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do Nascimento RM, Grauby-Heywang C, Kahli H, Debez N, Béven L, Bechtold IH, Bouhacina TC. A 3D physical model predicting favorable bacteria adhesion. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2024; 233:113628. [PMID: 37979480 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2023.113628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2023] [Revised: 10/17/2023] [Accepted: 10/28/2023] [Indexed: 11/20/2023]
Abstract
Predicting the initial steps of bacterial biofilm formation remains a significant challenge accross various fields, such as medical and industrial ones. Here we present a straightforward 3D theoretical model based on thermodynamic rules to assess the early stages of biofilm formation on different material surfaces. This model relying also on morphological aspects of bacteria, we used Atomic Force Microscopy images of two Gram negative bacteria, Pseudomonas fluorescens and Escherichia coli to determine their dimensions and geometries as single cells or in aggregated states. Algorithms developed for our modeling and numerical simulations generated a dataset of energetic minimized states, depending on the substrate. The model was applied to substrates widely used for bacteria immobilization in imaging applications. The results show that the different minimum energy values, depending of the substrate, can be correlated with the bacterial adhesion state, representing a potential tool for evaluating the early stages of biofilm formation on various surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodney Marcelo do Nascimento
- Centro de Ciências Físicas e Matemáticas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, UFSC, 88040-900 Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil.
| | - Christine Grauby-Heywang
- Laboratoire Ondes et Matière d'Aquitaine, Université de Bordeaux, CNRS, UMR 5798, 351 cours de la Libération, 33400 Talence, France
| | - Houssem Kahli
- Laboratoire Ondes et Matière d'Aquitaine, Université de Bordeaux, CNRS, UMR 5798, 351 cours de la Libération, 33400 Talence, France
| | - Nesrine Debez
- Laboratoire Ondes et Matière d'Aquitaine, Université de Bordeaux, CNRS, UMR 5798, 351 cours de la Libération, 33400 Talence, France
| | - Laure Béven
- Université de Bordeaux, INRAE, UMR 1332 Biologie du Fruit et Pathologie, 33140 Villenave d'Ornon, France
| | - Ivan Helmuth Bechtold
- Centro de Ciências Físicas e Matemáticas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, UFSC, 88040-900 Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | - Touria Cohen Bouhacina
- Laboratoire Ondes et Matière d'Aquitaine, Université de Bordeaux, CNRS, UMR 5798, 351 cours de la Libération, 33400 Talence, France
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Khallaf RM, Emam AN, Mostafa AA, Nassif MS, Hussein TS. Strength and bioactivity of PEEK composites containing multiwalled carbon nanotubes and bioactive glass. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2023; 144:105964. [PMID: 37336042 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2023.105964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2023] [Revised: 06/04/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/21/2023]
Abstract
Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) polymer is a widely accepted implantable biomaterial in the biomedical field. However, PEEK has a low elastic modulus (E-modulus) as well as a bio-inert nature which is not conductive to rapid bone cell attachment, hence, producing delayed or weak bone-implant integration. Multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) represent one of the strongest known materials that could be added to a polymer to improve its mechanical properties. Bioactive glasses (BGs) can form hydroxyapatite deposits on their surfaces and form a tight bond with the bone, thus, their incorporation into the PEEK matrix may improve its bioactivity. METHODS Eight groups were formulated according to the type and percentage of modification of PEEK by MWCNTs and BGs. Group 1: Pure PEEK (P), Group 2: P + 3% MWCNTs (PC3), Group 3: P + 5% MWCNTs (PC5), Group 4: P + 5% BGs (PG5), Group 5: P + 10% BGs (PG10), Group 6: P + 3% MWCNTs + 5% BGs (PC3G5), Group 7: P + 3% MWCNTs + 10% BGs (PC3G10), and Group 8: P + 5% MWCNTs + 5% BGs (PC5G5). Characterization of the vacuum-pressed PEEK and PEEK composite specimens was done using FE-SEM, EDS, FT-IR and TF-XRD. Three-point load test was done to obtain the flexural strength (F.S) and the E-modulus of the specimens. Wettability was determined by measuring the contact angle with distilled water. In-vitro bioactivity was determined after immersion of specimens in simulated body fluid (SBF). Moreover, the effect of the specimens on osteoblastic cell viability was evaluated. RESULTS Three-point load test results have shown an improvement in both F.S. and E-modulus for groups PC5, PC3G5 and PC5G5. The lowest contact angle was obtained for group PC5G5 followed by the PC3G10 group. All specimens containing BGs showed the formation of hydroxyapatite-like deposits after their immersion in SBF, as well as an improvement in osteoblastic cell viability compared to PEEK. CONCLUSION PC3G10, PC3G5 and PG10, groups are promising for the fabrication of patient-specific implants that can be used in low-stress-bearing areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reem Magdy Khallaf
- Ain-Shams University, Department of Dental Biomaterials, 11566, Cairo, Egypt.
