Potential-Dependent Adlayer Structure and Dynamics at the Ionic Liquid/Au(111) Interface: A Molecular-Scale In Situ Video-STM Study

Understanding Electrolyte Ion Size Effects on the Performance of Conducting Metal-Organic Framework Supercapacitors

Layered metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have emerged as promising materials for next-generation supercapacitors. Understanding how and why electrolyte ion size impacts electrochemical performance is crucial for developing improved MOF-based devices. To address this, we investigate the energy storage performance of Cu3(HHTP)2 (HHTP = 2,3,6,7,10,11-hexahydroxytriphenylene) with a series of 1 M tetraalkylammonium tetrafluoroborate (TAABF4) electrolytes with different cation sizes. Three-electrode experiments show that Cu3(HHTP)2 exhibits an asymmetric charging response with all ion sizes, with higher energy storage upon positive charging and a greater charging asymmetry with larger TAA+ cations. The results further show that smaller TAA+ cations demonstrate superior capacitive performances upon both positive and negative charging compared to larger TAA+ cations. To gain further insights, electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance measurements were performed to probe ion electrosorption during charging and discharging. These reveal that Cu3(HHTP)2 has a cation-dominated charging mechanism, but interestingly indicate that the solvent also participates in the charging process with larger cations. Overall, the results of this study suggest that larger TAA+ cations saturate the pores of the Cu3(HHTP)2-based electrodes. This leads to more asymmetric charging behavior and forces solvent molecules to play a role in the charge storage mechanism. These findings significantly enhance our understanding of ion electrosorption in layered MOFs, and they will guide the design of improved MOF-based supercapacitors.

Nanostructure and Dynamics of Aprotic Ionic Liquids at Graphite Electrodes as a Function of Potential

Atomic force microscope (AFM) videos reveal the near-surface nanostructure and dynamics of the ionic liquids (ILs) 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium dicyanamide (BMIM DCA) and 1-hexyl-3-methylimidazolium dicyanamide (HMIM DCA) above highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) electrodes as a function of surface potential. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations reveal the molecular-level composition of the nanostructures. In combination, AFM and MD show that the near-surface aggregates form via solvophobic association of the cation alkyl chains at the electrode interface. The diffusion coefficients of interfacial nanostructures are ≈0.01 nm2 s-1 and vary with the cation alkyl chain length and the surface potential. For each IL, the nanostructure diffusion coefficients are similar at open-circuit potential (OCP) and OCP + 1V, but BMIM DCA moves about twice as fast as HMIM DCA. At negative potentials, the diffusion coefficient decreases for BMIM DCA and increases for HMIM DCA. When the surface potential is switched from negative to positive, a sudden change in the direction of the nanostructure motion is observed for both BMIM DCA and HMIM DCA. No transient dynamics are noted following other potential jumps. This study provides a new fundamental understanding regarding the dynamics of electrochemically stable ILs at electrodes vital for the rational development of IL-based electrochemical devices.

Relaxation Times of Ionic Liquids under Electrochemical Conditions Probed by Friction Force Microscopy

Ionic liquids (ILs) represent an important class of liquids considered for a broad range of applications such as lubrication, catalysis, or as electrolytes in batteries. It is well-known that in the case of charged surfaces, ILs form a pronounced layer structure that can be easily triggered by an externally applied electrode potential. Information about the time required to form a stable interface under varying electrode potentials is of utmost importance in many applications. For the first time, probing of relaxation times of ILs by friction force microscopy is demonstrated. The friction force is extremely sensitive to even subtle changes in the interfacial configuration of ILs. Various relaxation processes with different time scales are observed. A significant difference dependent on the direction of switching the applied potential, i.e., from a more cation-rich to a more anion-rich interface or vice versa, is found. Furthermore, variations in height immediately after the potential step and the presence of trace amounts of water are discussed as well.

