Effectiveness of corticosteroids versus adrenocorticotropic hormone for infantile spasms: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Management of Developmental and Epileptic Encephalopathies

Developmental and epileptic encephalopathies (DEEs) are a group of rare, severe, early-onset epilepsies characterized by pharmacoresistance, marked electroencephalographic abnormalities, and delayed or regressive psychomotor development. DEEs are associated with poor long-term outcomes and increased mortality; however, early recognition and targeted treatment can impact neurodevelopmental outcomes and overall quality of life. Treatment with antiseizure medication is often challenging given drug resistance, chronic polypharmacy, and medication interactions. With advances in genetic testing and increased understanding of the neurobiological mechanisms of DEEs, the treatment approach is evolving and includes repurposed antiseizure medications and targeted therapies, as well as early surgical intervention in select patients. In addition to high seizure burden and neurodevelopmental delay, DEEs are associated with comorbidities affecting a range of body systems; these can include intellectual disability, psychiatric disorders, motor dysfunction, and respiratory and gastrointestinal problems. Over time, these comorbidities increase the complexity of management and have important implications on the disease burden and quality of life for both patients and their caregivers. Multidisciplinary care in DEEs is paramount. We summarize the current evidence on the management of specific DEEs, focusing on targeted therapies and optimizing outcomes.

Infantile epileptic spasms syndrome: When spasms come out of the blue

BACKGROUND

This study evaluates the electroclinical features of infantile epileptic spasms syndrome (IESS) suddenly appearing in previously normal patients, aiming to describe clinical outcomes and independent predictors.

METHOD

We retrospectively selected a homogeneous group of patients with IESS from two Italian centers. All patients had normal development prior to IESS onset and a follow-up period lasting at least one year. Patients with clinically relevant risk factors, other seizure types, brain structural abnormalities or known genetic diseases were excluded. The BASED score was used to standardize interictal EEG patterns.

RESULTS

Forty-three patients were enrolled, with a median age at IESS onset of 6 months; median follow-up was 43 months. At onset, 65.11 % exhibited mild behavioral changes, including irritability and poor social smile. At firstEEG, epileptic encephalopathy (EE) was prevalent during wakefulness (69.76 %; median BASED score 4) and sleep (81.40 %; median BASED score 5). Within 15 days of treatment, 83.72 % achieved seizure freedom, primarily with ACTH depot (90.70 %). After six months, all patients were seizure- and EE-free. At the last follow-up, 81.40 % had normal cognitive functioning; in the remaining, specific neurodevelopmental disorders, predominantly involving language were reported. No statistically significant differences were found in the electroclinical presentation and neuropsychological outcome.

CONCLUSION

We describe a subgroup of IESS patients with prompt response to treatment, long-term seizure freedom, and absence of severe neurodevelopmental impact. Our data suggest that within the IESS spectrum, there is a distinctive subgroup with global favorable outcome. Key clinical features predictors of good outcome could include normal development prior to IESS and early response to treatment.

What is the impact of etiology, lead time to treatment, and parental awareness on outcomes in infantile epileptic spasm syndrome?

OBJECTIVE

Infantile epileptic spasm syndrome (IESS) is a kind of developmental epileptic encephalopathy that can lead to severe outcomes, including drug-resistant epilepsy and impaired neurodevelopment. The underlying etiology, early diagnosis, and adequate treatment impact the outcome. Our study focused on examining the factors that influence the prognosis and the level of knowledge among families regarding IESS.

METHODS

In the Department of Pediatric Neurology at Gazi University Hospital, we examined 62 IESS children's demographics, neuroimaging, metabolic and genetic findings, seizure characteristics, treatment choices, and long-term outcomes. Our study examined family awareness of seizures, lead time to treatment(LTT), and their impact on prognosis.

RESULTS

Forty-two (67.8 %) patients presented with a symptomatic cause, with over half experiencing intraventricular hemorrhage and/or periventricular leukomalacia attributable to prematurity. The hormonal therapy (tetracosactide or oral prednisolone) was the preferred treatment. Treatment was effective for two-thirds of the patients. Nevertheless, hardly 50 % of the families acknowledged the "event" as a seizure. However, 34 (61 %) individuals had sought medical advice from a doctor during the first seven days. The mean time from the start of seizures to seeking medical care was 9.2 ± 5.7 days.

