Advances of Antimicrobial Peptide-Based Biomaterials for the Treatment of Bacterial Infections

Novel design of simplified β-hairpin antimicrobial peptide as a potential food preservative based on Trp-pocket backbone

Food contamination from microbial deterioration requires the development of potent antimicrobial peptides (AMPs). The deployment of approved AMPs as dietary preservatives is limited due to barriers such as instability, toxicity, and high synthetic costs. This exploration utilizes the primary structural elements of the Trp-pocket backbone to engineer a series of β-hairpin AMPs (XWRWRPGXKXXR-NH2, X representing I, V, F, and/or L). Peptides WpLF, with Phe as X and Leu arranged at the 11th position, demonstrated exceptional selectivity index (SI = 123.08) and sterilization effects both in vitro and in vivo. WpLF consistently exhibited stable bacteriostasis, regardless of physiological salts, serum, and extreme pH. Mechanistic analysis indicated that the peptide penetrates microbial cell membranes, inducing membrane disruption, thereby impeding drug resistance evolution. Conclusively, AMPs engineered by the Trp-pocket skeleton hold substantial potential as innovative biological preservatives in food preservation, providing valuable insights for sustainable and safe peptide-based food preservatives.

Wound microenvironment-responsive peptide hydrogel with multifunctionalities for accelerating wound healing

The fabrication of wound microenvironment-responsive peptide hydrogels with hemostatic ability, antibacterial activity, and wound healing potential remains a challenge. Herein, we constructed a multifunctional dressing by inducing the self-assembly of a peptide (Pep-1) and water-soluble new methylene blue (NMB) through electrostatic interaction. The self-assembly mechanism was demonstrated using a combination of transmission electron microscopy, circular dichroism spectrum, fluorescence spectrum, Zeta potential, and rheological analysis. The Pep-1/NMB hydrogel also exhibited a faster drug release rate in wound acidic environment. Furthermore, when Pep-1/NMB was exposed to a 635 nm laser, its antibacterial ratios increased sharply to 95.3%, indicating remarkably improved antibacterial effects. The findings from the blood coagulation and hemostasis assay indicated that Pep-1/NMB effectively enhanced the speed of blood clotting in vitro and efficiently controlled hemorrhage in a mouse liver hemorrhage model. Meanwhile, hemolytic and cytotoxicity evaluation revealed that the hydrogel had excellent hemocompatibility and cytocompatibility. Finally, the findings from the wound healing studies and H&E staining indicated that the Pep-1/NMB hydrogel had a significant impact on cell migration and wound repair. The results indicated that wound microenvironment-responsive Pep-1/NMB hydrogel had significant potential as a highly effective wound dressing platform, offering rapid hemostasis, antibacterial, and wound healing acceleration properties.

Gallium-based metal-organic frameworks with antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties for oral health protection

The fascial space of the oral and maxillofacial region contains loose connective tissues, which possess weak anti-infection ability and are often prone to infection, leading to acute suppurative inflammation and sepsis through blood. Although antibiotic use can reduce the probability of bacterial infections, owing to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, the search for new antimicrobial drugs is imminent. Herein, we report a metal-organic framework (MOF) antibacterial material designed and synthesized with gallium (Ga) as the central atom, which possesses significant antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant effects. Our data suggested that GA-based MOFs (Ga-MOFs; 1 μg/mL) could sufficiently kill Porphyromonas gingivalis, Streptococcus pyogenes, and Staphylococcus aureus. Ga-MOFs exhibited a bactericidal effect against these three pathogens by disrupting biofilm formation, exopolysaccharide production, and bacterial membrane integrity. In addition, we found that 1 μg/mL of Ga-MOFs was not cytotoxic to human oral epithelial cell (HOEC) lines and it significantly reduced the adhesion of the three pathogens to HOEC. Ga-MOFs protect macrophages from excessive oxidative stress by scavenging excess intracellular reactive oxygen species and upregulating antioxidant gene levels, thereby enhancing cellular antioxidant defense. In addition, Ga-MOFs can promote the transformation of macrophages from the proinflammatory phenotype to the anti-inflammatory phenotype, thereby protecting oral health. Herein, novel Ga-MOF materials were chemically synthesized for therapeutic applications in oral infections, which provides new ideas for the development of novel nonantibiotic drugs to accelerate patient recovery.

Physiological Microenvironment Dependent Self-Cross-Linking of Multifunctional Nanohybrid for Prolonged Antibacterial Therapy via Synergistic Chemodynamic-Photothermal-Biological Processes

Herein, a multifunctional nanohybrid (PL@HPFTM nanoparticles) was fabricated to perform the integration of chemodynamic therapy, photothermal therapy, and biological therapy over the long term at a designed location for continuous antibacterial applications. The PL@HPFTM nanoparticles consisted of a polydopamine/hemoglobin/Fe2+ nanocomplex with comodification of tetrazole/alkene groups on the surface as well as coloading of antimicrobial peptides and luminol in the core. During therapy, the PL@HPFTM nanoparticles would selectively cross-link to surrounding bacteria via tetrazole/alkene cycloaddition under chemiluminescence produced by the reaction between luminol and overexpressed H2O2 at the infected area. The resulting PL@HPFTM network not only significantly damaged bacteria by Fe2+-catalyzed ROS production, effective photothermal conversion, and sustained release of antimicrobial peptides but dramatically enhanced the retention time of these therapeutic agents for prolonged antibacterial therapy. Both in vitro and in vivo results have shown that our PL@HPFTM nanoparticles have much higher bactericidal efficiency and remarkably longer periods of validity than free antibacterial nanoparticles.