Exploring the Charge Storage Dynamics in Donor-Acceptor Covalent Organic Frameworks Based Supercapacitors by Employing Ionic Liquid Electrolyte

Two donor-acceptor type tetrathiafulvalene (TTF)-based covalent organic frameworks (COFs) are investigated as electrodes for symmetric supercapacitors in different electrolytes, to understand the charge storage and dynamics in 2D COFs. Till-date, most COFs are investigated as Faradic redox pseudocapacitors in aqueous electrolytes. For the first time, it is tried to enhance the electrochemical performance and stability of pristine COF-based supercapacitors by operating them in the non-Faradaic electrochemically double layer capacitance region. It is found that the charge storage mechanism of ionic liquid (IL) electrolyte based supercapacitors is dependent on the micropore size and surface charge density of the donor-acceptor COFs. The surface charge density alters due to the different electron acceptor building blocks, which in turn influences the dense packing of the IL near its pore. The micropores induce pore confinement of IL in the COFs by partial breaking of coulomb ordering and rearranging it. The combination of these two factors enhance the charge storage in the highly microporous COFs. The density functional theory calculations support the same. At 1 A g-1 , TTF-porphyrin COF provides capacitance of 42, 70, and 130 F g-1 in aqueous, organic, and IL electrolyte respectively. TTF-diamine COF shows a similar trend with 100 F g-1 capacitance in IL.

Influence of Residual Water Traces on the Electrochemical Performance of Hydrophobic Ionic Liquids for Magnesium-Containing Electrolytes

A trace amount of water is typically unavoidable as an impurity in ionic liquids, which is a huge challenge for their application in Mg-ion batteries. Here, we employed molecular sieves of different pore diameters (3, 4, and 5 Å), to effectively remove the trace amounts of water from 1-methyl-1-propylpiperidinium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide (MPPip-TFSI) and 1-butyl-1-methylpyrrolidinium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide (BMP-TFSI). Notably, after sieving (water content <1 mg ⋅ L-1 ), new anodic peaks arise that are attributed to the formation of different anion-cation structures induced by minimizing the influence of hydrogen bonds. Furthermore, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) reveals that the electrolyte resistance decreases by ∼10 % for MPPip-TFSI and by ∼28 % for BMP-TFSI after sieving. The electrochemical Mg deposition/dissolution is investigated in MPPip-TFSI/tetraglyme (1 : 1)+100 mM Mg(TFSI)2 +10 mM Mg(BH4 )2 using Ag/AgCl and Mg reference electrodes. The presence of a trace amount of water leads to a considerable shift of 0.9 V vs. Mg2+/ Mg in the overpotential of Mg deposition. In contrast, drying of MPPip-TFSI enhances the reversibility of Mg deposition/dissolution and suppresses the passivation of the Mg electrode.

Structure Formation in an Ionic Liquid Wetting Layer: A Combined STM, IRAS, DFT and MD Study of [C2 C1 Im][OTf] on Au(111)

In a solid catalyst with ionic liquid layer (SCILL), ionic liquid (IL) coatings are used to improve the selectivity of noble metal catalysts. To understand the origins of this selectivity control, we performed model studies by surface science methods in ultrahigh vacuum (UHV). We investigated the growth and thermal stability of ultrathin IL films by infrared reflection absorption spectroscopy (IRAS). We combined these experiments with scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) to obtain information on the orientation of the ions, the interactions with the surface, the intermolecular interactions, and the structure formation. Additionally, we performed DFT calculations and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to interpret the experimental data. We studied the IL 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium trifluoromethanesulfonate [C2 C1 Im][OTf] on Au(111) surfaces. We observe a weakly bound multilayer of [C2 C1 Im][OTf], which is stable up to 390 K, while the monolayer desorbs at ∼450 K. [C2 C1 Im][OTf] preferentially adsorbs at the step edges and elbows of the herringbone reconstruction of Au(111). The anion adsorbs via the SO3 group with the molecular axis perpendicular to the surface. At low coverage, the [C2 C1 Im][OTf] crystallizes in a glass-like 2D phase with short-range order. At higher coverage, we observe a phase transition to a 6-membered ring structure with long-range order.