CONCLUSION

Our research revealed that the etiology was the most significant factor influencing the long-term outcomes of IESS. Additionally, we demonstrated that the clinicians who initially encountered the patients promptly referred them to pediatric neurology departments, despite the fact that the families' seizure awareness was poor. To help prevent this circumstance, it is important to provide information about infantile spasms to the families of high-risk infants.

Etiology-specific subgroup analysis of initial pharmacotherapy in infantile epileptic spasm syndrome: A single-center cohort study

AIM

To evaluate the efficacy of initial pharmacotherapy for infantile epileptic spasm syndrome (IESS) with electro-clinical outcome characteristics.

METHOD

A retrospective comparative cohort study with 280 IESS patients was designed; I. vigabatrin monotherapy (n = 129, 46 %); II. hormonotherapy (ACTH/oral prednisolone) (n = 73, 26 %); and III. vigabatrin plus early initiation of hormonotherapy in the first 14 days (n = 78, 28 %). Two types of outcomes were defined: (1) short-term outcome with spasm cessation time ≤42 days and resolution of hypsarrhythmia on the EEG on ≤3 months and (2) long-term outcome with spasm relapse rate or evolution to a new epileptic syndrome.

RESULTS

The etiology-specific diagnoses of the IESS cohort were defined according to the ILAE classification: structural (n = 131, 46.8 %), genetic (n = 28, 10 %), metabolic (n = 13, 4.6 %), immune-infectious (n = 10, 3.6 %), and unknown (n = 98, 35 %). Each treatment modalities had similar short- and long-term outcome characteristics. However, hormonotherapy with steroids (ACTH/oral prednisolone) provided "early IESS resolution" with spasm cessation and resolution of hypsarrhythmia (p = 0.042). The relapse rates of IESS were significantly higher in the etiology well-defined group compared to the unknown group (p = 0.005). The genetic-etiology specific group was more likely to have evolved to a new electro-clinical syndrome with a rate of 83.3 % than the others (p = 0.039).

CONCLUSION

We observed that the early initiation of hormonotherapy with VGB (sequential therapy) should be investigated in etiology well-defined subgroup with short- and long-term outcome characteristics.

First-choice hormonal therapies for children with infantile epileptic spasms syndrome in South Asia: A network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

Considering the peculiar challenges with infantile epileptic spasms syndrome (IESS) in South Asia and a wide variation in the usage of hormonal therapies, we compared the efficacy and safety of various hormonal therapies for children with IESS in South Asia. We searched PubMed, Embase, Scopus, and Web of Science databases from the inception until April 2024. We included only randomized clinical trials (RCTs) evaluating the efficacy and safety of hormonal therapies for IESS in the South Asian region. Complete cessation of epileptic spasms (ES), electro-clinical response, and time taken to be spasm-free at 2 or 6 weeks of therapy were efficacy outcomes, while the occurrence of adverse events was the safety outcome. Effect estimates were reported as odds ratio (OR) or mean difference (MD) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) and Cochrane risk of bias 2.0 (ROB 2.0) used for quality assessment of each study. The surface under the cumulative ranking curve (SUCRA) was used to rank the different therapies and reported as a p-score ranging from 0 to 1. Of 747 citations, nine RCTs comprising 566 children with IESS were included. After 2-week treatment, dexamethasone (OR: 6.72; 95% CI: 1.47, 30.72), adrenocorticotropic hormone therapy (ACTH) high dose (HD) (OR: 5.30; 95% CI: 1.05, 26.91), and prednisolone HD (OR: 2.41; 95% CI:1.07, 5.46) had shown significantly greater efficacy for cessation of EScompared with ACTH low dose (LD). Similarly, for electroclinical response, dexamethasone (OR: 9.63; 95% CI: 1.99, 46.70) and prednisolone HD (OR: 3.46; 95% CI: 1.38, 8.68) had greater efficacy compared with ACTH LD. Safety outcomes revealed that hypertension was significantly less common with ACTH LD and prednisolone HD as compared with ACTH HD. This study provides quality evidence on preferred first-choice hormonal therapy for managing IESS in South Asia. ACTH HD, dexamethasone, and prednisolone HD are the most effective hormonal therapy options with dose-dependent therapeutic efficacy. PLAIN LANGUAGE SUMMARY: This study provides insights into the selection of first-line hormonal therapies among the various treatments for managing infantile epileptic spasms syndrome (IESS) in South Asia. The study findings suggested that the effectiveness of these therapies is dose-dependent, with high doses of ACTH, dexamethasone, and prednisolone being the most effective for achieving cessation of epileptic spasms.

