM6A expression is necessary for survival of high-risk HPV E7 expressing cells, including several cervical cancer lines. Here we show that increased KDM6A in response to high-risk HPV E7 expression causes epigenetic de-repression of the cell cycle and DNA replication inhibitor p21^CIP1, and p21^CIP1 expression is necessary for survival of high-risk HPV E7 expressing cells. The requirement for KDM6A and p21^CIP1 expression for survival of high-risk HPV E7 expressing cells is based on p21^CIP1’s ability to inhibit DNA replication through PCNA binding. We show that ectopic expression of cellular replication factors can rescue the loss of cell viability in response to p21^CIP1 and KDM6A depletion. Moreover, we discovered that nucleoside supplementation will override the loss of cell viability in response to p21^CIP1 depletion, suggesting that p21^CIP1 depletion causes lethal replication stress. This model is further supported by increased double strand DNA breaks upon KDM6A or p21^CIP1 depletion and DNA combing experiments that show aberrant re-replication upon KDM6A or p21^CIP1 depletion in high-risk HPV E7 expressing cells. Therefore, KDM6A and p21^CIP1 expression are essential to curb E7 induced replication stress to levels that do not markedly interfere with cell viability.

High-risk human papillomaviruses (HPVs) are associated with approximately five percent of all human cancers, including virtually all cervical cancers as well as a large percentage of anal, vaginal, vulvar, penile, and oropharyngeal cancers. The HPV E6 and E7 proteins are the major oncogenic drivers in these tumors, and persistent expression of E6 and E7 is required for the maintenance of the transformed state. While E6 and E7 lack intrinsic enzymatic activities, and thus are difficult to directly target therapeutically, they biochemically interact with, functionally modify, or alter expression of key host cellular signaling proteins. HPV16 E7 triggers increased expression of the KDM6A histone demethylase, and KDM6A expression becomes necessary for the survival of HPV16 E7 expressing cells. Here we show that the requirement for persistent KDM6A expression is mediated by the cell cycle and DNA replication inhibitor p21^CIP1 in that p21^CIP1 expression is necessary for survival of E7 expressing cells. Remarkably, this is based on the ability of p21^CIP1 to inhibit cellular DNA replication by binding PCNA. Our results suggest that increased KDM6A and p21^CIP1 expression serves to curb HPV16 E7-induced replication stress to levels that are conducive to DNA replication but do not cause death of HPV infected cells.

Opposing growth regulatory roles of protein kinase D isoforms in human keratinocytes

PKD is a family of three serine/threonine kinases (PKD-1, -2, and -3) involved in the regulation of diverse biological processes including proliferation, migration, secretion, and cell survival. We have previously shown that despite expression of all three isoforms in mouse epidermis, PKD1 plays a unique and critical role in wound healing, phorbol ester-induced hyperplasia, and tumor development. In translating our findings to the human, we discovered that PKD1 is not expressed in human keratinocytes (KCs) and there is a divergence in the expression and function of other PKD isoforms. Contrary to mouse KCs, treatment of cultured human KCs with pharmacological inhibitors of PKDs resulted in growth arrest. We found that PKD2 and PKD3 are expressed differentially in proliferating and differentiating human KCs, with the former uniformly present in both compartments whereas the latter is predominantly expressed in the proliferating compartment. Knockdown of individual PKD isoforms in human KCs revealed contrasting growth regulatory roles for PKD2 and PKD3. Loss of PKD2 enhanced KC proliferative potential while loss of PKD3 resulted in a progressive proliferation defect, loss of clonogenicity and diminished tissue regenerative ability. This proliferation defect was correlated with up-regulation of CDK4/6 inhibitor p15(INK4B) and induction of a p53-independent G1 cell cycle arrest. Simultaneous silencing of PKD isoforms resulted in a more pronounced proliferation defect consistent with a predominant role for PKD3 in proliferating KCs. These data underline the importance and complexity of PKD signaling in human epidermis and suggest a central role for PKD3 signaling in maintaining human epidermal homeostasis.