In Situ Monitoring of the Surface Evolution of a Silver Electrode from Polycrystalline to Well-Defined Structures

Capturing the surface-structural dynamics of metal electrocatalysts under certain electrochemical environments is intriguingly desired for understanding the behavior of various metal-based electrocatalysts. However, in situ monitoring of the evolution of a polycrystalline metal surface at the interface of electrode-electrolyte solutions at negative/positive potentials with high-resolution scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) is seldom. Here, we use electrochemical STM (EC-STM) for in situ monitoring of the surface evolution process of a silver electrode in both an aqueous sodium hydroxide solution and an ionic liquid of 1-methyl-1-octylpyrrolidinium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl) amide driven by negative potentials. We found silver underwent a surface change from a polycrystalline structure to a well-defined surface arrangement in both electrolytes. In NaOH aqueous solution, the silver surface transferred in several minutes at a turning-point potential where hydrogen adsorbed and formed mainly (111) and (100) pits. Controversially, the surface evolution in the ionic liquid was much slower than that in the aqueous solution, and cation adsorption was observed in a wide potential range. The surface evolution of silver is proposed to be linked to the surface adsorbates as well as the formation of their complexes with undercoordinated silver atoms. The results also show that cathodic annealing of polycrystalline silver is a cheap, easy, and reliable way to obtain quasi-ordered crystal surfaces.

Probing the Synergistic Effects of Mg2+ on CO2 Reduction Reaction on CoPc by In Situ Electrochemical Scanning Tunneling Microscopy

We report herein the in situ electrochemical scanning tunneling microscopy (ECSTM) study on the synergistic effect of Mg²⁺ in CO₂ reduction reaction (CO₂RR) catalyzed by cobalt phthalocyanine (CoPc). ECSTM measurement molecularly resolves the self-assembled CoPc monolayer on the Au(111) substrate. In the CO₂ environment, high-contrast species are observed in the adlayer and assigned to the CO₂ adsorption on CoPc. Furthermore, the contrast of the CO₂-bound complex is higher in Mg²⁺-containing electrolytes than in Mg²⁺-free electrolytes, indicating the formation of the CoPc-CO₂-Mg²⁺ complex. The surface coverage of adsorbed CO₂ is positively correlated with the Mg²⁺ concentration as the additive in electrolytes up to a plateau of 30.8 ± 2.7% when c(Mg²⁺) > 30 mM. The potential step experiment indicates the higher CO₂ adsorption dynamics in Mg²⁺-containing electrolytes than without Mg²⁺. The rate constants of CO₂ adsorption and dissociation in different electrolytes are extracted from the data fitting of statistical results from in situ ECSTM experiments.

Applying Classical, Ab Initio, and Machine-Learning Molecular Dynamics Simulations to the Liquid Electrolyte for Rechargeable Batteries

Rechargeable batteries have become indispensable implements in our daily life and are considered a promising technology to construct sustainable energy systems in the future. The liquid electrolyte is one of the most important parts of a battery and is extremely critical in stabilizing the electrode-electrolyte interfaces and constructing safe and long-life-span batteries. Tremendous efforts have been devoted to developing new electrolyte solvents, salts, additives, and recipes, where molecular dynamics (MD) simulations play an increasingly important role in exploring electrolyte structures, physicochemical properties such as ionic conductivity, and interfacial reaction mechanisms. This review affords an overview of applying MD simulations in the study of liquid electrolytes for rechargeable batteries. First, the fundamentals and recent theoretical progress in three-class MD simulations are summarized, including classical, ab initio, and machine-learning MD simulations (section 2). Next, the application of MD simulations to the exploration of liquid electrolytes, including probing bulk and interfacial structures (section 3), deriving macroscopic properties such as ionic conductivity and dielectric constant of electrolytes (section 4), and revealing the electrode-electrolyte interfacial reaction mechanisms (section 5), are sequentially presented. Finally, a general conclusion and an insightful perspective on current challenges and future directions in applying MD simulations to liquid electrolytes are provided. Machine-learning technologies are highlighted to figure out these challenging issues facing MD simulations and electrolyte research and promote the rational design of advanced electrolytes for next-generation rechargeable batteries.

Elucidating Curvature-Capacitance Relationships in Carbon-Based Supercapacitors

Nanoscale surface curvatures, either convex or concave, strongly influence the charging behavior of supercapacitors. Rationalizing individual influences of electrode atoms to the capacitance is possible by interpreting distinct elements of the charge-charge covariance matrix derived from individual charge variations of the electrode atoms. An ionic liquid solvated in acetonitrile and confined between two electrodes, each consisting of three undulated graphene layers, serves as a demonstrator to illustrate pronounced and nontrivial features of the capacitance with respect to the electrode curvature. In addition, the applied voltage determines whether a convex or concave surface contributes to increased capacitance. While at lower voltages capacitance variations are in general correlated with ion number density variations in the double layer formed in the concave region of the electrode, for certain electrode designs a surprisingly strong contribution of the convex part to the differential capacitance is found both at higher and lower voltages.