A Comprehensive Review on Current Insights Into Epileptic Encephalopathy: Pathogenesis and Therapeutic Strategies

Epileptic encephalopathy (EE) represents a challenging group of disorders characterized by severe epilepsy and significant cognitive, behavioral, and neurological impairments. This comprehensive review aims to elucidate the current insights into the pathogenesis and therapeutic strategies for these disorders. Pathogenesis involves a complex interplay of genetic factors, neurobiological mechanisms, and environmental influences that contribute to the severity and progression of symptoms. Clinical manifestations are diverse, encompassing various seizure types, cognitive and behavioral impairments, and developmental delays. Current therapeutic strategies include pharmacological treatments, nonpharmacological interventions, and emerging therapies such as gene and stem cell therapy. Despite advancements, significant challenges and limitations remain, highlighting the need for ongoing research and innovation. This review synthesizes existing knowledge, identifies research gaps, and proposes future directions, emphasizing the potential for personalized medicine to improve patient outcomes and quality of life.

Diagnosis and management of infantile epileptic spasms syndrome (IESS) in Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries: Expert consensus statement

Despite the availability of international recommendations for the management of Infantile Epileptic Spasms Syndrome (IESS), there is a lack of recommendations adapted to the local context of clinical practice of pediatric neurology in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries. By an initiative from the Saudi Pediatric Neurology Society (SPNS), a literature review was performed and an expert panel comprised of 13 pediatric neurologists from all GCC countries (Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Oman, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates) was subsequently convened to discuss all issues related to the management and diagnosis practices of IESS in the GCC. The overall aim of this consensus document was to develop practical recommendations to support the care of patients with IESS in the GCC and to reflect on how clinical management approaches compare with those adopted internationally.

Brazilian experts' consensus on the treatment of infantile epileptic spasm syndrome in infants

BACKGROUND

Infantile epileptic spasms syndrome (IESS) is a rare but severe condition affecting children early and is usually secondary to an identifiable brain disorder. It is related to psychomotor deterioration in childhood and epilepsy in adult life. Treatment is challenging as infantile spasms may not respond to most antiseizure medication, and relapse is frequent.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the literature regarding treatment of IESS and provide a practical guidance to a healthcare system with limited resources.

METHODS

An expert committee from the Brazilian Society of Child Neurology reviewed and discussed relevant scientific evidence in the treatment of IESS regarding the drugs available in Brazil.

RESULTS

Oral prednisolone and vigabatrin are the most common drugs used as first-line therapy; they are efficient and affordable therapy as both are available in the Brazilian unified health system (SUS, in the Portuguese acronym). Intramuscular adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) presents similar efficacy as oral prednisolone but has a higher cost and is not available in Brazil. Other antiseizure medications such as topiramate, levetiracetam, or benzodiazepines have limited response and are prescribed as adjuvant therapy. If the health service has nutritionists, a ketogenic diet should be implemented for those not responding to hormonal and vigabatrin treatment. Epilepsy surgery is mainly indicated for patients with focal lesions that do not respond to pharmacological therapy.

CONCLUSION

Early treatment of IESS with efficient drugs is feasible in our country. Using standard protocols increases the odds of achieving complete cessation in a shorter time and decreases relapse.

Efficacy of vigabatrin in the treatment of infantile epileptic spasms syndrome: A systematic review and meta-analysis

This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the efficacy of vigabatrin (VGB) in treating infantile epileptic spasms syndrome (IESS). Databases of PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, MEDLINE, and Cochrane Library were systematically searched. All the relevant randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and observational studies (OSs) of VGB for IESS were included and analyzed separately. The primary outcome was the cessation of epileptic spasms (ES). Five RCTs and nine OSs compared the efficacy of VGB vs hormonal monotherapy for IESS. Meta-analysis of the five RCTs showed that hormonal monotherapy was significantly better than VGB monotherapy (OR = 0.37, 95% CI = 0.20-0.67) for patients with new-onset IESS. Meta-analysis of the nine OSs agrees with the result from RCTs (OR = 0.61, 95% CI = 0.43-0.85). VGB was more effective in patients with TSC than in those with other etiologies (five OSs, OR = 5.59, 95% CI = 2.17-14.41). There was no significant difference in the efficiency of VGB combined with hormonal therapy vs hormonal monotherapy for IESS (two RCTs, OR = 0.75, 95% CI = 0.09-6.45). Hormonal monotherapy is better than VGB monotherapy for non-TSC-associated IESS. But for patients with IESS due to TSC, VGB is the first choice. VGB combined with hormone therapy does not definitely increase ES control rates compared with that of hormonal monotherapy.