Porous reticular Co@Fe metal-organic gel: dual-function simulated peroxidase nanozyme for both colorimetric sensing and antibacterial applications

Constructing metal-organic gels (MOGs) with enzyme-catalyzed activity and studying their catalytic mechanism are crucial for the development of novel nanozyme materials. In this study, a Co@Fe MOG with excellent peroxidase activity was developed by a simple and mild one-pot process. The results showed that the material exhibited almost a single peroxidase activity under optimal pH conditions, which allowed it to attract and oxidize the chromogenic substrate 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB). Based on the active electron transfer between the metal centers and the organic ligand in the synthetic material, the Co@Fe MOG-H2O2-TMB system was verified to be able to detect H2O2 and citric acid (CA). The catalytic microenvironment formed by the adsorption and the catalytic center accelerated the electron-transfer rate, which expedited the generation of hydroxyl radicals (˙OH, a kind of reactive oxygen species (ROS)) in the presence of H2O2. The persistence and high intensity of ˙OH generation were proven, which would endow Co@Fe MOG with a certain antibacterial ability, promoting the healing of bacteria-infected wounds. In conclusion, this study contributes to the development efforts toward the application systems of nanozymes for marker detection and antibacterial activity.

Hydrogels in Gene Delivery Techniques for Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering

Hydrogels are 3D networks swollen with water. They are biocompatible, strong, and moldable and are emerging as a promising biomedical material for regenerative medicine and tissue engineering to deliver therapeutic genes. The excellent natural extracellular matrix simulation properties of hydrogels enable them to be co-cultured with cells or enhance the expression of viral or non-viral vectors. Its biocompatibility, high strength, and degradation performance also make the action process of carriers in tissues more ideal, making it an ideal biomedical material. It has been shown that hydrogel-based gene delivery technologies have the potential to play therapy-relevant roles in organs such as bone, cartilage, nerve, skin, reproductive organs, and liver in animal experiments and preclinical trials. This paper reviews recent articles on hydrogels in gene delivery and explains the manufacture, applications, developmental timeline, limitations, and future directions of hydrogel-based gene delivery techniques.

Enzyme-Triggered Polyelectrolyte Complex for Responsive Delivery of α-Helical Polypeptides to Optimize Antibacterial Therapy

Responsive nanomaterials hold significant promise in the treatment of bacterial infections by recognizing internal or external stimuli to achieve stimuli-responsive behavior. In this study, we present an enzyme-responsive polyelectrolyte complex micelles (PTPMN) with α-helical cationic polypeptide as a coacervate-core for the treatment of Escherichia coli (E. coli) infection. The complex was constructed through electrostatic interaction between cationic poly(glutamic acid) derivatives and phosphorylation-modified poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(tyrosine) (PEG-b-PPTyr) by directly dissolving them in aqueous solution. The cationic polypeptide adopted α-helical structure and demonstrated excellent broad-spectrum antibacterial activity against both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) as low as 12.5 μg mL-1 against E. coli. By complexing with anionic PEG-b-PPTyr, the obtained complex formed β-sheet structures and exhibited good biocompatibility and low hemolysis. When incubated in a bacterial environment, the complex cleaved its phosphate groups triggered by phosphatases secreted by bacteria, exposing the highly α-helical conformation and restoring its effective bactericidal ability. In vivo experiments confirmed accelerated healing in E. coli-infected wounds.

Engineering peptide drug therapeutics through chemical conjugation and implication in clinics

The development of peptide drugs has made tremendous progress in the past few decades because of the advancements in modification chemistry and analytical technologies. The novel-designed peptide drugs have been modified through various biochemical methods with improved diagnostic, therapeutic, and drug-delivery strategies. Researchers found it a helping hand to overcome the inherent limitations of peptides and bring continued advancements in their applications. Furthermore, the emergence of peptide-drug conjugates (PDCs)-utilizes target-oriented peptide moieties as a vehicle for cytotoxic payloads via conjugation with cleavable chemical agents, resulting in the key foundation of the new era of targeted peptide drugs. This review summarizes the various classifications of peptide drugs, suitable chemical modification strategies to improve the ADME (adsorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion) features of peptide drugs, and recent (2015-early 2024) progress/achievements in peptide-based drug delivery systems as well as their fruitful implication in preclinical and clinical studies. Furthermore, we also summarized the brief description of other types of PDCs, including peptide-MOF conjugates and peptide-UCNP conjugates. The principal aim is to provide scattered and diversified knowledge in one place and to help researchers understand the pinching knots in the science of PDC development and progress toward a bright future of novel peptide drugs.