Nanostructure, electrochemistry and potential-dependent lubricity of the catanionic surface-active ionic liquid [P6,6,6,14] [AOT]

HYPOTHESIS

A catanionic surface-active ionic liquid (SAIL) trihexyltetradecylphosphonium 1,4-bis(2-ethylhexoxy)-1,4-dioxobutane-2-sulfonate ([P_6,6,6,14] [AOT]) is nanostructured in the bulk and at the interface. The interfacial nanostructure and lubricity may be changed by applying a potential.

EXPERIMENTS

The bulk structure and viscosity have been investigated using small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and rheometry. The interfacial structure and lubricity as a function of potential have been investigated using atomic force microscopy (AFM). The electrochemistry has been investigated using cyclic voltammetry.

FINDINGS

[P_6,6,6,14] [AOT] shows sponge-like bulk nanostructure with distinct interdigitation of cation-anion alkyl chains. Shear-thinning occurs at 293 K and below, but becomes less obvious on heating up to 313 K. Voltammetric analysis reveals that the electrochemical window of [P_6,6,6,14] [AOT] on a gold micro disk electrode exceeds the potential range of the AFM experiments and that negligible redox activity occurs in this range. The interfacial layered structure of [P_6,6,6,14] [AOT] is weaker than conventional ILs and SAILs, whereas lubricity is better, confirming the inverse correlation between the near-surface structure and lubricity. The adhesive forces of [P_6,6,6,14] [AOT] are lower at -1.0 V than at open circuit potential and +1.0 V, likely due to reduced electrostatic interactions caused by shielding of charge centres via long alkyl chains.

CD Stretching Modes are Sensitive to the Microenvironment in Ionic Liquids

Knowledge of the structure of the electrical double layer in ionic liquids (IL) is crucial for their applications in electrochemical technologies. We report the synthesis and applicability of an imidazolium‐based amphiphilic ionic liquid with a perdeuterated alkyl chain for studies of electric potential‐dependent rearrangements, and changes in the microenvironment in a monolayer on a Au(111) surface. Electrochemical measurements show two states of the organization of ions on the electrode surface. In situ IR spectroscopy shows that the alkyl chains in imidazolium cations change their orientation depending on the adsorption state. The methylene‐d₂ stretching modes in the perdeuterated IL display a reversible, potential‐dependent appearance of a new band. The presence of this mode also depends on the anion in the IL. Supported by quantum chemical calculations, this new mode is assigned to a second ν_as(CD₂) band in alkyl‐chain fragments embedded in a polar environment of the anions/solvent present in the vicinity of the imidazolium cation and electrode. It is a measure of the potential‐dependent segregation between polar and nonpolar environments in the layers of an IL closest to the electrode.

Interfacial interactions and structures of protic ionic liquids on a graphite surface: A first-principles study and comparison with aprotic ionic liquids

Protic ionic liquids (PILs) have currently been indicated as promising alternative electrolytes in electrical storage devices, such as lithium-ion batteries and supercapacitors. However, compared with the well-studied aprotic ionic liquids (AILs), the knowledge of the interface between PILs and electrode material surfaces is very rare to date. In this work, the adsorption behaviors of three groups of PILs, i.e. pyrrolidinium-based, imidazolium-based, and ammonium-based, on graphite was systematically investigated using first-principles calculations. The corresponding AILs were also taken into account for comparison. The adsorption mechanism of these ILs on the surface is controlled by the interplay of strong electrostatic interactions between adsorbed ions, weak vdW forces between ILs and substrate, and many aromatic interactions including π-π stacking and C-H/N-Hπ contacts. PILs do show quite different preferential interfacial interactions and structures on the graphite surface with respect to AILs, arising mainly from the anion-substrate interactions. Particularly, proton transfer takes place in the PILs consisting of the imidazolium/ammonium cation and the nitrate anion in the gas phase, but it tends to be attenuated or even disappears on graphite caused by interfacial interactions.