| | - Ahmed N Emam
- Refractories, Ceramics & Building Materials, Advanced Materials Technology and Mineral Resources Research Institute, National Research Centre (NRC), 12622, Dokki, Cairo, Egypt; Nanomedicine & Tissue Engineering Research Lab., MRCE, National Research Centre (NRC), 12622, Dokki, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Amany A Mostafa
- Refractories, Ceramics & Building Materials, Advanced Materials Technology and Mineral Resources Research Institute, National Research Centre (NRC), 12622, Dokki, Cairo, Egypt; Nanomedicine & Tissue Engineering Research Lab., MRCE, National Research Centre (NRC), 12622, Dokki, Cairo, Egypt.
| | | | - Tarek Salah Hussein
- Ain-Shams University, Department of Dental Biomaterials, 11566, Cairo, Egypt
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Prywer J, Torzewska A, Cichomski M, Michałowski PP. Insights into the physical and chemical properties of struvite crystal surfaces in terms of the effectiveness of bacterial adhesion. Sci Rep 2023; 13:5557. [PMID: 37020117 PMCID: PMC10076433 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-32758-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/01/2023] [Indexed: 04/07/2023] Open
Abstract
In this paper, we present the results of research on the physicochemical properties of two selected faces of the struvite crystal, which is the main component of infectious urinary stones. Two main faces, (001) and ([Formula: see text]), ending the c-axis, were selected for the study. These faces are not related by symmetry relations, which means, among other things, that they should have a different atomic structure, which was confirmed experimentally. In addition, the studies show that the tested surfaces have hydrophilic properties, however, the ([Formula: see text]) face is more hydrophilic compared to the (001) face. The physicochemical properties of the crystal as a whole, as well as the physicochemical properties of these faces influence the magnitude of adhesion. The adhesive force in both water and artificial urine is greater for face ([Formula: see text]) compared to face (001). The assessment of the adhesion of Proteus mirabilis bacteria in artificial urine also shows that the adhesion is greater for face ([Formula: see text]) than for face (001). The adhesion of bacteria to the examined faces of the struvite crystal, and in particular the increased adhesion of bacteria to the face ([Formula: see text]), may be the first stage of biofilm formation, which may result in a high rate of recurrence of infectious urinary stones after treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jolanta Prywer
- Institute of Physics, Lodz University of Technology, Wólczańska 217/221, 93-005, Łódź, Poland.