The road to evolution of ProTx2: how to be a subtype-specific inhibition of human Nav1.7

The human voltage-gated sodium channel Nav1.7 is a widely proven target for analgesic drug studies. ProTx2, a 30-residue polypeptide from Peruvian green tarantula venom, shows high specificity to activity against human Nav1.7, suggesting its potential to become a non-addictive analgesic. However, its high sensitivity to human Nav1.4 raises concerns about muscle side effects. Here, we engineered three mutants (R13A, R13D, and K27Y) of ProTx2 to evaluate their pharmacological activities toward Nav1.7 and Nav1.4. It is demonstrated that the mutant R13D maintained the analgesic effect in mice while dramatically reducing its muscle toxicity compared with ProTx2. The main reason is the formation of a strong electrostatic interaction between R13D and the negatively charged amino acid residues in DII/S3-S4 of Nav1.7, which is absent in Nav1.4. This study advances our understanding and insights on peptide toxins, paving the way for safer, effective non-addictive analgesic development.

Hyaluronidase-Responsive Bactericidal Cryogel for Promoting Healing of Infected Wounds: Inflammatory Attenuation, ROS Scavenging, and Immune Regulation

Wounds infected with multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria are increasingly threatening public health and challenging clinical treatments because of intensive bacterial colonization, excessive inflammatory responses, and superabundant oxidative stress. To overcome this malignant burden and promote wound healing, a multifunctional cryogel (HA/TA2/KR2) composed of hyaluronic acid (HA), tannic acid (TA), and KR-12 peptides is designed. The cryogel exhibited excellent shape-memory properties, strong absorption performance, and hemostatic capacity. In vitro experiments demonstrated that KR-12 in the cryogel can be responsively released by stimulation with hyaluronidase produced by bacteria, reaching robust antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli (E. coli), MDR Pseudomonas aeruginosa (MDR-PA), and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) by disrupting bacterial cell membranes. Furthermore, the synergetic effect of KR-12 and TA can efficiently scavenge ROS and decrease expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α & interleukin (IL)-6), as well as modulate the macrophage phenotype toward the M2 type. In vivo animal tests indicated that the cryogel can effectively destroy bacteria in the wound and promote healing process via accelerating angiogenesis and re-epithelialization. Proteomic analysis revealed the underlying mechanism by which the cryogel mainly reshaped the infected wound microenvironment by inhibiting the Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathway and activating the Janus kinase-Signal transducer and activator of transcription (JAK-STAT6) signaling pathway. Therefore, the HA/TA2/KR2 cryogel is a promising dressing candidate for MDR bacteria-infected wound healing.

Revolutionizing orthopedic healthcare: a systematic review unveiling recombinant antimicrobial peptides

The increasing demand for orthopedic surgeries, including joint replacements, is driven by an aging population and improved diagnosis of joint conditions. Orthopedic surgeries carry a risk of infection, especially in patients with comorbidities. The rise of antibiotic resistance exacerbates this issue, necessitating alternatives like in vitro bioengineered antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), offering broad-spectrum activity and multiple action mechanisms. This review aimed to assess the prevalence of antimicrobial potential and the yield after purification among recombinant AMP families. The antimicrobial potential was evaluated using the Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) values against the most common bacteria involved in clinical infections. This systematic review adhered to PRISMA guidelines, focusing on in vitro studies of recombinant AMPs. The search strategy was run on PubMed, Scopus and Embase up to 30th March 2023. The Population, Exposure and Outcome model was used to extract the data from studies and ToxRTool for the risk of bias analysis. This review included studies providing peptide production yield data and MIC values against pathogenic bacteria. Non-English texts, reviews, conference abstracts, books, studies focusing solely on chemical synthesis, those reporting incomplete data sets, using non-standard MIC assessment methods, or presenting MIC values as ranges rather than precise concentrations, were excluded. From 370 publications, 34 studies on AMPs were analyzed. These covered 46 AMPs across 18 families, with Defensins and Hepcidins being most common. Yields varied from 0.5 to 2,700 mg/L. AMPs were tested against 23 bacterial genera, with MIC values ranging from 0.125 to >1,152 μg/mL. Arenicins showed the highest antimicrobial activity, particularly against common orthopedic infection pathogens. However, AMP production yields varied and some AMPs demonstrated limited effectiveness against certain bacterial strains. This systematic review emphasizes the critical role of bioengineered AMPs to cope infections and antibiotic resistance. It meticulously evaluates recombinant AMPs, focusing on their antimicrobial efficacy and production yields. The review highlights that, despite the variability in AMP yields and effectiveness, Arenicins and Defensins are promising candidates for future research and clinical applications in treating antibiotic-resistant orthopedic infections. This study contributes significantly to the understanding of AMPs in healthcare, underscoring their potential in addressing the growing challenge of antibiotic resistance. Systematic review registration:https://osf.io/2uq4c/.