Electrodeposition of Zinc onto Au(111) and Au(100) from the Ionic Liquid [MPPip][TFSI]

The improvement of rechargeable zinc/air batteries was a hot topic in recent years. Predominantly, the influence of water and additives on the structure of the Zn deposit and the possible dendrite formation were studied. However, the effect of the surface structure of the underlying substrate was not focused on in detail, yet. We now show the differences in electrochemical deposition of Zn onto Au(111) and Au(100) from the ionic liquid N‐methyl‐N‐propylpiperidinium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide. The fundamental processes were initially characterized via cyclic voltammetry and in situ scanning tunnelling microscopy. Bulk deposits were then examined using Auger electron spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy. Different structures of Zn deposits are observed during the initial stages of electrocrystallisation on both electrodes, which reveals the strong influence of the crystallographic orientation on the metal deposition of zinc on gold.

Evaluation of static differential capacitance at the [C4mim+][TFSA-]/electrode interface using molecular dynamics simulation combined with electrochemical surface plasmon resonance measurements

Molecular dynamic (MD) simulations have been performed for 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)amide ([C₄mim⁺][TFSA^-]), an ionic liquid (IL), on a charged graphene electrode to achieve the quantitative analysis of the static differential capacitance using the electrochemical surface plasmon resonance (ESPR). The MD simulations have provided the surface charge density on the electrode and ionic distributions in the electric double layer, both of which are indispensable for the evaluation of static differential capacitance using ESPR but are difficult to be measured by experimental techniques. This approach has allowed the quantitative analysis and explanation of the SPR angle shift in ESPR. The major contribution to the SPR angle shift is found to be the change in ionic concentrations of the first ionic layer on the electrode, owing to higher polarizabilities of ions in the first ionic layer than those in the overlayers. Moreover, the ionic orientation on the electrode and ionic multilayer structure have also been investigated in detail. The butyl group of C₄mim⁺ in the first ionic layer is found to provide extra room for C₄mim⁺ in the second ionic layer but exclude TFSA^-, which affects the interval and regularity of ionic multilayers.

Characterization of the Interface Structure of 1-Ethyl-2,3-alkylimidazolium Bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide on a Au(111) Surface with Molecular Dynamics Simulations

As a new type of green electrolyte, ionic liquids have been extensively and successfully used in electrochemical systems. It is extremely important to understand the structure and characteristics of their electric double layers. The microscopic structures of room-temperature ionic liquids 1-ethyl-2,3-dimethylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide ([Emmim]TFSI) and 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide ([Emim]TFSI) were studied on a flat Au(111) surface using molecular dynamics simulations. Since the interactions of [Emmim]TFSI, [Emmim]⁺, and TFSI^- with the Au(111) surface are stronger than those of molecules (or ions) in the [Emim]TFSI system, the linear arrangement of [Emmim]TFSI and the worm-like pattern of the [Emim]TFSI system can be found near the Au(111) surface. Meanwhile, cations are all parallel to the electrode in the [Emmim]TFSI/Au(111) system and tilted toward the surface in the [Emim]TFSI/Au(111) system. TFSI^- presents trans and cis conformations in [Emim]TFSI and [Emmim]TFSI systems adjacent to Au(111), respectively. A Helmholtz-like layer structure with alternating oscillations of anionic and cationic layers can be found in the [Emim]TFSI system, while the molecular layer with cations and anions existing simultaneously can be found in [Emmim]TFSI. Our results confirm that the substitution of hydrogen on C1 by methyl groups in the imidazole ring increases the interaction between the particles. It has also been proved that the change in the anion conformation and cation orientation in the [Emmim]TFSI system can be attributed to the different interaction energies of various particles. The above reasons ultimately make the images on Au(111) different in the two systems. The results provide a new perspective for studying the structure of double layers. They are helpful in deepening the understanding of the interface behavior of ionic liquids and providing a theoretical basis for the design of functional ionic liquids that are suitable for electrochemical equipment.