The human papillomavirus type 8 E6 protein interferes with NOTCH activation during keratinocyte differentiation

Cutaneous β-human papillomavirus (β-HPV) E6 proteins inhibit NOTCH signaling by associating with the transcriptional coactivator MAML1. NOTCH has tumor suppressor activities in epithelial cells and is activated during keratinocyte differentiation. Here we report that HPV type 8 (HPV8) E6 subverts NOTCH activation during keratinocyte differentiation by inhibiting RBPJ/MAML1 transcriptional activator complexes at NOTCH target DNA. NOTCH inhibition impairs epithelial differentiation and may thus contribute to β-HPV replication and viral oncogenesis.

Interaction of viral oncoproteins with cellular target molecules: infection with high-risk vs low-risk human papillomaviruses

Persistent infection by a subgroup of so-called high-risk human papillomaviruses (HPVs) that have a tropism for mucosal epithelia has been defined as the cause of more than 98% of cervical carcinomas as well as a high proportion of other cancers of the anogenital region. Infection of squamous epithelial tissues in the head and neck region by these same high-risk HPVs is also associated with a subset of cancers. Despite the general conservation of genetic structure amongst all HPV types, infection by the low-risk types, whether in genital or head and neck sites, carries a negligible risk of malignant progression, and infections have a markedly different pathology. In this review, we will examine and discuss the interactions that the principal viral oncoproteins of the high-risk mucosotrophic HPVs and their counterparts from the low-risk group make with cellular target proteins, with a view to explaining the differences in their respective pathology.

Oncogenic activities of human papillomaviruses

Infectious etiologies for certain human cancers have long been suggested by epidemiological studies and studies with experimental animals. Important support for this concept came from the discovery by Harald zur Hausen's group that human cervical carcinoma almost universally contains certain "high-risk" human papillomavirus (HPV) types. Over the years, much has been learned about the carcinogenic activities of high-risk HPVs. These studies have revealed that two viral proteins, E6 and E7, that are consistently expressed in HPV-associated carcinomas, are necessary for induction and maintenance of the transformed phenotype. Hence, HPV-associated tumors are unique amongst human solid tumors in that they are universally caused by exposure to the same, molecularly defined oncogenic agents, and the molecular signal transduction pathways subverted by these viral transforming agents are frequently disrupted in other, non-virus-associated human cancers.

The human papillomavirus E7 oncoprotein

The human papillomavirus (HPV) E7 oncoprotein shares functional similarities with such proteins as adenovirus E1A and SV40 large tumor antigen. As one of only two viral proteins always expressed in HPV-associated cancers, E7 plays a central role in both the viral life cycle and carcinogenic transformation. In the HPV viral life cycle, E7 disrupts the intimate association between cellular differentiation and proliferation in normal epithelium, allowing for viral replication in cells that would no longer be in the dividing population. This function is directly reflected in the transforming activities of E7, including tumor initiation and induction of genomic instability.

Notch signaling in the integrated control of keratinocyte growth/differentiation and tumor suppression

Oncogenesis is closely linked to abnormalities in cell differentiation. Notch signaling provides an important form of intercellular communication involved in cell fate determination, stem cell potential and differentiation. Here we review the role of this pathway in the integrated growth/differentiation control of the keratinocyte cell type, and the maintenance of normal skin homeostasis. In parallel with the pro-differentiation function of Notch1 in keratinocytes, we discuss recent evidence pointing to a tumor suppressor function of this gene in both mouse skin and human cervical carcinogenesis. The possibility that Notch signaling elicits signals with a duality of growth positive and negative function will be discussed.

P21Waf1 control of epithelial cell cycle and cell fate

As a broad-acting cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor, p21(WAF1) occupies a central position in the cell cycle regulation of self-renewing tissues such as oral mucosa and skin. In addition to regulating normal cell cycle progression decisions, p21(WAF1) integrates genotoxic insults into growth arrest and apoptotic signaling pathways that ultimately determine cell fate. As a result of its complex interactions with cell cycle machinery and response to mutagenic agents, p21(WAF1) also has stage-specific roles in epithelial carcinogenesis. Finally, a view is emerging of p21(WAF1) as not merely a cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor, but also as a direct participant in regulating genes involved in growth arrest, senescence, and aging, thus providing an additional layer of control over matters of the cell cycle. This review discusses these various roles played by p21(WAF1) in cell cycle control, and attempts to relate these to epithelial cell biology, with special emphasis on keratinocytes.