Nanofiber Peptides for Bacterial Trapping: A Novel Approach to Antibiotic Alternatives in Wound Infections

The pervasive employment of antibiotics has engendered the advent of drug-resistant bacteria, imperiling the well-being and health of both humans and animals. Infections precipitated by such multi-resistant bacteria, especially those induced by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), pervade hospital settings, constituting a grave menace to patient vitality. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have garnered considerable attention as a potent countermeasure against multidrug resistant bacteria. In preceding research endeavors, an insect-derived antimicrobial peptide is identified that, while possessing antimicrobial attributes, manifested suboptimal efficacy against drug-resistant Gram-positive bacteria. To ameliorate this issue, this work enhances the antimicrobial capabilities of the initial β-hairpin AMPs by substituting the structural sequence of the original AMPs with variant lengths of hydrophobic amino acid-hydrophilic amino acid repeat units. Throughout this endeavor, this work has identified a number of peptides that possess highly effective antibacterial characteristics against a wide range of bacteria. Additionally, some of these peptides have the ability to self-assemble into nanofibers, which then build networks in a distinctive manner to capture bacteria. Consequently, they represent prospective antibiotic alternatives for addressing wound infections engendered by drug-resistant bacteria.

Microneedle System with Biomarker-Activatable Chromophore as Both Optical Imaging Probe and Anti-bacterial Agent for Combination Therapy of Bacterial-Infected Wounds and Outcome Monitoring

Wounds infected with bacteria, if left untreated, have the potential to escalate into life-threatening conditions, such as sepsis, which is characterized by widespread inflammation and organ damage. A comprehensive approach to treating bacterial-infected wounds, encompassing the control of bacterial infection, biofilm eradication, and inflammation regulation, holds significant importance. Herein, a microneedle (MN) patch (FM@ST MN) has been developed, with silk fibroin (SF) and tannic acid-based hydrogel serving as the matrix. Encapsulated within the MNs are the AIEgen-based activatable probe (FQ-H2O2) and the NLRP3 inhibitor MCC950, serving as the optical reporter/antibacterial agent and the inflammation regulator, respectively. When applied onto bacterial-infected wounds, the MNs in FM@ST MN penetrate bacterial biofilms and gradually degrade, releasing FQ-H2O2 and MCC950. The released FQ-H2O2 responds to endogenously overexpressed reactive oxygen species (H2O2) at the wound site, generating a chromophore FQ-OH which emits noticeable NIR-II fluorescence and optoacoustic signals, enabling real-time imaging for outcome monitoring; and this chromophore also exhibits potent antibacterial capability due to its dual positive charges and shows negligible antibacterial resistance. However, the NLRP3 inhibitor MCC950, upon release, suppresses the activation of NLRP3 inflammasomes, thereby mitigating the inflammation triggered by bacterial infections and facilitating wound healing. Furthermore, SF in FM@ST MN aids in tissue repair and regeneration by promoting the proliferation of epidermal cells and fibroblasts and collagen synthesis. This MN system, free from antibiotics, holds promise as a solution for treating and monitoring bacterially infected wounds without the associated risk of antimicrobial resistance.

Modified polymeric biomaterials with antimicrobial and immunomodulating properties

The modification of the surgical polypropylene mesh and the polytetrafluoroethylene vascular prosthesis with cecropin A (small peptide) and puromycin (aminonucleoside) yielded very stable preparations of modified biomaterials. The main emphasis was placed on analyses of their antimicrobial activity and potential immunomodulatory and non-cytotoxic properties towards the CCD841 CoTr model cell line. Cecropin A did not significantly affect the viability or proliferation of the CCD 841 CoTr cells, regardless of its soluble or immobilized form. In contrast, puromycin did not induce a significant decrease in the cell viability or proliferation in the immobilized form but significantly decreased cell viability and proliferation when administered in the soluble form. The covalent immobilization of these two molecules on the surface of biomaterials resulted in stable preparations that were able to inhibit the multiplication of Staphylococcus aureus and S. epidermidis strains. It was also found that the preparations induced the production of cytokines involved in antibacterial protection mechanisms and stimulated the immune response. The key regulator of this activity may be related to TLR4, a receptor recognizing bacterial LPS. In the present study, these factors were produced not only in the conditions of LPS stimulation but also in the absence of LPS, which indicates that cecropin A- and puromycin-modified biomaterials may upregulate pathways leading to humoral antibacterial immune response.

Interdisciplinary-Inspired Smart Antibacterial Materials and Their Biomedical Applications

The discovery of antibiotics has saved millions of lives, but the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria has become another problem in modern medicine. To avoid or reduce the overuse of antibiotics in antibacterial treatments, stimuli-responsive materials, pathogen-targeting nanoparticles, immunogenic nano-toxoids, and biomimetic materials are being developed to make sterilization better and smarter than conventional therapies. The common goal of smart antibacterial materials (SAMs) is to increase the antibiotic efficacy or function via an antibacterial mechanism different from that of antibiotics in order to increase the antibacterial and biological properties while reducing the risk of drug resistance. The research and development of SAMs are increasingly interdisciplinary because new designs require the knowledge of different fields and input/collaboration from scientists in different fields. A good understanding of energy conversion in materials, physiological characteristics in cells and bacteria, and bactericidal structures and components in nature are expected to promote the development of SAMs. In this review, the importance of multidisciplinary insights for SAMs is emphasized, and the latest advances in SAMs are categorized and discussed according to the pertinent disciplines including materials science, physiology, and biomimicry.