| | - Agnieszka Torzewska
- Department of Biology of Bacteria, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, Banacha 12/16, 90-237, Łódź, Poland
| | - Michał Cichomski
- Department of Materials Technology and Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Lodz, Pomorska 163, 90-236, Łódź, Poland
| | - Paweł Piotr Michałowski
- Łukasiewicz Research Network - Institute of Microelectronics and Photonics, Aleja Lotników 32/46, 02-668, Warsaw, Poland
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Frączyk J, Magdziarz S, Stodolak-Zych E, Dzierzkowska E, Puchowicz D, Kamińska I, Giełdowska M, Boguń M. Chemical Modification as a Method of Improving Biocompatibility of Carbon Nonwovens. MATERIALS 2021; 14:ma14123198. [PMID: 34200740 PMCID: PMC8230386 DOI: 10.3390/ma14123198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2021] [Revised: 05/27/2021] [Accepted: 06/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
It was shown that carbon nonwoven fabrics obtained from polyacrylonitrile fibers (PAN) by thermal conversion may be modified on the surface in order to improve their biological compatibility and cellular response, which is particularly important in the regeneration of bone or cartilage tissue. Surface functionalization of carbon nonwovens containing C–C double bonds was carried out using in situ generated diazonium salts derived from aromatic amines containing both electron-acceptor and electron-donor substituents. It was shown that the modification method characteristic for materials containing aromatic structures may be successfully applied to the functionalization of carbon materials. The effectiveness of the surface modification of carbon nonwoven fabrics was confirmed by the FTIR method using an ATR device. The proposed approach allows the incorporation of various functional groups on the nonwovens’ surface, which affects the morphology of fibers as well as their physicochemical properties (wettability). The introduction of a carboxyl group on the surface of nonwoven fabrics, in a reaction with 4-aminobenzoic acid, became a starting point for further modifications necessary for the attachment of RGD-type peptides facilitating cell adhesion to the surface of materials. The surface modification reduced the wettability (θ) of the carbon nonwoven by about 50%. The surface free energy (SFE) in the chemically modified and reference nonwovens remained similar, with the surface modification causing an increase in the polar component (ɣp). The modification of the fiber surface was heterogeneous in nature; however, it provided an attractive site of cell–materials interaction by contacting them to the fiber surface, which supports the adhesion process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justyna Frączyk
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Lodz University of Technology, Zeromskiego 116, 90-924 Lodz, Poland;
- Correspondence: (J.F.); (M.B.)
| | - Sylwia Magdziarz
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Lodz University of Technology, Zeromskiego 116, 90-924 Lodz, Poland;
| | - Ewa Stodolak-Zych
- Department of Biomaterials and Composites, Faculty of Materials Science and Ceramics, AGH-UST University of Science and Technology, A. Mickiewicza 30, 30-059 Krakow, Poland; (E.S.-Z.); (E.D.)
| | - Ewa Dzierzkowska
- Department of Biomaterials and Composites, Faculty of Materials Science and Ceramics, AGH-UST University of Science and Technology, A. Mickiewicza 30, 30-059 Krakow, Poland; (E.S.-Z.); (E.D.)
| | - Dorota Puchowicz
- Łukasiewicz Research Network-Textile Research Institute, Brzezińska 5/15, 92-103 Lodz, Poland; (D.P.); (I.K.); (M.G.)
| | - Irena Kamińska
- Łukasiewicz Research Network-Textile Research Institute, Brzezińska 5/15, 92-103 Lodz, Poland; (D.P.); (I.K.); (M.G.)
| | - Małgorzata Giełdowska
- Łukasiewicz Research Network-Textile Research Institute, Brzezińska 5/15, 92-103 Lodz, Poland; (D.P.); (I.K.); (M.G.)
| | - Maciej Boguń
- Łukasiewicz Research Network-Textile Research Institute, Brzezińska 5/15, 92-103 Lodz, Poland; (D.P.); (I.K.); (M.G.)
- Correspondence: (J.F.); (M.B.)