Human papillomavirus type 31 E5 protein supports cell cycle progression and activates late viral functions upon epithelial differentiation

The function of the E5 protein of human papillomaviruses (HPV) is not well characterized, and controversies exist about its role in the viral life cycle. To determine the function of E5 within the life cycle of HPV type 31 (HPV31) we first constructed HPV31 mutant genomes that contained an altered AUG initiation codon or stop codons in E5. Cell lines were established which harbored transfected wild-type or E5 mutant HPV31 genomes. These cell lines all maintained episomal copies of HPV31 and revealed similar phenotypes with respect to growth rate, early gene expression, and viral copy number in undifferentiated monolayer cultures. Following epithelial differentiation, genome amplification and differentiation-dependent late gene expression were observed in mutant cell lines, but at a rate significantly reduced from that observed in cells containing the wild-type genomes. Organotypic raft cultures indicated that E5 does not effect the expression of differentiation markers but does reduce expression of late viral proteins. Western analysis and immunofluorescence staining for cyclins during epithelial differentiation revealed a decreased expression of cyclin A and B in E5 mutant cells compared to HPV wild-type cells. Using a replating assay, a significant reduction in colony-forming ability was detected in the absence of E5 expression when cells containing wild-type or E5 mutant HPV genomes were allowed to proliferate following 24 h in suspension-induced differentiation. This suggests that HPV E5 modifies the differentiation-induced cell cycle exit and supports the ability of HPV31-positive keratinocytes to retain proliferative competence. In these studies, E5 was found to have little effect on the levels of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) or on its phosphorylation status. This indicates that EGFR is not a target of E5 action. Our results propose a role for high risk HPV E5 in modulation of late viral functions through activation of proliferative capacity in differentiated cells. We suspect that the primary target of E5 is a membrane protein or receptor that then acts to alter the levels or activities of cell cycle regulators.

Inactivation of both the retinoblastoma tumor suppressor and p21 by the human papillomavirus type 16 E7 oncoprotein is necessary to inhibit cell cycle arrest in human epithelial cells

The human papillomavirus (HPV) type 16 E7 oncoprotein must inactivate the retinoblastoma tumor suppressor (Rb) pathway to bypass G(1) arrest. However, E7 C-terminal mutants that were able to inactivate Rb were unable to bypass DNA damage-induced G(1) arrest and keratinocyte senescence, suggesting that the E7 C terminus may target additional G(1) regulators. The E7 C-terminal mutant proteins E7 CVQ68-70AAA and E7 Delta79-83 (deletion of positions 79 through 83) were further tested in several models of cell cycle arrest associated with elevated levels of p21. C-terminal mutations rendered E7 unable to induce S phase and endoreduplication in differentiated keratinocytes and rendered it less efficient in delaying senescence of human mammary epithelial cells. Interestingly, when cell cycle arrest was induced with a peptide form of p21, the E7 C-terminal mutants were deficient in overcoming arrest, whereas a mutant defective in Rb binding was competent in inhibiting G(1) arrest. These results suggest that the inactivation of both p21 and Rb by E7 contributes to subversion of cell cycle control in normal human epithelia but that neither p21 nor Rb inactivation alone is sufficient.

Biological activities and molecular targets of the human papillomavirus E7 oncoprotein

The human papillomavirus (HPV) E7 protein is one of only two viral proteins that remain expressed in HPV-associated human cancers. HPV E7 proteins share structural and functional similarities with oncoproteins encoded by other small DNA tumor viruses such as adenovirus E1A and SV40 large tumor antigen. The HPV E7 protein plays an important role in the viral life cycle by subverting the tight link between cellular differentiation and proliferation in normal epithelium, thus allowing the virus to replicate in differentiating epithelial cells that would have normally withdrawn from the cell division cycle. The transforming activities of E7 largely reflect this important function.