Double-Network Hydrogel with Strengthened Mechanical Property for Controllable Release of Antibacterial Peptide

Developing double-network (DN) hydrogels with high mechanical properties and antibacterial efficacy to combat multidrug-resistant bacterial infections and serve as scaffolds for cell culture still remains an ongoing challenge. In this study, an ion-responsive antibacterial peptide (AMP) (C16-WIIIKKK, termed as IK7) was synergistically combined with a photoresponsive gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) polymer to fabricate a biocompatible DN hydrogel. The GelMA-IK7 DN hydrogel showed enhanced mechanical properties in contrast to the individual IK7 and GelMA hydrogels and demonstrated substantial antibacterial efficacy. Further investigations revealed that the DN hydrogel effectively inhibited bacterial growth by the controlled and sustained release of the IK7 peptide. In addition, the formation of the DN hydrogel was also found to protect AMP IK7 from rapid degradation by proteinase K. Our findings suggested that the developed GelMA-IK7 DN hydrogel holds great potential for next-generation antibacterial hydrogels for three-dimensional cell culture and tissue regeneration.

Attachment of Proteolytic Enzyme Inhibitors to Vascular Prosthesis-An Analysis of Binding and Antimicrobial Properties

Prosthetic infections are associated with high morbidity, mortality, and relapse rates, making them still a serious problem for implantology. Staphylococcus aureus is one of the most common bacterial pathogens causing prosthetic infections. In response to the increasing rate of bacterial resistance to commonly used antibiotics, this work proposes a method for combating pathogenic microorganisms by modifying the surfaces of synthetic polymeric biomaterials using proteolytic enzyme inhibitors (serine protease inhibitors-4-(2-aminoethyl)benzenesulfonyl fluoride hydrochloride and puromycin). While using techniques based on the immobilization of biologically active molecules, it is important to monitor the changes occurring on the surface of the modified biomaterial, where spectroscopic techniques (e.g., FTIR) are ideal. ATR-FTIR measurements demonstrated that the immobilization of both inhibitors caused large structural changes on the surface of the tested vascular prostheses (polyester or polytetrafluoroethylene) and showed that they were covalently bonded to the surfaces of the biomaterials. Next, the bactericidal and antibiofilm activities of the tested serine protease inhibitors were determined using the CLSM microscopic technique with fluorescent staining. During LIVE/DEAD analyses, a significant decrease in the formation of Staphylococcus aureus biofilm after exposure to selected concentrations of native inhibitors (0.02-0.06 mg/mL for puromycin and 0.2-1 mg/mL for 4-(2-aminoethyl)benzenesulfonyl fluoride hydrochloride) was demonstrated.

Stimuli-responsive peptide hydrogels for biomedical applications

Stimuli-responsive hydrogels can respond to external stimuli with a change in the network structure and thus have potential application in drug release, intelligent sensing, and scaffold construction. Peptides possess robust supramolecular self-assembly ability, enabling spontaneous formation of nanostructures through supramolecular interactions and subsequently hydrogels. Therefore, peptide-based stimuli-responsive hydrogels have been widely explored as smart soft materials for biomedical applications in the last decade. Herein, we present a review article on design strategies and research progress of peptide hydrogels as stimuli-responsive materials in the field of biomedicine. The latest design and development of peptide hydrogels with responsive behaviors to stimuli are first presented. The following part provides a systematic overview of the functions and applications of stimuli-responsive peptide hydrogels in tissue engineering, drug delivery, wound healing, antimicrobial treatment, 3D cell culture, biosensors, etc. Finally, the remaining challenges and future prospects of stimuli-responsive peptide hydrogels are proposed. It is believed that this review will contribute to the rational design and development of stimuli-responsive peptide hydrogels toward biomedical applications.

Identifying Antitubercular Peptides via Deep Forest Architecture with Effective Feature Representation

Tuberculosis (TB) is a severe disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis that poses a significant threat to human health. The emergence of drug-resistant strains has made the global fight against TB even more challenging. Antituberculosis peptides (ATPs) have shown promising results as a potential treatment for TB. However, conventional wet lab-based approaches to ATP discovery are time-consuming and costly and often fail to discover peptides with desired properties. To address these challenges, we propose a novel machine learning-based framework called ATPfinder that can significantly accelerate the discovery of ATP. Our approach integrates various efficient peptide descriptors and utilizes the deep forest algorithm to construct the model. This neural network-like cascading structure can effectively process and mine features without complex hyperparameter tuning. Our experimental results show that ATPfinder outperforms existing ATP prediction tools, achieving state-of-the-art performance with an accuracy of 89.3% and an MCC of 0.70. Moreover, our framework exhibits better robustness than baseline algorithms commonly used for other sequence analysis tasks. Additionally, the excellent interpretability of our model can assist researchers in understanding the critical features of ATP. Finally, we developed a downloadable desktop application to simplify the use of our framework for researchers. Therefore, ATPfinder can facilitate the discovery of peptide drugs and provide potential solutions for TB treatment. Our framework is freely available at https://github.com/lantianyao/ATPfinder/ (data sets and code) and https://awi.cuhk.edu.cn/dbAMP/ATPfinder.html (software).