Cost-effectiveness of adrenocorticotropic hormone injection and oral prednisolone in patients with West syndrome: A comparative analysis

Objectives

This study aims to compare the cost-effectiveness of oral prednisolone and adrenocorticotropic hormone injection in West syndrome patients, the two most common hormonal therapies used for this condition.

Materials and Methods

In this prospective and observational study, we documented sociodemographic, epilepsy, and development-related variables at baseline and up to 6 months after starting hormonal therapy, in all consecutive eligible patients of WS between August 2019 and June 2021, apart from the direct medical and non-medical costs and indirect health-care costs. We selected cost per quality-adjusted life-year (QALY) gained, per one patient with spasm freedom, one positive responder (>50% reduction in spasms), one relapse-free patient, and one patient with development gain. We determined whether incremental cost-effectiveness ratio for these parameters crossed the threshold value in base-case analysis and alternate scenario analysis.

Results

Out of 52 patients screened, 38 and 13 patients enrolled in ACTH and prednisolone group. On D28, 76% and 71% achieved spasm cessation (P = 0.78) and the total cost of treatment was INR 19783 and 8956 (P = 0.01), in ACTH and prednisolone group respectively. For all pre-specified parameters, the cost/effectiveness ratios including cost/QALY gain were higher in ACTH group and the corresponding ICER values for all these parameters crossed the threshold cost value of INR 148,777 in base-case analysis and also in alternative scenario analysis.

Conclusion

Treatment with oral prednisolone is more cost-effective as compared to ACTH injection for children with WS.

FDA-APPROVED INDICATIONS OF ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE (ACTH) AS A DRUG: DOES IT HAVE A PLACE IN DISEASE MANAGEMENT TODAY?

ACTH is a pituitary hormone important for proper function of adrenal glands, cortisol production as well as human physiology in general.  It is involved in the pathogenesis of several endocrine disorders like Cushing syndrome and can be a useful diagnostic tool for diseases like primary adrenal insufficiency.  Although popular as a hormone in endocrine system physiology and testing, ACTH has been used as a drug since the 1950s.  Except for steroid-releasing properties, its mechanism of action involves a steroid-independent anti-inflammatory and possible immune-modulatory effect.  Pharmaceutic ACTH has a wide range of indications approved by FDA and usually comes in the form of subcutaneous injections.  In this narrative review, we accumulated what we considered as important data from reviews, cases and trials involving the most basic FDA-approved ACTH indications.  A special emphasis was given on rheumatologic indications of ACTH.  More large data studies need to be performed to assess ACTH usefulness, efficacy, safety and cost-effectiveness as a drug.  

Effectiveness of ACTH in Patients with Infantile Spasms

(1) Background: West syndrome is a severe, refractory, epileptic syndrome that usually appears in infancy or early childhood. ACTH is one of the more effective drugs for treating this condition. (2) Aim of the study and methods: The objective of our study was to examine short-term efficacy (during treatment schedule) and long-term outcome of intramuscular 0.02 mg/kg/day ACTH (tetracosactide) depot, used concomitantly with other antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) in patients with infantile spasms who did not achieve seizure cessation or relapse when taking only the AEDs. The drug efficacy was evaluated in retrospective and prospective analyses of 50 patients diagnosed with infantile spasms. (3) Results: Complete cessation of spasms was achieved in 42 cases (84%). EEG improvement was seen in 41 (82%) patients who responded to ACTH therapy. Information on the clinical course of 28 patients was obtained duringlong-term follow-up. In 17 (60.7%) cases, seizures were still present. Normal or near-normal development was observed in 11 out of 28 children (39%). ACTH used concomitantly with other AEDis a highly effective treatment with acceptable side effects. (4) Conclusion: Randomized controlled clinical trialswith long-term follow-up are needed to compare the effectiveness of ACTH in polytherapy and monotherapy. Dyskinesias as a potential side effect observed in our study group should be investigated in the following studies.