Ca2+ and BMP-6 signaling regulate E2F during epidermal keratinocyte differentiation

The epidermis consists of a squamous epithelium continuously replenished by committed stem cells, which can either self-renew or differentiate. We demonstrated previously that E2F genes are differentially expressed in developing epidermis (Dagnino, L., Fry, C. J., Bartley, S. M., Farnham, P., Gallie, B. L., and Phillips, R. A. (1997) Cell Growth Differ. 8, 553-563). Thus, we hypothesized that various E2F proteins likely play distinct growth regulatory roles in the undifferentiated stem cells and in terminally differentiated keratinocytes. To further understand the function of E2F genes in epidermal morphogenesis, we have examined the expression, regulation, and protein-protein interactions of E2F factors in undifferentiated cultured murine primary keratinocytes or in cells induced to differentiate with Ca(2+) or BMP-6 (bone morphogenetic protein 6). We find similar patterns of E2F regulation with both differentiating agents and demonstrate a switch in expression from E2F-1, -2, and -3 in undifferentiated, proliferating cells to E2F-5 in terminally differentiated keratinocytes. Inhibition of keratinocyte proliferation by transforming growth factor-beta1 did not enhance E2F-5 protein levels, suggesting that this response is specific to differentiation rather than reversible cell cycle withdrawal. E2F-5 up-regulation is also accompanied by formation of heteromeric nuclear complexes containing E2F5, p130, and histone deacetylase (HDAC) 1. Overexpression of E2F5 specifically inhibited DNA synthesis in undifferentiated keratinocytes in an HDAC-dependent manner, suggesting that E2F-5.p130.HDAC1 complexes are likely involved in the permanent withdrawal from the cell cycle of keratinocytes responding to differentiation stimuli.

The cytokines tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha ) and TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand differentially modulate proliferation and apoptotic pathways in human keratinocytes expressing the human papillomavirus-16 E7 oncoprotein

Keratinocytes are the natural target cells for infection by human papillomaviruses (HPVs), most of which cause benign epithelial hyperplasias (warts). However, a subset of papillomaviruses, the "high risk" HPVs, cause lesions that can progress to carcinomas. Inflammatory mediators such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) are produced by cells in response to a viral infection. To determine the effects of TNF-alpha and TRAIL on keratinocytes expressing the high risk HPV-16 oncoprotein E7, human foreskin keratinocytes stably expressing E7 were treated with TNF-alpha and TRAIL. Treatment with TNF-alpha alone, but not TRAIL, induced growth arrest and differentiation in keratinocytes that was almost completely overcome by expression of HPV-16 E7. Both cytokines induced apoptosis when administered in combination with the protein synthesis inhibitor cycloheximide, but the apoptotic response to TRAIL was significantly more rapid and efficient compared with the response seen after TNF-alpha treatment. HPV-16 E7-expressing keratinocytes were more prone to both TNF-alpha- and TRAIL-mediated apoptosis compared with vector-infected controls.

Expression of the HPV E7 oncoprotein mimics but does not evoke a p53-dependent cellular DNA damage response pathway

Acute expression of the human papillomavirus E7 oncoprotein in preimmortal human fibroblasts induces changes in the abundances of multiple cellular regulatory proteins. These alterations include a destabilization of the retinoblastoma tumor suppressor protein pRB, stabilization of the tumor suppressor protein p53, and increases in the level of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21(cip1). Since the HPV E7 oncoproteins can interfere with several cell cycle checkpoints and similar alterations in the levels of pRB, p53, and p21(cip1) are also observed in a p53-dependent response to DNA damage, we investigated whether E7 expression triggers this signal transduction pathway. The results demonstrate that E7-mediated destabilization of pRB does not require p53 activity and is independent of the ability of E7 to induce apoptosis. Moreover, E7-mediated increases in p21(cip1) levels are largely p53-independent and involve stabilization of the p21(cip1) protein. In contrast the decreases in pRB expression in response to DNA damage involve transcriptional downregulation of RB gene expression.