Cationic Porphyrins as Antimicrobial and Antiviral Agents in Photodynamic Therapy

Antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (APDT) has received a great deal of attention due to its unique ability to kill all currently known classes of microorganisms. To date, infectious diseases caused by bacteria and viruses are one of the main sources of high mortality, mass epidemics and global pandemics among humans. Every year, the emergence of three to four previously unknown species of viruses dangerous to humans is recorded, totaling more than 2/3 of all newly discovered human pathogens. The emergence of bacteria with multidrug resistance leads to the rapid obsolescence of antibiotics and the need to create new types of antibiotics. From this point of view, photodynamic inactivation of viruses and bacteria is of particular interest. This review summarizes the most relevant mechanisms of antiviral and antibacterial action of APDT, molecular targets and correlation between the structure of cationic porphyrins and their photodynamic activity.

Recent advances in nanoantibiotics against multidrug-resistant bacteria

Multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria-caused infections have been a major threat to human health. The abuse of conventional antibiotics accelerates the generation of MDR bacteria and makes the situation worse. The emergence of nanomaterials holds great promise for solving this tricky problem due to their multiple antibacterial mechanisms, tunable antibacterial spectra, and low probabilities of inducing drug resistance. In this review, we summarize the mechanism of the generation of drug resistance, and introduce the recently developed nanomaterials for dealing with MDR bacteria via various antibacterial mechanisms. Considering that biosafety and mass production are the major bottlenecks hurdling the commercialization of nanoantibiotics, we introduce the related development in these two aspects. We discuss urgent challenges in this field and future perspectives to promote the development and translation of nanoantibiotics as alternatives against MDR pathogens to traditional antibiotics-based approaches.

Advances in Transdermal Delivery of Antimicrobial Peptides for Wound Management: Biomaterial-Based Approaches and Future Perspectives

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), distinguished by their cationic and amphiphilic nature, represent a critical frontier in the battle against antimicrobial resistance due to their potent antimicrobial activity and a broad spectrum of action. However, the clinical translation of AMPs faces hurdles, including their susceptibility to degradation, limited bioavailability, and the need for targeted delivery. Transdermal delivery has immense potential for optimizing AMP administration for wound management. Leveraging the skin's accessibility and barrier properties, transdermal delivery offers a noninvasive approach that can circumvent systemic side effects and ensure sustained release. Biomaterial-based delivery systems, encompassing nanofibers, hydrogels, nanoparticles, and liposomes, have emerged as key players in enhancing the efficacy of transdermal AMP delivery. These biomaterial carriers not only shield AMPs from enzymatic degradation but also provide controlled release mechanisms, thereby elevating stability and bioavailability. The synergistic interaction between the transdermal approach and biomaterial-facilitated formulations presents a promising strategy to overcome the multifaceted challenges associated with AMP delivery. Integrating advanced technologies and personalized medicine, this convergence allows the reimagining of wound care. This review amalgamates insights to propose a pathway where AMPs, transdermal delivery, and biomaterial innovation harmonize for effective wound management.

Anti-Proteolytic Peptide R7I Protects the Intestinal Barrier and Alleviates Fatty Acid Malabsorption in Salmonella typhimurium-Infected Mice

With a wide range of hosts, environmental adaptation, and antibiotic resistance, Salmonella typhimurium is one of the most common causes of food poisoning in the world. Infection with Salmonella typhimurium not only results in intestinal inflammation but also damages the intestinal barrier and interferes with the host's ability to absorb nutrients. It is imperative to find alternatives to antibiotics for eradicating bacteria, reducing intestinal damage, and reestablishing nutrient absorption, especially given that antibiotics are currently prohibited. This research aims to understand the protective role of anti-proteolytic peptide R7I on the gut in the setting of Salmonella typhimurium infection and its impact on nutritional absorption, maybe offering an alternative to antibiotics for bacterial killing. The findings demonstrated that R7I reduced the production of inflammatory factors, including IL-6, TNF-α, and L-1β in the jejunum and decreased the expression of genes like TLR4 and NF-κB in the jejunum (p < 0.05). R7I enhanced antioxidant capacity and preserved the antioxidant/pro-oxidant balance in the jejunum (p < 0.05). R7I also normalized intestinal shape and restored tight junction protein expression. Fatty acid binding protein 2 (FABP2) and fatty acid transport protein 4 (FATP4) expression in the jejunum was restored by R7I. In addition, serum-free fatty acids and lipid metabolites were significantly higher in the R7I group than in the control group (p < 0.05). Overall, the anti-enzyme peptide R7I maintained the healthy state of the intestine and alleviated the abnormal fatty acid absorption caused by bacterial infection.

Gallium-based metal-organic frameworks loaded with antimicrobial peptides for synergistic killing of drug-resistant bacteria

Increased antibiotic resistance has made bacterial infections a global concern, which requires novel non-antibiotic-dependent antibacterial strategies to address the menace. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are a promising antibiotic alternative, whose antibacterial mechanism is mainly to destroy the membrane of bacteria. Gallium ions exhibit an antibacterial effect by interfering with the iron metabolism of bacteria. With the rapid development of nanotechnology, it is worth studying the potential of gallium-AMP-based nanocomposites for treating bacterial infections. Herein, novel gallium-based metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) were synthesized at room temperature, followed by in situ loading of the model AMP melittin. The obtained nanocomposites exhibited stronger antibacterial activity than pure MEL and gallium ions, achieving the effects of "one plus one is greater than two". Moreover, the nanocomposites showed favorable biocompatibility and accelerated healing of a wound infected by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus by down-regulation of inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and TNF-α. This work presents an innovative antibacterial strategy to overcome the antibiotic resistance crisis and expand the application of AMPs.