Probiotics counteract hepatic steatosis caused by ketogenic diet and upregulate AMPK signaling in a model of infantile epilepsy

Background

Infantile spasms syndrome (IS) is a type of epilepsy affecting 1.6 to 4.5 per 10,000 children in the first year of life, often with severe lifelong neurodevelopmental consequences. Only two first-line pharmacological treatments currently exist for IS and many children are refractory to these therapies. In such cases, children are treated with the ketogenic diet (KD). While effective in reducing seizures, the diet can result in dyslipidemia over time.

Methods

Employing a neonatal Sprague-Dawley rat model of IS, we investigated how the KD affects hepatic steatosis and its modulation by a defined probiotic blend. A combination of multiple readouts, including malondialdehyde, fatty acid profiles, lipid metabolism-related enzyme mRNA expression, mitochondrial function, histone deacetylase activity, cytokines and chemokines were evaluated using liver homogenates.

Findings

The KD reduced seizures, but resulted in severe hepatic steatosis, characterized by a white liver, triglyceride accumulation, elevated malondialdehyde, polyunsaturated fatty acids and lower acyl-carnitines compared to animals fed a control diet. The KD-induced metabolic phenotype was prevented by the co-administration of a blend of Streptococcus thermophilus HA-110 and Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis HA-136. This probiotic blend protected the liver by elevating pAMPK-mediated signaling and promoting lipid oxidation. The strains further upregulated the expression of caspase 1 and interleukin 18, which may contribute to their hepatoprotective effect in this model.

Interpretation

Our results suggest that early intervention with probiotics could be considered as an approach to reduce the risk of hepatic side effects of the KD in children who are on the diet for medically indicated reasons.

Funding

This study was funded by the Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute and Mitacs Accelerate Program (IT16942).

Safety and Effectiveness of Oral Methylprednisolone Therapy in Comparison With Intramuscular Adrenocorticotropic Hormone and Oral Prednisolone in Children With Infantile Spasms

Background and Purpose: To assess the safety and effectiveness of oral methylprednisolone (oMP) in comparison with intramuscular adrenocorticotropic hormone (imACTH) and oral prednisolone (oP) therapies in children with infantile spasms (IS).

Methods: In this prospective, open-label, non-blinded, uncontrolled observational study, children (aged 2–24 months) with newly diagnosed IS presenting with hypsarrhythmia or its variants on electroencephalogram (EEG) were included. It was followed by imACTH, oP, or oMP (32–48 mg/day for 2 weeks followed by tapering) treatments. Electroclinical remission/spasm control, relapse, and adverse effects were evaluated in the short-term (days 14 and 42) and intermediary-term (3, 6, and 12 months) intervals.

Results: A total of 320 pediatric patients were enrolled: 108, 107, and 105 in the imACTH, oMP, and oP groups, respectively. The proportion of children achieving electroclinical remission on days 14 and 42 was similar among the three groups (day 14: 53.70 vs. 60.75 vs. 51.43%, p = 0.362; day 42: 57.55 vs. 63.46 vs. 55.34%, p = 0.470). The time to response was significantly faster in the oMP group (6.5 [3.00, 10.00] days vs. 8.00 [5.00, 11.00] days for imACTH and 8.00 [5.00, 13.00] days for oP, p = 0.025). Spasm control at 3, 6, and 12 months was also similar in the three groups (P = 0.775, 0.667, and 0.779). The relapse rate in the imACTH group (24.10%) was lower than oMP (30.77%) and oP groups (33.33%), and the time taken for relapse in the imACTH group (79.00 [56.50, 152.00] days) was longer than oMP (62.50 [38.00, 121.75] days) and oP groups (71.50 [40.00, 99.75] days), but the differences were not statistically significant (p = 0.539 and 0.530, respectively). The occurrence of adverse effects was similar among the three groups.

Conclusions: The short and intermediary-term efficacy and recurrence rates of oMP are not inferior to those of imACTH and oP for the treatment of IS. Significantly, the time to achieve electroclinical remission with oMP was quicker than that with imACTH and oP. Considering its convenience, affordability, and the absence of irreversible side effects, oMP can serve as a form of first-line treatment for newly diagnosed IS.

