New Silk Road: From Mesoscopic Reconstruction/Functionalization to Flexible Meso-Electronics/Photonics Based on Cocoon Silk Materials

Supramolecular Zwitterionic Network Enabling Environment-Tolerant, Transparent, Adhesive, and Biocompatible Organogel for Epidermal Electronics

Ionic hydrogels are ideal for soft bioelectronics due to their softness, stretchability, and ion-mediated signal transduction. However, traditional hydrogels face dehydration and freezing issues. Inspired by natural skin, this study creates a supramolecular ionic organogel using silk fibroin, zwitterionic polymers, Ca2+, and ethylene glycol (EG). The organogel is conductive, highly stretchable, adhesive, environmentally stable, and biocompatible. Theoretical calculations reveal that interactions among Ca2+, zwitterionic groups, EG, and water are stronger than water-water interactions, converting "free" water into "locked" water. This mechanism allows the organogel to retain over 90% of its weight after 30 days at 25 °C and 60% relative humidity, while also resisting freezing by disrupting ice formation. Its conductivity, adhesion, and biocompatibility enable applications in on-skin strain sensors and electrodes for monitoring motion and recording electrophysiological signals. This work elucidates molecular interactions in organogel networks, provides a design framework for environmentally tolerant organogel, and advances ion-conductive bioelectronics.

Manipulating the Assembly and Architecture of Fibrillar Silk

Silk is a unique and exceptionally strong biological material. However, no synthetic method has yet come close to replicating the properties of natural silk. This shortfall is attributed to an insufficient understanding of both silk nanofibril structure and the mechanism of formation. Here in situ atomic force microscopy (AFM) and photo-induced force microscopy (PiFM) is utilized to investigate the formation process and define the basic structural paradigm of individual silk nanofibrils. By visualizing the multistage process of silk nanofibril formation, the importance of conformational transformations along the assembly pathway is revealed. Unfolded silk structures initially accumulate into amorphous clusters, which then evolve into crystal nuclei via conformational transformation into β-crystallites. Nanofibril elongation then occurs through the attachment of silk molecules at a single end of the nanofibril tip; this is facilitated through the formation of a new amorphous cluster that then repeats the aforementioned conformational transformation. However, enzymatic digestion of the amorphous regions leads to direct, rapid elongation of β-crystalline fibers. These findings imply that the energy landscape is characterized by shallow minima associated with intermediate states, which can be eliminated by introducing β-crystallites, and motivate research into the directed modification of the silk assembly pathway to select for features beneficial to specific applications.

Engineering of Silkworm Tyrosyl-tRNA Synthetase Variants to Create Halogenated Silk Fiber with Improved Thermal Stability

Silk fiber, produced by the silkworm Bombyx mori, is a protein fiber with an excellent mechanical strength and broad biocompatibility. Multiple approaches, including genetic and chemical methods, must be combined to tailor silk fiber properties for wide applications, such as textiles and biomaterials. Genetic code expansion (GCE) is an alternative method to alter proteins' chemical and physical properties by incorporating synthetic amino acids into their primary structures. Here, we report an efficient system for selecting variants of B. mori tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase (BmTyrRS) used for GCE in silkworms. Four BmTyrRS variants with expanded substrate recognition toward halogenated tyrosine (Tyr) derivatives were selected, and transgenic silkworms expressing these variants were generated. The silkworms incorporated halogenated Tyr derivatives into silk fibroin to produce halogenated silk fiber with improved thermal stability. These results demonstrate the power of GCE to create protein materials with improved physical properties.

Meso Hybridized Silk Fibroin Watchband for Wearable Biopotential Sensing and AI Gesture Signaling

Human biopotential signals, such as electrocardiography, are closely linked to health and chronic conditions. Electromyography, corresponds to muscle actions and is pertinent to human-machine interactions. Here, we present a type of smart and flexible watchband that includes a mini flexible electrode array based on Mo-Au filament mesh, combined with mesoscopic hybridized silk fibroin films. As the layer in contact with the skin, waterborne polyurethane and SF create a highly flexible and permeable meso-hybridized SF/WPU layer, ensuring skin-friendliness and comfortable wearing. The flexible FM electrodes are created by integrating Mo-Au FM into 2D-interconnected networks. Molybdenum filaments provide high rigidity and are coated with Aurum to enhance conductivity. The use of Mo-Au FMs in warp-knitted patterns results in high SNR (43.22 dB), high sensitivity (44.43 mV/kg), and significant motion noise reduction due to the pattern's elastic deformability and skin-gripping properties. Leveraging these unique technologies, these smart watchbands excel in prolonged sensing operation, grasping force detection, and gesture recognition. Through smart raining via deep learning, we achieved an unparalleled recognition rate (96% across 20 volunteers of different genders) among other EMG sensing devices. These results have significant implications for human-machine interaction, including applications in underwater robot control, drone operation, and autonomous vehicle control.