Enrichment effects of ionic liquid mixtures at polarized electrode interfaces monitored by potential screening

The behavior of ionic liquids (ILs) at charged interfaces is pivotal for their application in supercapacitors and electrochemical cells. Recently, we demonstrated for neat ILs that potential screening at polarized electrode interfaces shows a characteristic voltage dependence, as determined in situ by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Herein, we use this fingerprint-type behavior to characterize the nature of the IL/electrode interfaces for IL mixtures of [C₈C₁Im][Tf₂N] and [C₈C₁Im]Cl on Au and Pt electrodes. For Au, the IL/electrode interfaces are dominated by the Cl⁻ anions, even down to a 0.1 mol% [C₈C₁Im]Cl content. In contrast, [Tf₂N]⁻ anions enrich at the IL/Pt electrode interfaces down to 10 mol% [C₈C₁Im][Tf₂N]; only at lower concentrations does a transition to Cl⁻ enrichment occur. These mixture studies demonstrate that even small concentrations of another IL or contamination, e.g. remaining from synthesis, can strongly influence the situation at charged IL interfaces.

The interface of electrodes and IL mixtures has been studied by in situ XPS. We found that the concentration of counterions at the interface can strongly deviate from the bulk composition due to interactions between electrode and IL.

Probing CO2 Reduction Pathways for Copper Catalysis Using an Ionic Liquid as a Chemical Trapping Agent

The key to fully leveraging the potential of the electrochemical CO2 reduction reaction (CO2RR) to achieve a sustainable solar-power-based economy is the development of high-performance electrocatalysts. The development process relies heavily on trial and error methods due to poor mechanistic understanding of the reaction. Demonstrated here is that ionic liquids (ILs) can be employed as a chemical trapping agent to probe CO2RR mechanistic pathways. This method is implemented by introducing a small amount of an IL ([BMIm][NTf2 ]) to a copper foam catalyst, on which a wide range of CO2RR products, including formate, CO, alcohols, and hydrocarbons, can be produced. The IL can selectively suppress the formation of ethylene, ethanol and n-propanol while having little impact on others. Thus, reaction networks leading to various products can be disentangled. The results shed new light on the mechanistic understanding of the CO2RR, and provide guidelines for modulating the CO2RR properties. Chemical trapping using an IL adds to the toolbox to deduce the mechanistic understanding of electrocatalysis and could be applied to other reactions as well.

Quantifying the Ultraslow Desorption Kinetics of 2,6-Naphthalenedicarboxylic Acid Monolayers at Liquid-Solid Interfaces

Kinetic effects in monolayer self-assembly at liquid-solid interfaces are not well explored but can provide unique insights. We use variable-temperature scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) to quantify the desorption kinetics of 2,6-naphthalenedicarboxylic acid (NDA) monolayers at nonanoic acid-graphite interfaces. Quantitative tracking of the decline of molecular coverages by STM between 57.5 and 65.0 °C unveiled single-exponential decays over the course of days. An Arrhenius plot of rate constants derived from fits results in a surprisingly high energy barrier of 208 kJ mol^-1 that strongly contrasts with the desorption energy of 16.4 kJ mol^-1 with respect to solution as determined from a Born-Haber cycle. This vast discrepancy indicates a high-energy transition state. Expanding these studies to further systems is the key to pinpointing the molecular origin of the remarkably large NDA desorption barrier.

Potential-Induced Adsorption and Structuring of Water at the Pt(111) Electrode Surface in Contact with an Ionic Liquid

Water adsorption is important in many fields from surface electrochemistry to electrocatalysis, where molecular-level information is much needed in order to gain a detailed understanding of the role of interfacial water. Here we report on water at Pt(111) surfaces in contact with an [EIMIM][BF₄] ionic liquid, which was spectroscopically resolved by using in situ sum-frequency generation (SFG). O-H modes are used to study water adsorption and water structure as a function of electrode potential, while the analysis of C-H modes is used to infer orientational changes of [EMIM] cations at the interface. Different from the bulk where free water molecules are found, SFG spectra provide evidence that an interfacial layer with an extended network of hydrogen-bonded water molecules exists and grows with increasing absolute potential which is used to identify the potential of zero charge at +0.1 V SHE, where a pronounced minimum in O-H intensity is found.