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do Nascimento RM, Schmitt JF, Sarig U, Rodrigues JEFS, Pecharromán C, Ramos AP, Ciancaglini P, Faita FL, Rahouadj R, Hernandes AC, Bechtold IH. Surface Wettability of a Natural Rubber Composite under Stretching: A Model to Predict Cell Survival. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2021; 37:4639-4646. [PMID: 33826341 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.1c00430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
We report the stress-strain effect of a stretchable natural rubber (NR)-calcium phosphate composite on the surface wettability (SW) using an innovative approach coupling a uniaxial tensile micromachine, goniometer, and microscope. In situ contact angle measurements in real time were performed during mechanical tension. Our results show that SW is guided by the stress-strain relationship with two different characteristics, depending on the static or dynamic experiments. The results evidenced the limits of the classical theory of wetting. Furthermore, based on the mechanically tunable SW of the system associated with the cytocompatibility of the NR composite, we have modeled such a system for application as a cell support. From the experimental surface energy value, our proposed 3D modeling numerical simulation predicted a window of opportunities for cell-NR survival under mechanical stimuli. The presented data and the thermodynamics-based theoretical approach enable not only accurate correlation of SW with mechanical properties of the NR composite but also provide huge potential for future cell supportability in view of tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodney Marcelo do Nascimento
- Departamento de Física, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina 88040-900, Brazil
- São Carlos Institute of Physics, University of São Paulo (USP), Sao Carlos 13566-590, Brazil
- Laboratoire d'Etude des Microstructures, de Mécanique des Matériaux et du Vivant, LEM3 UMR CNRS 7239, University of Lorraine Nancy- Metz, Nancy 57070, France
| | - Jean-François Schmitt
- Laboratoire d'Etude des Microstructures, de Mécanique des Matériaux et du Vivant, LEM3 UMR CNRS 7239, University of Lorraine Nancy- Metz, Nancy 57070, France
| | - Udi Sarig
- Biotechnology & Food Engineering Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000 Israel
- Guangdong Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Shantou 515063, China
| | - João Elias Figueiredo Soares Rodrigues
- Instituto de Ciencia de Materiales de Madrid, CSIC, Cantoblanco, E-28049 Madrid, Spain
- European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, ESRF, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Carlos Pecharromán
- Instituto de Ciencia de Materiales de Madrid, CSIC, Cantoblanco, E-28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Ana Paula Ramos
- Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo (USP), Ribeiro Preto 14040-900, Brazil
| | - Pietro Ciancaglini
- Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo (USP), Ribeiro Preto 14040-900, Brazil
| | - Fabricio Luiz Faita
- Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Instituto de Física (UFRGS), 91501970 Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Rachid Rahouadj
- Laboratoire d'Etude des Microstructures, de Mécanique des Matériaux et du Vivant, LEM3 UMR CNRS 7239, University of Lorraine Nancy- Metz, Nancy 57070, France
| | | | - Ivan Helmuth Bechtold
- Departamento de Física, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina 88040-900, Brazil
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Yongabi D, Jooken S, Givanoudi S, Khorshid M, Deschaume O, Bartic C, Losada-Pérez P, Wübbenhorst M, Wagner P. Ionic strength controls long-term cell-surface interactions - A QCM-D study of S. cerevisiae adhesion, retention and detachment. J Colloid Interface Sci 2020; 585:583-595. [PMID: 33127054 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2020.10.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Revised: 10/09/2020] [Accepted: 10/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Understanding microbial adhesion and retention is crucial for controlling many processes, including biofilm formation, antimicrobial therapy as well as cell sorting and cell detection platforms. Cell detachment is inextricably linked to cell adhesion and retention and plays an important part in the mechanisms involved in these processes. Physico-chemical and biological forces play a crucial role in microbial adhesion interactions and altering the medium ionic strength offers a potential means for modulating these interactions. Real-time studies on the effect of ionic strength on microbial adhesion are often limited to short-term bacterial adhesion. Therefore, there is a need, not only for long-term bacterial adhesion studies, but also for similar studies focusing on eukaryotic microbes, such as yeast. Hereby, we monitored, in real-time, S. cerevisiae adhesion on gold and silica as examples of surfaces with different surface charge properties to disclose long-term adhesion, retention and detachment as a function of ionic strength using quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring. Our results show that short- and long-term cell adhesion levels in terms of mass-loading increase with increasing ionic strength, while cells dispersed in a medium of higher ionic strength experience longer retention and detachment times. The positive correlation between the cell zeta potential and ionic strength suggests that zeta potential plays a role on cell retention and detachment. These trends are similar for measurements on silica and gold, with shorter retention and detachment times for silica due to strong short-range repulsions originating from a high electron-donicity. Furthermore, the results are comparable with measurements in standard yeast culture medium, implying that the overall effect of ionic strength applies for cells in nutrient-rich and nutrient-deficient media.