Unravelling the antioxidant behaviour of self-assembly β-Sheet in silk fibroin

Local oxidative stress in diseases or injury severely hinders cell homeostasis and organ regeneration. Antioxidant therapy is an effective strategy for oxidative stress treatment. Biomaterials with good biocompatibility and reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging ability are good choices for antioxidant therapeutics. However, there are few natural biomaterials that are identified with both biocompatibility and strong antioxidant activity. Here, we show, for the first time, that silk fibroin (SF) is a strong antioxidant, which can eliminate ROS in both cells and zebrafish. We further demonstrate that the β-sheet structures turn into a random coiled structure when SF is treated with hydrogen peroxide. The content of β-sheet structures can be increased by heating, thus enhancing the antioxidation properties of SF. Therefore, SF can serve as a good antioxidant biomaterial for therapeutics, and its β-sheet structure-based antioxidation mechanism provides a novel theoretical basis, which could be a new cue for more antioxidant biomaterial discovery and identification.

Two-dimensional silk

Despite the promise of silk-based devices, the inherent disorder of native silk limits performance. Here, we report highly ordered two-dimensional silk fibroin (SF) films grown epitaxially on van der Waals (vdW) substrates. Using atomic force microscopy, nano-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and molecular dynamics, we show that the films consist of lamellae of SF molecules that exhibit the same secondary structure as the nanocrystallites of native silk. Increasing the SF concentration results in multilayers that grow either by direct assembly of SF molecules into the lamellae or, at high concentrations, along a two-step pathway beginning with a disordered monolayer that then crystallizes. Scanning Kelvin probe measurements show that these films substantially alter the surface potential; thus, they provide a platform for silk-based electronics on vdW solids.

Silk-based intelligent fibers and textiles: structures, properties, and applications

Multifunctional fibers represent a cornerstone of human civilization, playing a pivotal role in numerous aspects of societal development. Natural biomaterials, in contrast to synthetic alternatives, offer environmental sustainability, biocompatibility, and biodegradability. Among these biomaterials, natural silk is favored in biomedical applications and smart fiber technology due to its accessibility, superior mechanical properties, diverse functional groups, controllable structure, and exceptional biocompatibility. This review delves into the intricate structure and properties of natural silk fibers and their extensive applications in biomedicine and smart fiber technology. It highlights the critical significance of silk fibers in the development of multifunctional materials, emphasizing their mechanical strength, biocompatibility, and biodegradability. A detailed analysis of the hierarchical structure of silk fibers elucidates how these structural features contribute to their unique properties. The review also encompasses the biomedical applications of silk fibers, including surgical sutures, tissue engineering, and drug delivery systems, along with recent advancements in smart fiber applications such as sensing, optical technologies, and energy storage. The enhancement of functional properties of silk fibers through chemical or physical modifications is discussed, suggesting broader high-end applications. Additionally, the review addresses current challenges and future directions in the application of silk fibers in biomedicine and smart fiber technologies, underscoring silk's potential in driving contemporary technological innovations. The versatility and sustainability of silk fibers position them as pivotal elements in contemporary materials science and technology, fostering the development of next-generation smart materials.

Flexible Meso Electronics and Photonics Based on Cocoon Silk and Applications

Flexible electronics, applicable to enlarged health, AI big data medications, etc., have been one of the most important technologies of this century. Due to its particular mechanical properties, biocompatibility, and biodegradability, cocoon silk (or SF, silk fibroin) plays a key role in flexible electronics/photonics. The review begins with an examination of the hierarchical meso network structures of SF materials and introduces the concepts of meso reconstruction, meso doping, and meso hybridization based on the correlation between the structure and performance of silk materials. The SF meso functionalization was developed according to intermolecular nuclear templating. By implementation of the techniques of meso reconstruction and functionalization in the refolding of SF materials, extraordinary performance can be achieved. Relying on this strategy, particularly designed flexible electronic and photonic components can be developed. This review covers the latest ideas and technologies of meso flexible electronics and photonics based on SF materials/meso functionalization. As silk materials are biocompatible and human skin-friendly, SF meso flexible electronic/photonic components can be applied to wearable or implanted devices. These devices are applicable in human physiological signals and activities sensing/monitoring. In the case of human-machine interaction, the devices can be applicable in in-body information transmission, computation, and storage, with the potential for the combination of artificial intelligence and human intelligence.