Atomic Force and Scanning Tunneling Microscopy of Ordered Ionic Liquid Wetting Layers from 110 K up to Room Temperature

Ionic liquids (ILs) are used as ultrathin films in many applications. We studied the nanoscale arrangement within the first layer of 1,3-dimethylimidazolium bis[(trifluoromethyl)sulfonyl]imide ([C₁C₁Im] [Tf₂N]) on Au(111) between 400 and 110 K in ultrahigh vacuum by scanning tunneling and noncontact atomic force microscopy with molecular resolution. Compared to earlier studies on similar ILs, a different behavior is observed, which we attribute to the small size and symmetrical shape of the cation: (a) In both AFM and STM only the anions are imaged; (b) only long-range-ordered but no amorphous phases are observed; (c) the hexagonal room-temperature phase melts 30-50 K above the IL's bulk melting point; (d) at 110 K, striped and hexagonal superstructures with two and three ion pairs per unit cell, respectively, are found. AFM turned out to be more stable at higher temperature, while STM revealed more details at low temperature.

Microstructural and Dynamical Heterogeneities in Ionic Liquids

Ionic liquids (ILs) are a special category of molten salts solely composed of ions with varied molecular symmetry and charge delocalization. The versatility in combining varied cation-anion moieties and in functionalizing ions with different atoms and molecular groups contributes to their peculiar interactions ranging from weak isotropic associations to strong, specific, and anisotropic forces. A delicate interplay among intra- and intermolecular interactions facilitates the formation of heterogeneous microstructures and liquid morphologies, which further contributes to their striking dynamical properties. Microstructural and dynamical heterogeneities of ILs lead to their multifaceted properties described by an inherent designer feature, which makes ILs important candidates for novel solvents, electrolytes, and functional materials in academia and industrial applications. Due to a massive number of combinations of ion pairs with ion species having distinct molecular structures and IL mixtures containing varied molecular solvents, a comprehensive understanding of their hierarchical structural and dynamical quantities is of great significance for a rational selection of ILs with appropriate properties and thereafter advancing their macroscopic functionalities in applications. In this review, we comprehensively trace recent advances in understanding delicate interplay of strong and weak interactions that underpin their complex phase behaviors with a particular emphasis on understanding heterogeneous microstructures and dynamics of ILs in bulk liquids, in mixtures with cosolvents, and in interfacial regions.

In Situ Scanning Tunneling Microscopy of Cobalt-Phthalocyanine-Catalyzed CO2 Reduction Reaction

We report a molecular investigation of a cobalt phthalocyanine (CoPc)-catalyzed CO₂ reduction reaction by electrochemical scanning tunneling microscopy (ECSTM). An ordered adlayer of CoPc was prepared on Au(111). Approximately 14 % of the adsorbed species appeared with high contrast in a CO₂ -purged electrolyte environment. The ECSTM experiments indicate the proportion of high-contrast species correlated with the reduction of Co^II Pc (-0.2 V vs. saturated calomel electrode (SCE)). The high-contrast species is ascribed to the CoPc-CO₂ complex, which is further confirmed by theoretical simulation. The sharp contrast change from CoPc-CO₂ to CoPc is revealed by in situ ECSTM characterization of the reaction. Potential step experiments provide dynamic information for the initial stage of the reaction, which include the reduction of CoPc and the binding of CO₂ , and the latter is the rate-limiting step. The rate constant of the formation and dissociation of CoPc-CO₂ is estimated on the basis of the in situ ECSTM experiment.

Nanoporous carbon for electrochemical capacitive energy storage

This review summarizes the recent advances of nanoporous carbon materials in the application of EDLCs, including a better understanding of the charge storage mechanisms by combining the advanced techniques and simulations methods.

Potential Screening at Electrode/Ionic Liquid Interfaces from In Situ X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy

A new approach to investigate potential screening at the interface of ionic liquids (ILs) and charged electrodes in a two-electrode electrochemical cell by in situ X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy has been introduced. Using identical electrodes, we deduce the potential screening at the working and the counter electrodes as a function of applied voltage from the potential change of the bulk IL, as derived from corresponding core level binding energy shifts for different IL/electrode combinations. For imidazolium-based ILs and Pt electrodes, we find a significantly larger potential screening at the anode than at the cathode, which we attribute to strong attractive interactions between the imidazolium cation and Pt. In the absence of specific ion/electrode interactions, asymmetric potential screening only occurs for ILs with different cation and anion sizes as demonstrated for an imidazolium chloride IL and Au electrodes, which we assign to the different thicknesses of the electrical double layers. Our results imply that potential screening in ILs is mainly established by a single layer of counterions at the electrode.