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Affiliation(s)
- Derick Yongabi
- KU Leuven, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Laboratory for Soft Matter and Biophysics, Celestijnenlaan 200 D, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Stijn Jooken
- KU Leuven, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Laboratory for Soft Matter and Biophysics, Celestijnenlaan 200 D, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Stella Givanoudi
- KU Leuven, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Laboratory for Soft Matter and Biophysics, Celestijnenlaan 200 D, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Mehran Khorshid
- KU Leuven, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Laboratory for Soft Matter and Biophysics, Celestijnenlaan 200 D, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Olivier Deschaume
- KU Leuven, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Laboratory for Soft Matter and Biophysics, Celestijnenlaan 200 D, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Carmen Bartic
- KU Leuven, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Laboratory for Soft Matter and Biophysics, Celestijnenlaan 200 D, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Patricia Losada-Pérez
- Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Experimental Soft Matter and Thermal Physics Group, Campus La Plaine, CP223, Boulevard du Triomphe, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Michael Wübbenhorst
- KU Leuven, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Laboratory for Soft Matter and Biophysics, Celestijnenlaan 200 D, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Patrick Wagner
- KU Leuven, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Laboratory for Soft Matter and Biophysics, Celestijnenlaan 200 D, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
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Yongabi D, Khorshid M, Gennaro A, Jooken S, Duwé S, Deschaume O, Losada-Pérez P, Dedecker P, Bartic C, Wübbenhorst M, Wagner P. QCM-D Study of Time-Resolved Cell Adhesion and Detachment: Effect of Surface Free Energy on Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2020; 12:18258-18272. [PMID: 32223273 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c00353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Cell-material interactions are crucial for many biomedical applications, including medical implants, tissue engineering, and biosensors. For implants, while the adhesion of eukaryotic host cells is desirable, bacterial adhesion often leads to infections. Surface free energy (SFE) is an important parameter that controls short- and long-term eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell adhesion. Understanding its effect at a fundamental level is essential for designing materials that minimize bacterial adhesion. Most cell adhesion studies for implants have focused on correlating surface wettability with mammalian cell adhesion and are restricted to short-term time scales. In this work, we used quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring (QCM-D) and electrical impedance analysis to characterize the adhesion and detachment of S. cerevisiae and E. coli, serving as model eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells within extended time scales. Measurements were performed on surfaces displaying different surface energies (Au, SiO2, and silanized SiO2). Our results demonstrate that tuning the surface free energy of materials is a useful strategy for selectively promoting eukaryotic cell adhesion and preventing bacterial adhesion. Specifically, we show that under flow and steady-state conditions and within time scales up to ∼10 h, a high SFE, especially its polar component, enhances S. cerevisiae adhesion and hinders E. coli adhesion. In the long term, however, both cells tend to detach, but less detachment occurs on surfaces with a high dispersive SFE contribution. The conclusions on S. cerevisiae are also valid for a second eukaryotic cell type, being the human embryonic kidney (HEK) cells on which we performed the same analysis for comparison. Furthermore, each cell adhesion phase is associated with unique cytoskeletal viscoelastic states, which are cell-type-specific and surface free energy-dependent and provide insights into the underlying adhesion mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Derick Yongabi
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Laboratory for Soft Matter and Biophysics, KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200 D, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Mehran Khorshid
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Laboratory for Soft Matter and Biophysics, KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200 D, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Alessia Gennaro
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Laboratory for Soft Matter and Biophysics, KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200 D, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Stijn Jooken
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Laboratory for Soft Matter and Biophysics, KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200 D, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Sam Duwé
- Department of Chemistry, Laboratory for Nanobiology, KU Leuven, Celestinenlaan 200 G, B-3001, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Olivier Deschaume
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Laboratory for Soft Matter and Biophysics, KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200 D, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Patricia Losada-Pérez
- Experimental Soft Matter and Thermal Physics Group, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Campus La Plaine, CP223, Boulevard du Triomphe, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Peter Dedecker
- Department of Chemistry, Laboratory for Nanobiology, KU Leuven, Celestinenlaan 200 G, B-3001, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Carmen Bartic
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Laboratory for Soft Matter and Biophysics, KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200 D, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Michael Wübbenhorst
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Laboratory for Soft Matter and Biophysics, KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200 D, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Patrick Wagner
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Laboratory for Soft Matter and Biophysics, KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200 D, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
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