Glutathione-Responsive and Hydrogen Sulfide Self-Generating Nanocages Based on Self-Weaving Technology To Optimize Cancer Immunotherapy

As an ideal drug carrier, it should possess high drug loading and encapsulation efficiency and precise drug targeting release. Herein, we utilized a template-guided self-weaving technology of phase-separated silk fibroin (SF) in reverse microemulsion (RME) to fabricate a kind of hyaluronic acid (HA) coated SF nanocage (HA-gNCs) for drug delivery of cancer immunotherapy. Due to the hollow structure, HA-gNCs were capable of simultaneous encapsulation of the anti-inflammatory drug betamethasone phosphate (BetP) and the immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) agent PD-L1 antibody (αPD-L1) efficiently. Another point worth noting was that the thiocarbonate cross-linkers used to strengthen the SF shell of HA-gNCs could be quickly broken by overexpressed glutathione (GSH) to reach responsive drug release inside tumor tissues accompanied by hydrogen sulfide (H2S) production in one step. The synergistic effect of released BetP and generated H2S guaranteed chronological modulation of the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (ITME) to amplify the therapeutic effect of αPD-L1 for the growth, metastasis, and recurrence of tumors. This study highlighted the exceptional prospect of HA-gNCs as a self-assistance platform for cancer drug delivery.

Thermochemical conversion of silkworm by-product into syngas

This study explored the valorisation of silkworm by-product, a major by-product of the silk industry (sericulture), which amounts to 16 million tonnes annually. The focus was on transforming waste into energy resources through pyrolysis under CO2 conditions. In one-stage pyrolysis, the evolution of syngas under N2 was found to be comparable to that under CO2. A notable allocation of carbon to biocrude rather than syngas was observed. The two-stage pyrolysis resulted in increased syngas production. However, achieving a homogeneous reaction between CO2 and the volatiles liberated from silkworm byproduct proved challenging. Indeed, the reaction kinetics governing CO2 reactivity was not fast although the temperature windows of the reaction were aligned in the two-stage pyrolysis. To address this issue, pyrolysis was performed using a Ni-based catalyst to expedite the reaction kinetics. Consequently, syngas formation, particularly CO formation, was significantly enhanced under CO2 conditions compared to that under N2 conditions. The syngas yield under CO2 was 36.42 wt% which was 2-fold higher than that of N2. This suggested the potential of CO2 altering the carbon distribution from biocrude to syngas. This strategy would contribute to the establishment of sustainable production of silk by converting sericulture by-product into energy/chemical resources.

Silk nanofibrous scaffolds assembled by natural polysaccharide konjac glucomannan

Natural silk fibroin nanofibers (SNF) have recently attracted great attention in the field of biomaterials due to their excellent biocompatibility, outstanding mechanical properties, and biomimetic nanostructures. However, the poor structural stability of SNF assembly in aqueous conditions remains a major obstacle to their biomedical application. In this work, SNF scaffolds with extracellular matrix‐mimicking architecture and tunable properties were developed by using a small amount of konjac glucomannan (KGM) as a physical adhesive. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) results revealed that KGM facilitated the formation of hydrogen bond networks between SNF as well as nanofibers/polysaccharide molecules, thereby reinforcing the interconnectivity between SNF. The water stability test showed that SNF scaffolds exhibited good structural stability in water when the mass ratio of KGM/SNF reached 2.5/100. Raising KGM content significantly enhanced the compression strength, modulus, and swelling ratio of the porous scaffold. Whereas, the nanofibrous morphology and porosity of the scaffolds were significantly sacrificed as KGM content exceeded 10% as evidenced by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) results. In vitro, cytocompatibility results also demonstrated the excellent biocompatibility of the biomimetic nanofibrous scaffolds, and the high porosity significantly enhanced cell viability. These results suggest that KGM‐reinforced SNF scaffolds may serve as promising candidates for biomaterial applications.

Construction of Janus structures on thin silk fabrics via misting for wet-thermal comfort and antimicrobial activity

Owing to their small fiber diameter (10-15 μm), silk fabrics are always thin (32-90 g m-2). Therefore, construction of the Janus surfaces of silk fabrics that possess excellent multifunctionality remains a formidable challenge. Herein, first, silk fabrics were grafted using glycidyltrimethylammonium chloride to form a superhydrophilic surface (G-side). Then, a unilateral hydrophobic surface (O-side) was readily fabricated by mist coating octadecyltrichlorosilane-functionalized SiO2 nanoparticles (NPs) to produce hierarchical surface textures. To prevent NP penetration from the G-side to the O-side, a "fireproof isolation" method was employed. Consequently, Janus silk fabrics (JanSFs) bearing asymmetric wettability were prepared, and their wetting gradient could be conveniently regulated. With the mist time ranging from 4 to 7 min, the unidirectional transport index and efficiency of the unidirectional water transport increased and decreased by 13.2 and 10.4 times, respectively. Sweat could be effectively drained away from human skin to ensure that the skin was dry and comfortable. Compared with the surface temperature of the raw fabric, the raw fabric of JanSFs increased by 2.7 °C. Furthermore, the breathability of JanSF was negligibly affected, and the outer O-side of the JanSF showed substantial antibacterial activity. This study is important for designing JanSFs that exhibit unidirectional water transport.