Improving the biocompatibility and antibacterial efficacy of silver nanoparticles functionalized with (LLRR)3 antimicrobial peptide

The selection of effective antibiotics is becoming increasingly limited due to the emergence of bacterial resistance. Designing and developing nanoscale antibacterials is a strategy for effectively addressing the antibiotic crisis. In this work, AgNPs@AMP nanoparticles were synthesized to take advantage of the synergistic antibacterial activity of the (LLRR)3 antimicrobial peptide (AMP) and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs). Based on morphological structure characterization and biocompatibility analysis, the inhibitory properties of AgNPs@AMP on Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) were evaluated. The results demonstrated that AMP and AgNPs were physically bound to form AgNPs@AMP nanoparticles, which had better solution stability, improved nanomaterial properties, and overcame the hemolytic activity of AMP and the cytotoxicity of AgNPs. The inhibitory activity of AgNPs@AMP against E. coli and S. aureus was significantly higher than that of AMP and AgNPs. It was capable of disrupting the morphology and internal structure of cells, damaging the cell membrane, and inhibiting the activity of enzymes related to the material-energy metabolism of the tricarboxylic acid cycle. Compared to AMP and AgNPs, AgNPs@AMP were found to effectively inhibit the infection of mouse wounds and promote their healing. Therefore, AMP-modified AgNPs can enhance their biocompatibility and antibacterial activity, and they can be further developed as a potential antimicrobial agent.

Targeting β Cells with Cathelicidin Nanomedicines Improves Insulin Function and Pancreas Regeneration in Type 1 Diabetic Rats

Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is an incurable condition with an increasing incidence worldwide, in which the hallmark is the autoimmune destruction of pancreatic insulin-producing β cells. Cathelicidin-based peptides have been shown to improve β cell function and neogenesis and may thus be relevant while developing T1D therapeutics. In this work, a cathelicidin-derived peptide, LLKKK18, was loaded in poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs), surface-functionalized with exenatide toward a GLP-1 receptor, aiming the β cell-targeted delivery of the peptide. The NPs present a mean size of around 100 nm and showed long-term stability, narrow size distribution, and negative ζ-potential (-10 mV). The LLKKK18 association efficiency and loading were 62 and 2.9%, respectively, presenting slow and sustained in vitro release under simulated physiologic fluids. Glucose-stimulated insulin release in the INS-1E cell line was observed in the presence of the peptide. In addition, NPs showed a strong association with β cells from isolated rat islets. After administration to diabetic rats, NPs induced a significant reduction of the hyperglycemic state, an improvement in the pancreatic insulin content, and glucose tolerance. Also remarkable, a considerable increase in the β cell mass in the pancreas was observed. Overall, this novel and versatile nanomedicine showed glucoregulatory ability and can pave the way for the development of a new generation of therapeutic approaches for T1D treatment.

Synthetic mucus biomaterials for antimicrobial peptide delivery

Despite the promise of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) as treatments for antibiotic-resistant infections, their therapeutic efficacy is limited due to the rapid degradation and low bioavailability of AMPs. To address this, we have developed and characterized a synthetic mucus (SM) biomaterial capable of delivering LL37 AMPs and enhancing their therapeutic effect. LL37 is an AMP that exhibits a wide range of antimicrobial activity against bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa. LL37 loaded SM hydrogels demonstrated controlled release with 70%-95% of loaded LL37 over 8 h due to charge-mediated interactions between mucins and LL37 AMPs. Compared to treatment with LL37 alone where antimicrobial activity was reduced after 3 h, LL37-SM hydrogels inhibited P. aeruginosa (PAO1) growth over 12 h. LL37-SM hydrogel treatment reduced PAO1 viability over 6 h whereas a rebound in bacterial growth was observed when treated with LL37 only. These data demonstrate LL37-SM hydrogels enhance antimicrobial activity by preserving LL37 AMP activity and bioavailability. Overall, this work establishes SM biomaterials as a platform for enhanced AMP delivery for antimicrobial applications.

Antimicrobial Peptide Conjugated on Graphene Oxide-Containing Sulfonated Polyetheretherketone Substrate for Effective Antibacterial Activities against Staphylococcus aureus

In the present study, the antimicrobial peptide nisin was successfully conjugated onto the surface of sulfonated polyetheretherketone (SPEEK), which was decorated with graphene oxide (GO) to investigate its biofilm resistance and antibacterial properties. The PEEK was activated with sulfuric acid, resulting in a porous structure. The GO deposition fully covered the porous SPEEK specimen. The nisin conjugation was accomplished using the crosslinker 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide (EDC) through a dip-coating method. The surface micrographs of the SPEEK-GO-nisin sample indicated that nisin formed discrete islets on the flat GO surface, allowing both the GO and nisin to perform a bactericidal effect. The developed materials were tested for bactericidal efficacy against Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus). The SPEEK-GO-nisin sample had the highest antibacterial activity with an inhibition zone diameter of 27 mm, which was larger than those of the SPEEK-nisin (19 mm) and SPEEK-GO (10 mm) samples. Conversely, no inhibitory zone was observed for the PEEK and SPEEK samples. The surface micrographs of the bacteria-loaded SPEEK-GO-nisin sample demonstrated no bacterial adhesion and no biofilm formation. The SPEEK-nisin and SPEEK-GO samples showed some bacterial attachment, whereas the pure PEEK and SPEEK samples had abundant bacterial colonies and thick biofilm formation. These results confirmed the good biofilm resistance and antibacterial efficacy of the SPEEK-GO-nisin sample, which is promising for implantable orthopedic applications.