Effectiveness and Safety of Nitrazepam in Children with Resistant West Syndrome

OBJECTIVES

To study the effectiveness, tolerability, and safety of oral nitrazepam in children with resistant West syndrome (WS).

METHODS

This prospective observational study was conducted at a tertiary care hospital in North India from January 2019 to October 2020. Children with WS resistant to standard therapy were enrolled within 7 d of initiation of nitrazepam and prospectively followed-up for cessation of spasms and adverse events.

RESULTS

Forty-one children with resistant WS initiated on nitrazepam therapy were evaluated. The median age at onset of spasms was 6 mo (Q1, Q3: 4, 8). There was a preponderance of male gender (71%) and structural causes (78%). More than half of the enrolled children had failed four or more antiseizure medications (ASM) for epileptic spasms. The study participants had a long lead-time-to-treatment (LTTT) for the initial standard therapy (median: 2 mo; Q1, Q3: 1, 5) and nitrazepam (median: 11 mo; Q1, Q3: 8, 16). Nitrazepam was instituted as monotherapy in 7 (17%) children and as an adjunct in the rest. Twenty-one (51%) children achieved persistent cessation of epileptic spasms. However, the electroclinical response was observed in 17 (42%) children. Drowsiness, sialorrhea, and decreased appetite were the most commonly observed adverse events. Most adverse events were mild to moderate in severity and did not require dose reduction or change of medication. There was no significant difference between the responders and nonresponders in terms of LTTT, age at onset, or etiology.

CONCLUSIONS

Nitrazepam is a safe and feasible treatment alternative in children with resistant WS resulting in persistent cessation of spasms and electroclinical response in nearly half of patients.

Comparative Effectiveness of Initial Treatment for Infantile Spasms in a Contemporary US Cohort

OBJECTIVE

To compare the effectiveness of initial treatment for infantile spasms.

METHODS

The National Infantile Spasms Consortium prospectively followed up children with new-onset infantile spasms that began at age 2 to 24 months at 23 US centers (2012-2018). Freedom from treatment failure at 60 days required no second treatment for infantile spasms and no clinical spasms after 30 days of treatment initiation. We managed treatment selection bias with propensity score weighting and within-center correlation with generalized estimating equations.

RESULTS

Freedom from treatment failure rates were as follows: adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) 88 of 190 (46%), oral steroids 42 of 95 (44%), vigabatrin 32 of 87 (37%), and nonstandard therapy 4 of 51 (8%). Changing from oral steroids to ACTH was not estimated to affect response (observed 44% estimated to change to 44% [95% confidence interval 34%-54%]). Changing from nonstandard therapy to ACTH would improve response from 8% to 39% (17%-67%), and changing to oral steroids would improve response from 8% to 38% (15%-68%). There were large but not statistically significant estimated effects of changing from vigabatrin to ACTH (29% to 42% [15%-75%]), from vigabatrin to oral steroids (29% to 42% [28%-57%]), and from nonstandard therapy to vigabatrin (8% to 20% [6%-50%]). Among children treated with vigabatrin, those with tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) responded more often than others (62% vs 29%; p < 0.05).

DISCUSSION

Compared to nonstandard therapy, ACTH and oral steroids are superior for initial treatment of infantile spasms. The estimated effectiveness of vigabatrin is between that of ACTH/oral steroids and nonstandard therapy, although the sample was underpowered for statistical confidence. When used, vigabatrin worked best for TSC.

CLASSIFICATION OF EVIDENCE

This study provides Class III evidence that for children with new-onset infantile spasms, ACTH or oral steroids were superior to nonstandard therapies.

Efficacy, tolerability, and safety of zonisamide in children with epileptic spasms: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Valproate, levetiracetam, benzodiazepines, and topiramate are antiseizure medications (ASMs) considered to have definite efficacy in reducing the frequency of epileptic spasm frequency, apart from ketogenic dietary therapies. Although zonisamide has also been shown to have efficacy as second-line ASM for epileptic spasms, various studies have conflicting results in literature. This systematic review aims to summarize clinical studies regarding the efficacy of zonisamide for epileptic spasms.