Silk Fibroin Materials: Biomedical Applications and Perspectives

The golden rule in tissue engineering is the creation of a synthetic device that simulates the native tissue, thus leading to the proper restoration of its anatomical and functional integrity, avoiding the limitations related to approaches based on autografts and allografts. The emergence of synthetic biocompatible materials has led to the production of innovative scaffolds that, if combined with cells and/or bioactive molecules, can improve tissue regeneration. In the last decade, silk fibroin (SF) has gained attention as a promising biomaterial in regenerative medicine due to its enhanced bio/cytocompatibility, chemical stability, and mechanical properties. Moreover, the possibility to produce advanced medical tools such as films, fibers, hydrogels, 3D porous scaffolds, non-woven scaffolds, particles or composite materials from a raw aqueous solution emphasizes the versatility of SF. Such devices are capable of meeting the most diverse tissue needs; hence, they represent an innovative clinical solution for the treatment of bone/cartilage, the cardiovascular system, neural, skin, and pancreatic tissue regeneration, as well as for many other biomedical applications. The present narrative review encompasses topics such as (i) the most interesting features of SF-based biomaterials, bare SF's biological nature and structural features, and comprehending the related chemo-physical properties and techniques used to produce the desired formulations of SF; (ii) the different applications of SF-based biomaterials and their related composite structures, discussing their biocompatibility and effectiveness in the medical field. Particularly, applications in regenerative medicine are also analyzed herein to highlight the different therapeutic strategies applied to various body sectors.

Green syntheses of silk fibroin/wool keratin-protected AuAg nanoclusters with enhanced fluorescence for multicolor and patterned anti-counterfeiting

Counterfeiting is a serious worldwide issue that threatens human health and economic security. How to apply anti-counterfeiting techniques to textile materials remains a great challenge. Herein, we report bimetallic AuAg nanoclusters (NCs) synthesized by one-step reduction of chloroauric acid (HAuCl4) and silver nitrate (AgNO3) with wool keratin (WK) as reducer and silk fibroin (SF) as stabilizer. The strongest orange-red fluorescence under ultraviolet light as well as the highest zeta potential absolute values of -27.97 mV were simultaneously realized in the optimal proportion Au-AgNCs2 (WK/SF is 3/2), which was further processed to a series of anti-counterfeiting films by blending with SF, silk sericin (SS), and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). After successfully being numbered into fifteen colors, a dark blue-orange-dark red-dark blue cyclic fluorescent anti-counterfeiting color chart was designed. In addition, a two-Maxwell-unit model was constructed to assist with the microstructure analysis, which found that the formation of hydrogen bonds and the secondary structure transition from α-helices to β-sheets during stretching were responsible for improving the mechanical properties and the two-staged fracture curves of films, respectively. Finally, a patterned and multicolor fluorescence anti-counterfeiting fabric application was demonstrated by combining the color chart and screen printing, indicating the great potential in textile anti-counterfeiting.

Flexible multilevel nonvolatile biocompatible memristor with high durability

Current protein or glucose based biomemristors have low resistance-switching performance and require complex structural designs, significantly hindering the development of implantable memristor devices. It is imperative to discover novel candidate materials for biomemristor with high durability and excellent biosafety for implantable health monitoring. Herein, we initially demonstrate the resistance switching characteristics of a nonvolatile memristor in a configuration of Pt/AlOOH/ITO consisting of biocompatible AlOOH nanosheets sandwiched between a Indium Tin Oxides (ITO) electrode and a platinum (Pt) counter-electrode. The hydrothermally synthesized AlOOH nanosheets have excellent biocompatibility as confirmed through the Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) tests. Four discrete resistance levels are achieved in this assembled device in responsible to different compliance currents (ICC) for the set process, where the emerging multilevel states show high durability over 103 cycles, outperforming the protein-based biomemristors under similar conditions. The excellent performance of the Pt/AlOOH/ITO memristor is attributed to the significant role of hydrogen proton with pipe effect, as confirmed by both experimental results and density functional theory (DFT) analyses. The present results indicate the nonvolatile memristors with great potential as the next generation implantable multilevel resistive memories for long-term human health monitoring.