Constructing ROS-Responsive Supramolecular Gel with Innate Antibacterial Properties

Bacterial infections, especially antibiotic-resistant bacterial infections, pose a significant threat to human health. Supramolecular gel with innate antibacterial properties is an advanced material for the treatment of bacterial infections, which have attracted great attention. Herein, a reactive oxygen species (ROS)-responsive innate antibacterial supramolecular gel is developed by a bottom-up approach based on phenylalanine and hydrazide with innate antibacterial properties. The structure of gelators and intermediate products was characterized by proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR) and a high-resolution mass spectrum (HRMS). The results of 1H NMR and the Fourier transform infrared spectrum (FT-IR) experiment disclosed that hydrogen bonding and the π-π stacking force are the important self-assembly driving forces of gelators. The microstructure and mechanical properties of gel were studied by Scanning electron microscope (SEM) and Rheometer, respectively. An in vitro degradation experiment proved that the gelator has ROS-responsive degradation properties. The in vitro drug release experiment further manifested that antibiotic-loaded gel has ROS-responsive drug-release performances. An in vitro cytotoxicity experiment showed that the supramolecular gel has good biocompatibility and could promote cell proliferation. The in vitro antibacterial experiment proved that the supramolecular gel has excellent inherent antibacterial properties, and the antibacterial rate against Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and Escherichia coli (E. coli) was 98.6% and 99.1%, respectively. The ROS-responsive supramolecular gel as a novel antibacterial agent has great application prospects in treating antibiotic-resistant bacterial-infected wounds and preventing the development of bacterial resistance.

Engineered biomimetic micro/nano-materials for tissue regeneration

The incidence of tissue and organ damage caused by various diseases is increasing worldwide. Tissue engineering is a promising strategy of tackling this problem because of its potential to regenerate or replace damaged tissues and organs. The biochemical and biophysical cues of biomaterials can stimulate and induce biological activities such as cell adhesion, proliferation and differentiation, and ultimately achieve tissue repair and regeneration. Micro/nano materials are a special type of biomaterial that can mimic the microstructure of tissues on a microscopic scale due to its precise construction, further providing scaffolds with specific three-dimensional structures to guide the activities of cells. The study and application of biomimetic micro/nano-materials have greatly promoted the development of tissue engineering. This review aims to provide an overview of the different types of micro/nanomaterials, their preparation methods and their application in tissue regeneration.

Synthetic Mucus Biomaterials for Antimicrobial Peptide Delivery

Despite the promise of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) as treatments for antibiotic-resistant infections, their therapeutic efficacy is limited due to the rapid degradation and low bioavailability of AMPs. To address this, we have developed and characterized a synthetic mucus (SM) biomaterial capable of delivering AMPs and enhancing their therapeutic effect. LL37 loaded SM hydrogels demonstrated controlled release of LL37 over 8 hours as a result of charge-mediated interactions between mucins and LL37 AMPs. Compared to treatment with LL37 alone where antimicrobial activity was reduced after 3 hours, LL37-SM hydrogels inhibited Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 growth over 12 hours. LL37-SM hydrogel treatment reduced PAO1 viability over 6 hours whereas a rebound in bacterial growth was observed when treated with LL37 only. These data demonstrate LL37-SM hydrogels enhance antimicrobial activity by preserving LL37 AMP activity and bioavailability. Overall, this work establishes SM biomaterials as a platform for enhanced AMP delivery for antimicrobial applications.

Peroxidase-like MoS2/Ag nanosheets with synergistically enhanced NIR-responsive antibacterial activities

Pathogenic microbial infections have been threatening public health all over the world, which makes it highly desirable to develop an antibiotics-free material for bacterial infection. In this paper, molybdenum disulfide (MoS₂) nanosheets loaded with silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) were constructed to inactive bacteria rapidly and efficiently in a short period under a near infrared (NIR) laser (660 nm) in the presence of H₂O₂. The designed material presented favorable features of peroxidase-like ability and photodynamic property, which endowed it with fascinating antimicrobial capacity. Compared with free MoS₂ nanosheets, the MoS₂/Ag nanosheets (denoted as MoS₂/Ag NSs) exhibited better antibacterial performance against Staphylococcus aureus by the generated reactive oxygen species (ROS) from both peroxidase-like catalysis and photodynamic, and the antibacterial efficiency of MoS₂/Ag NSs could be further improved by increasing the amount of Ag. Results from cell culture tests proved that MoS₂/Ag3 nanosheets had a negligible impact on cell growth. This work provided new insight into a promising method for eliminating bacteria without using antibiotics, and could serve as a candidate strategy for efficient disinfection to treat other bacterial infections.