METHODS

We conducted a systematic literature search collating all available literature. The primary objective was to determine efficacy in terms of proportion with complete spasm resolution, we also intended to determine proportion with at least 50% spasm reduction, hypsarrhythmia resolution, and nature/frequency of adverse effects. All prospective/retrospective, controlled/uncontrolled studies describing the use of zonisamide with epileptic spasms were included in the qualitative review excluding case reports, but for metanalysis pertaining to key outcomes, we included studies with at least 10 participants.

RESULTS

A total of nineteen publications were found eligible for inclusion in the qualitative review, out of 101 search items. A total of 401 children with epileptic spasms were tried up to a maximum of 9.9-35 mg/kg/day dose with only mild adverse effects in a few patients. Total 20.8% (95% CI-11.4%-29.2%) and 23.4% (95% CI-17.8%-29.1%) patients had complete cessation of spasms and at least a 50% reduction in total spasm frequency as compared to baseline after starting zonisamide. Similarly, 20.3% (95% CI-10.1%-30.5%) had resolution of hypsarrhythmia in EEG after starting zonisamide.

CONCLUSION

Zonisamide can reduce spasms in 21% of children with epileptic spasms, without major adverse effects. But there are only limited studies on epileptic spasms of sufficient quality to give high confidence in meta-analysis. Large controlled trials are needed in this regard to provide high-quality evidence favoring/disfavoring its use in patients with epileptic spasms.

Epilepsy Outcome at Four Years in a Randomized Clinical Trial Comparing Oral Prednisolone and Intramuscular ACTH in West Syndrome

BACKGROUND

This article explores the role of initial treatment on control of spasms and other epilepsies at four years in children previously treated for West syndrome.

METHODS

The Sri Lanka Infantile Spasm Study is a prospective clinical trial evaluating response to intra-muscular adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) versus oral prednisolone. A previous report documented response through age 12 months. This article provides four-year follow-up data.

RESULTS

At age four years, 65 of the original 97 were available for follow-up; another 13 had died, and 19 moved and could not be contacted. Of the 65 children, 37 (57%) continued to have seizures and 28 were seizure free. In the 37 children with ongoing epilepsy, 32.4% continued to have spasms, either alone or in combination with other seizure types. The epilepsy types seen in these children were focal epilepsy (59.4%), mixed focal and generalized epilepsy (24%), generalized epilepsy only (10.8%), and uncertain (5%). The majority of those still having epilepsy (66.7%) were controlled on medication. There was no significant difference in the rate of epilepsy or spasms or their control by medication between those treated with ACTH or oral prednisolone. Spasm control at day 14 did not influence the four-year spasm or epilepsy outcome.

CONCLUSIONS

A majority of children diagnosed with West syndrome continued to have seizures at age four years, although most were controlled on antiseizure medication. The long-term risk of developing epilepsy or its control was the same, regardless of whether ACTH or prednisolone was initially used as treatment.

High-Dose Prednisolone for Treatment of Infantile Spasms After Presumed Perinatal Stroke

ABSTRACT

BACKGROUND: High-dose prednisone and prednisolone have been increasingly studied as a lower-cost alternative to adrenocorticotropic hormone for the treatment of infantile spasms, but this treatment has not been well studied in children with infantile spasms due to perinatal stroke. METHODS: We identified a girl with new-onset infantile spasms due to presumed perinatal left middle cerebral artery stroke seen in our hospital's pediatric stroke clinic in 2019. RESULTS: This girl developed infantile spasms at 9 months old. She had right hemiplegic cerebral palsy due to her perinatal stroke but had been otherwise previously healthy. Modified hypsarrhythmia was confirmed on prolonged video-electroencephalography. High-dose prednisolone at 8 mg/kg per day was initiated on the sixth day of spasms. She was treated with this dose for 2 weeks and then tapered over 5 weeks. The girl became seizure-free after receiving her first dose of prednisolone and experienced no significant adverse effects during therapy. Routine electroencephalography after completion of prednisolone taper confirmed resolution of modified hypsarrhythmia and no epileptiform discharges. She continued to make excellent development progress during and after treatment. CONCLUSION: This case suggests high-dose prednisolone could be considered for first-line therapy for children with infantile spasms due to perinatal stroke; further study is needed.

Cost-effectiveness of adrenocorticotropic hormone versus oral steroids for infantile spasms

OBJECTIVE

To compare the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and oral steroids as first-line treatment for infantile spasm resolution, we performed a systematic review, meta-analysis, and cost-effectiveness study.