Non-Pore Dependent and MMP-9 Responsive Gelatin/Silk Fibroin Composite Microparticles as Universal Delivery Platform for Inhaled Treatment of Lung Cancer

Developing a drug delivery platform that possesses universal drug loading capacity to meet various requirements of cancer treatment is a challenging yet interesting task. Herein, a self-assembled gelatin/silk fibroin composite (GSC) particle based drug delivery system is developed via microphase separation followed by desolvation process. Thanks to its preassembled microphase stage, this GSC system is suitable for varying types of drugs. The desolvation process fix drugs inside GSC rapidly and densify the GSC structure, thereby achieving efficient drug loading and providing comprehensive protection for loaded drugs. Actually, the size of this brand-new non-pore dependent drug delivery system can be easily adjusted from 100 nm to 20 µm to fit different scenarios. This work selects GSC with 3 µm diameter as the universal inhaled drug delivery platform, which shows an excellent transmucosal penetration and lung retention ability. Additionally, the MMP-9 sensitive degradation property of GSC enhances the targeted efficiency of drugs and reduces side effects. Intestinally, GSC can self-amplify the regulation of innate immunity to reverse the cancerous microenvironment into an antitumor niche, significantly improving the therapeutic effect of drugs. This study of GSC universal drug platform provides a new direction to develop the next-generation of drug delivery system for lung cancer.

Unique Material Properties of Bombyx mori Silk Fiber Incorporated with 3-Azidotyrosine

Silk fiber produced by the silkworm Bombyx mori is a nature-derived proteinous fiber with excellent mechanical strength and broad biocompatibility. To alter its material properties and make it more suitable for textile, biomedical, and electronics applications, chemical modifications and genetic engineering methods have been extensively studied. Here, we report that the translational incorporation of a synthetic amino acid, 3-azidotyrosine (3-AzTyr), into B. mori silk fiber can improve its material properties. Such an incorporation considerably increased the fiber's mechanical strength and remarkably changed its solubility, whereas its crystalline hierarchical structure was not perturbed, as shown by X-ray analyses. These changes were probably caused by the intra- and/or intermolecular crosslinkings involving the azido group of 3-AzTyr during the degumming process to remove a coating protein. These findings indicate that the incorporation of synthetic amino acids could be an efficient method to improve the properties of silk-based materials.

Biomass-Derived Flexible Carbon Architectures as Self-Supporting Electrodes for Energy Storage

With the swift advancement of the wearable electronic devices industry, the energy storage components of these devices must possess the capability to maintain stable mechanical and chemical properties after undergoing multiple bending or tensile deformations. This circumstance has expedited research efforts toward novel electrode materials for flexible energy storage devices. Nonetheless, among the numerous materials investigated to date, the incorporation of metal current collectors or insulative adhesives remains requisite, which entails additional costs, unnecessary weight, and high contact resistance. At present, biomass-derived flexible architectures stand out as a promising choice in electrochemical energy device applications. Flexible self-supporting properties impart a heightened mechanical performance, obviating the need for additional binders and lowering the contact resistance. Renewable, earth-abundant biomass endows these materials with cost-effectiveness, diversity, and modulable chemical properties. To fully exploit the application potential in biomass-derived flexible carbon architectures, understanding the latest advancements and the comprehensive foundation behind their synthesis assumes significance. This review delves into the comprehensive analysis of biomass feedstocks and methods employed in the synthesis of flexible self-supporting carbon electrodes. Subsequently, the advancements in their application in energy storage devices are elucidated. Finally, an outlook on the potential of flexible carbon architectures and the challenges they face is provided.

Bioinspired Conductive Enhanced Polyurethane Ionic Skin as Reliable Multifunctional Sensors

Ionogels prepared from ionic liquid (IL) have the characteristics of nonevaporation and stable performance relative to traditional hydrogels. However, the conductivities of commonly used ionogels are at very low relative to traditional hydrogels because the large sizes of the cation and anion in an IL impedes ion migration in polymer networks. In this study, ultradurable ionogels with suitable mechanical properties and high conductivities are prepared by impregnating IL into a safe, environmentally friendly water-based polyurethane (WPU) network by mimicking the ion transport channels in the phospholipid bilayer of the cell membrane. The increase in electrical conductivity is attributed to the introduction of carboxylic acid in the hard segment of WPU; this phenomenon regularly arranges hard segment structural domains by hydrogen bonding, forming ionic conduction channels. The conductivities of their ionogels are >28-39 mS cm-1 . These ionogels have adjustable mechanical properties that make the Young's modulus value (0.1-0.6 MPa) similar to that of natural skin. The strain sensor has an ultrahigh sensitivity that ranges from 0.99 to 1.35, with a wide sensing range of 0.1%-200%. The findings are promising for various ionotronics requiring environmental stability and high conductivity characteristics.

Digital mapping of surface turbulence status and aerodynamic stall on wings of a flying aircraft

Real-time monitoring of flow turbulence is very difficult but extremely important in fluid dynamics, which plays an important role in flight safety and control. Turbulence can cause airflow to detach at the end of the wings, potentially resulting in the aerodynamic stall of aircraft and causing flight accidents. Here, we developed a lightweight and conformable system on the wing surface of aircraft for stall sensing. Quantitative data about airflow turbulence and the degree of boundary layer separation are provided in situ using conjunct signals provided by both triboelectric and piezoelectric effects. Thus, the system can visualize and directly measure the airflow detaching process on the airfoil, and senses the degree of airflow separation during and after a stall for large aircraft and unmanned aerial vehicles.

A one-pot approach to prepare stretchable and conductive regenerated silk fibroin/CNT films as multifunctional sensors

Silk fibroin (SF)-based materials are characterized by their outstanding biocompatibility and biodegradability and are considered as the most promising candidates for next-generation flexible electronics. In order to generate such devices, SF can be mixed with carbon nanotubes (CNTs) which feature excellent mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties. However, obtaining regenerated SF with homogeneous dispersion of CNTs in a sustainable manner represents a challenging task, mainly due to the difficulty in overcoming van der Waals forces and strong π-π interactions that hold together the CNT structure. In this study, a one-pot strategy for fabricating SF/CNT films is proposed by designing SF as a modifier of CNTs through non-covalent interactions with the assistance of aqueous phosphoric acid solution. Glycerol (GL) was introduced, endowing the SF/GL/CNT composite film with excellent flexibility and stretchability. The sustainable strategy greatly simplifies the preparation process, avoiding dialysis of SF and the use of artificial dispersants. The as-fabricated SF/GL/CNT films showed an excellent mechanical strength of 1.20 MPa and high sensitivity with a gauge factor of up to 13.7 toward tensile deformation. The composite films had a sensitive monitoring capability for small strains with detection limits as low as 1% and can be assembled into versatile sensors to detect human movement. Simultaneously, the composite films showed a superb thermosensitive capacity (1.64% °C^-1), which satisfied the requirement of real-time and continuous skin temperature monitoring. We anticipate that the presented one-pot strategy and the prepared composite films could open a new avenue for forthcoming technologies for electronic skins, personal health monitoring, and wearable electronics.

Vertical 0.6 V sub-10 nm oxide-homojunction transistor gated by a silk fibroin/sodium alginate crosslinking hydrogel for pain-sensitization enhancement emulation

The sensory nervous system of humans mainly depends on continuous training and memory to improve the pain-perceptional abilities for the complex noxious information in the real world and make appropriate responses. Unfortunately, the solid-state device for emulating this pain recognition with ultralow voltage operation still remains to be a great challenge. Herein, a vertical transistor with an ultrashort channel of ∼9.6 nm and ultralow voltage of ∼0.6 V based on protonic silk fibroin/sodium alginate crosslinking hydrogel electrolyte is successfully demonstrated. Such a hydrogel electrolyte with high ionic conductivity allows the transistor to work in an ultralow voltage, while the vertical transistor structure makes it have an ultrashort channel. Pain perception, memory, and sensitization can be integrated into this vertical transistor. Furthermore, using the photogating effect of light stimulus, the device displays multi-state pain-sensitization enhancement abilities through Pavlovian training. Most importantly, the cortical reorganization that reveals a close relationship among the pain stimulus, memory, and sensitization is finally realized. Therefore, this device can provide a great opportunity for multi-dimensional pain assessment, which is of great significance for the new generation of bio-inspired intelligent electronics, such as bionic robots, and smart medical equipment.

In Situ Mineralizing Spinning of Strong and Tough Silk Fibers for Optical Waveguides

Biopolymer-based optical waveguides with low-loss light guiding performance and good biocompatibility are highly desired for applications in biomedical photonic devices. Herein, we report the preparation of silk optical fiber waveguides through bioinspired in situ mineralizing spinning, which possess excellent mechanical properties and low light loss. Natural silk fibroin was used as the main precursor for the wet spinning of the regenerated silk fibroin (RSF) fibers. Calcium carbonate nanocrystals (CaCO₃ NCs) were in situ grown in the RSF network and served as nucleation templates for mineralization during the spinning, leading to the formation of strong and tough fibers. CaCO₃ NCs can guide the structure transformation of silk fibroin from random coils to β-sheets, contributing to enhanced mechanical properties. The tensile strength and toughness of the obtained fibers are up to 0.83 ± 0.15 GPa and 181.98 ± 52.42 MJ·m^-3, obviously higher than those of natural silkworm silks and even comparable to spider silks. We further investigated the performance of the fibers as optical waveguides and observed a low light loss of 0.46 dB·cm^-1, which is much lower than natural silk fibers. We believed that these silk-based fibers with excellent mechanical and light propagation properties are promising for applications in biomedical light imaging and therapy.