METHODS

A decision analysis model was populated with effectiveness data from a systematic review and meta-analysis of existing literature and cost data from publicly available prices. Effectiveness was defined as the probability of clinical spasm resolution 14 days after treatment initiation.

RESULTS

We included 21 studies with a total of 968 patients. The effectiveness of ACTH was not statistically significantly different from that of oral steroids (.70, 95% confidence interval [CI] = .60-.79 vs. .63, 95% CI = .56-.70; p = .28). Considering only the three available randomized trials with a total of 185 patients, the odds ratio of spasm resolution at 14 days with ACTH compared to high-dose prednisolone (4-8 mg/kg/day) was .92 (95% CI = .34-2.52, p = .87). Adjusting for potential publication bias, estimates became even more favorable to high-dose prednisolone. Using US prices, the more cost-effective treatment was high-dose prednisolone, with an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) of $333 per case of spasms resolved, followed by ACTH, with an ICER of $1 432 200 per case of spasms resolved. These results were robust to multiple sensitivity analyses and different assumptions. Prednisolone at 4-8 mg/kg/day was more cost-effective than ACTH under a wide range of assumptions.

SIGNIFICANCE

For infantile spasm resolution 2 weeks after treatment initiation, current evidence does not support the preeminence of ACTH in terms of effectiveness and, especially, cost-effectiveness.

Improving Management of Infantile Spasms by Adopting Implementation Science

Over the last several decades, significant progress has been made in the discovery of appropriate therapy in the management of infantile spasms (IS). Based on several well-controlled studies, the American Academy of Neurology and the Child Neurology Society have published the current best practice parameters for the treatment of IS. However, dissemination and implementation of evidence-based guidelines remain a significant challenge. Though the number of well-performed controlled trials and systematic reviews is increasing exponentially, the proportion of valuable new information subsequently embedding into the routine clinical care is significantly lower. Planned and systematic implementation of evidence-based interventions in a given health care structure may outstrip the benefits of discovering a new insight, procedure, or drug in another controlled setting. Implementation problems can be broad-ranging to hinder effective, efficient, safe, timely, and patient-centered care without significant variation. The first part of this review article provides a detailed summary of some crucial comparative treatment studies of IS available in the literature. In the second part, practical challenges to mitigate the gap between knowledge and practice to improve outcomes in the management of IS has been explored, and a consolidated framework approach for systematic implementation research methodology has been discussed to implement evidence-based guidelines for the management of IS. Although large multicenter controlled studies will help gather quality evidence in the treatment of IS, a more comprehensive range of scientific methodologies, including qualitative research and mixed research methodologies, will hold the more considerable promise for implementing evidence-based practices in the health care system.

COVID-19: A Review for the Pediatric Neurologist

Children are susceptible to infection with the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. In this time of uncertainty, this review attempts to compile information that may be helpful to pediatric neurologists. This review consolidates current data on the disease associated with SARS-CoV-2, called COVID-19, and information from past coronavirus epidemics, to discuss diseases of pediatric neurology including Guillain-Barre syndrome (acute inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy); central demyelinating diseases like multiple sclerosis and acute disseminated encephalomyelitis; infantile spasms; febrile seizures; and maternal-fetal transmission of virus.

Treatment of infantile spasms: why do we know so little?

INTRODUCTION

Infantile spasm (IS) is an epileptic syndrome with typical onset within the first 2 years of life. This condition might be caused by several etiologies. IS is associated with pathological neuronal networks; however, definite hypotheses on neurobiological processes are awaited.

AREAS COVERED

Changes in NMDA and GABA_B receptors and increase of Ca²⁺ conductance are some of the possible pathophysiological mechanisms. Animal models can help, but most have only some features of IS. Outcome is strongly affected by etiology and the timing of treatment, which relies still on ACTH, oral steroids, and vigabatrin. No significant differences in terms of efficacy have been documented, though a combination of ACTH and vigabatrin seems to be associated with better long-term outcomes. Despite the increasing knowledge about the etiology and pathophysiology of IS, in the last years, no new treatment approaches have been recognized to be able to modify the neurobiological process underlying IS. Precision medicine has far to come in IS.

EXPERT OPINION

Recently, no new therapeutic options for IS have emerged, probably due to the lack of reliable animal models and to the extreme variability in etiologies. Consequently, the outlook for patients and families is poor and early recognition and intervention remain research priorities.