Bioactive polymer-enabled conformal neural interface and its application strategies

Neural interface is a powerful tool to control the varying neuron activities in the brain, where the performance can directly affect the quality of recording neural signals and the reliability of in vivo connection between the brain and external equipment. Recent advances in bioelectronic innovation have provided promising pathways to fabricate flexible electrodes by integrating electrodes on bioactive polymer substrates. These bioactive polymer-based electrodes can enable the conformal contact with irregular tissue and result in low inflammation when compared to conventional rigid inorganic electrodes. In this review, we focus on the use of silk fibroin and cellulose biopolymers as well as certain synthetic polymers to offer the desired flexibility for constructing electrode substrates for a conformal neural interface. First, the development of a neural interface is reviewed, and the signal recording methods and tissue response features of the implanted electrodes are discussed in terms of biocompatibility and flexibility of corresponding neural interfaces. Following this, the material selection, structure design and integration of conformal neural interfaces accompanied by their effective applications are described. Finally, we offer our perspectives on the evolution of desired bioactive polymer-enabled neural interfaces, regarding the biocompatibility, electrical properties and mechanical softness.

Bubble-blowing-inspired sub-micron thick freestanding silk films for programmable electronics

Thin film electronics that are capable of deforming and interfacing with nonplanar surfaces have attracted widespread interest in wearable motion detection or physiological signal recording due to their light weight, low stiffness, and high conformality. However, it is still a challenge to fabricate freestanding thin film substrates or matrices with only sub-micron thickness in a simple way, especially for those materials with metastable conformations, like regenerated silk protein. Herein, we developed a dip-coating method for the fabrication of sub-micron thick freestanding silk films inspired by blowing soap bubbles. Using a closed-loop frame to dip-coat in a concentrated silk fibroin aqueous solution, the substrate-free silk films with a thickness as low as hundreds of nanometres (∼150 nm) can be easily obtained after solvent evaporation. The silk films have extremely smooth surfaces (R_q < 3 nm) and can be tailored with different geometric shapes. The naturally dried silk films possess random coil dominated uncrystallized secondary structures, exhibiting high modulation ability and adaptability, which can be conformally attached on wrinkled skin or wrapped on human hair. Considering the methodological advantages and the unique properties of the obtained sub-micron thick silk films, several thin film based programmable electronics including transient/durable circuits, skin electrodes, transferred skin light-emitting devices and injectable electronics are successfully demonstrated after being deposited with gold or conducting polymer layers. This research provides a new avenue for preparing freestanding thin polymer films, showing great promise for developing thin film electronics in wearable and biomedical applications.

Bioengineered silkworm model for expressing human neurotrophin-4 with potential biomedical application

Neurotrophin-4 (NT-4) is a neurotrophic factor that plays important roles in maintaining nerve cell survival, regulating neuronal differentiation and apoptosis, and promoting nerve injury repair. However, the source of sufficient NT-4 protein and efficient delivery of NT-4 remain a challenge. This study aims to express an activated human NT-4 protein in a large scale by genetically engineering silk gland bioreactor of silkworm as a host. We showed that the expression of human NT-4-functionalized silk material could promote proliferation of mouse HT22 cells when compared to the natural silk protein, and no obvious cytotoxicity was observed under the conditions of different silk materials. Importantly, this functional silk material was able to induce the potential differentiation of HT22 cells, promote peripheral neural cell migration and neurite outgrowth of chicken embryo dorsal root ganglion (DRG). All these results demonstrated a high bioactivity of human NT-4 protein produced in silk gland. Therefore, based on the silkworm model, the further fabrication of different silk materials-carrying active NT-4 protein with good mechanical properties and great biocompatibility will give promising applications in tissue engineering and neurons regeneration.

Recent Developments of Silk-Based Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine Applications: A Special Focus on the Advancement of 3D Printing

Regenerative medicine has received potential attention around the globe, with improving cell performances, one of the necessary ideas for the advancements of regenerative medicine. It is crucial to enhance cell performances in the physiological system for drug release studies because the variation in cell environments between in vitro and in vivo develops a loop in drug estimation. On the other hand, tissue engineering is a potential path to integrate cells with scaffold biomaterials and produce growth factors to regenerate organs. Scaffold biomaterials are a prototype for tissue production and perform vital functions in tissue engineering. Silk fibroin is a natural fibrous polymer with significant usage in regenerative medicine because of the growing interest in leftovers for silk biomaterials in tissue engineering. Among various natural biopolymer-based biomaterials, silk fibroin-based biomaterials have attracted significant attention due to their outstanding mechanical properties, biocompatibility, hemocompatibility, and biodegradability for regenerative medicine and scaffold applications. This review article focused on highlighting the recent advancements of 3D printing in silk fibroin scaffold technologies for regenerative medicine and tissue engineering.

Mesoscience in cell biology and cancer research

Mesoscale characteristics and their interdimensional correlation are the focus of contemporary interdisciplinary research. Mesoscience is a discipline that has the potential to radically update the existing knowledge structure, which differs from the conventional unit-scale and system-scale research models, revealing a previously untouchable area for scientific research. Integrative biology research aims to dissect the complex problems of life systems by conducting comprehensive research and integrating various disciplines from all biological levels of the living organism. However, the mesoscientific issues between different research units are neglected and challenging. Mesoscale research in biology requires the integration of research theories and methods from other disciplines (mathematics, physics, engineering, and even visual imaging) to investigate theoretical and frontier questions of biological processes through experiments, computations, and modeling. We reviewed  integrative paradigms and methods for the biological mesoscale problems (focusing on oncology research) and prospected the potential of their multiple dimensions and upcoming challenges. We expect to establish an interactive and collaborative theoretical platform for further expanding the depth and width of our understanding on the nature of biology.

Silk-based bioinspired structural and functional materials

Natural biological materials provide a rich source of inspiration for building high-performance materials with extensive applications. By mimicking their chemical compositions and hierarchical architectures, the past decades have witnessed the rapid development of bioinspired materials. As a very promising biosourced raw material, silk is drawing increasing attention due to excellent mechanical properties, favorable versatility, and good biocompatibility. In this review, we provide an overview of the recent progress in silk-based bioinspired structural and functional materials. We first give a brief introduction of silk, covering its sources, features, extraction, and forms. We then summarize the preparation and application of silk-based materials mimicking four typical biological materials including bone, nacre, skin, and polar bear hair. Finally, we discuss the current challenges and future prospects of this field.

From Mesoscopic Functionalization of Silk Fibroin to Smart Fiber Devices for Textile Electronics and Photonics

Bombyx mori silk fibers exhibit significant potential for applications in smart textiles, such as fiber sensors, fiber actuators, optical fibers, and energy harvester. Silk fibroin (SF) from B. mori silkworm fibers can be reconstructed/functionalized at the mesoscopic scale during refolding from the solution state into fibers. This facilitates the mesoscopic functionalization by engaging functional seeds in the refolding of unfolded SF molecules. In particular, SF solutions can be self-assembled into regenerated fiber devices by artificial spinning technologies, such as wet spinning, dry spinning, microfluidic spinning, electrospinning, and direct writing. Meso-functionalization manipulates the SF property from the mesoscopic scale, transforming the original silk fibers into smart fiber devices with smart functionalities, such as sensors, actuators, optical fibers, luminous fibers, and energy harvesters. In this review, the progress of mesoscopic structural construction from SF materials to fiber electronics/photonics is comprehensively summarized, along with the spinning technologies and fiber structure characterization methods. The applications, prospects, and challenges of smart silk fibers in textile devices for wearable personalized healthcare, self-propelled exoskeletons, optical and luminous fibers, and sustainable energy harvesters are also discussed.

Silk Hydrogel Electrostatically Functionalized with a Polycationic Antimicrobial Peptide: Molecular Interactions, Gel Properties, and Antimicrobial Activity

Functionalization of silk fibroin hydrogel with antimicrobial activity is essential for promoting the applications of this excellent biomaterial. In this work, a simple approach based on electrostatic interaction is adopted to produce antimicrobial silk hydrogel containing an antimicrobial peptide (AMP), polymyxin B, an important last-line antibiotic to treat multidrug-resistant bacterial superbugs. The polycationic property of this peptide and the negative charge of silk fibroin lead to strong interactions between them, as demonstrated by changes in nanofibril structure, gelation kinetics, ζ-potential, fluorescence emission, and rheological properties of the gel. The hydrogels loaded with polymyxin B demonstrated antimicrobial activity against two Gram-negative bacterial strains. A combination of the results from the different characterizations suggests that the optimal molar ratio of polymyxin B to silk fibroin is 1:2.5. As most AMPs are cationic, this electrostatic approach is suitable for the straightforward functionalization of inert silk hydrogel with other AMPs.

Fiber Surface/Interfacial Engineering on Wearable Electronics

Surface/interfacial engineering is an essential technique to explore the fiber materials properties and fulfil new functionalities. An extensive scope of current physical and chemical treating methods is reviewed here together with a variety of real-world applications. Moreover, a new surface/interface engineering approach is also introduced: self-assembly via π-π stacking, which has great potential for the surface modification of fiber materials due to its nondestructive working principle. A new fiber family member, metal-oxide framework (MOF) fiber shows promising candidacy for fiber based wearable electronics. The understanding of surface/interfacial engineering techniques on fiber materials is advanced here and it is expected to guide the rational design of future fiber based wearable electronics.