O2 reduction on a Au film electrode in an ionic liquid in the absence and presence of Mg2+ ions: Product formation and adlayer dynamics

Aiming at a detailed understanding of the interaction between an ionic liquid, O₂, and electrodes in Mg-air batteries, we performed a combined differential electrochemical mass spectrometry and in situ infrared spectroscopy model study on the interaction between the ionic liquid (IL) 1-butyl-1-methylpyrrolidinium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl) imide (BMP-TFSI) and a gold film electrode in the presence and absence of O₂ and Mg²⁺ ions in the potential range relevant for the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and evolution reaction. Detailed information on the dynamic exchange of adsorbed ions, on the stability/decomposition of the ionic liquid, and on the activity/selectivity/reversibility of the ORR is derived from measurements performed under potentiodynamic and potentiostatic conditions. In neat BMP-TFSI, we find the dynamics of the potential induced exchange of adsorbed ions to depend significantly on the exchange direction. In the presence of O₂, the anions formed in the ORR distinctly affect the adsorption characteristics of the IL ions and the exchange dynamics. Furthermore, the ORR changes from reduction to superoxide anions at moderate potentials to reduction to peroxide anion at more negative potentials. In the additional presence of Mg²⁺ ions, dominant magnesium peroxide and oxide formation result in an irreversible ORR, in contrast to the requirements of an efficient re-chargeable Mg-air battery. In addition, these ions result in the increasing formation of a blocking adlayer, reducing the coverage of adsorbed IL species.

Electrowetting of Ionic Liquid on Graphite: Probing via in Situ Electrochemical X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy

Thin films of ionic liquid 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(fluoromethylsulfonyl)imide ([EMIm][FSI]) vapor-deposited on highly oriented pyrographite (HOPG) were studied by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and atomic force microscopy. The results revealed a reversible morphological transition from a "drop-on-layer" structure to a "flat-layer" structure at positive, and not at negative, polarization. The effect is rationalized in terms of electric-field-induced reduction of the liquid-solid transition temperature in the ionic liquid film, when its thickness is comparable to the charge screening length. The observed bias asymmetry of [EMIm][FSI] electrowetting on HOPG is tentatively explained by the bilayer structure at the interface driven by the affinity of the imidazolium ring to the HOPG surface.

In Situ Tracking of Organic Reactions at the Vapor/Liquid Interfaces of Ionic Liquids

The molecular structures of ionic liquids at interfaces play a crucial role in determining their chemical activities in applications. In situ X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was used to track the evolution of X-ray irradiation-induced chemical reactions in a series of ionic liquids ([C_n mim][AuCl₄ ]; n=4, 6, 8, 10) on the Si (111) single-crystal surface. Analyses of microstructure and chemical bonding based on the XPS results indicated that reactions occurred at the vapor/liquid interfaces of the ionic liquids. The time-resolved XPS spectra revealed that with increasing irradiation time, the intensity of the peak corresponding to trivalent Au anion decreased for the four ionic liquids as Au was continually reduced to a lower chemical state and finally converted to gold nanoparticles. The rate and conversion of the reaction were associated with the length of the alkyl chain of the ionic liquids cation. Molecular dynamics simulations further revealed that the alkyl chain of the cation in the ionic liquids was oriented towards the vacuum environment at the vapor/liquid interface. Our results provide a real-time atomic-scale experimental evidence of organic reactions at the vapor/liquid interfaces of ionic liquids. The findings are important for understanding the roles of ionic liquids in catalysis, separation, electrochemistry, functional materials, and so on.

Structure formation and surface chemistry of ionic liquids on model electrode surfaces-Model studies for the electrode | electrolyte interface in Li-ion batteries

Ionic liquids (ILs) are considered as attractive electrolyte solvents in modern battery concepts such as Li-ion batteries. Here we present a comprehensive review of the results of previous model studies on the interaction of the battery relevant IL 1-butyl-1-methylpyrrolidinium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide ([BMP]⁺[TFSI]^-) with a series of structurally and chemically well-defined model electrode surfaces, which are increasingly complex and relevant for battery applications [Ag(111), Au(111), Cu(111), pristine and lithiated highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG), and rutile TiO₂(110)]. Combining surface science techniques such as high resolution scanning tunneling microscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy for characterizing surface structure and chemical composition in deposited (sub-)monolayer adlayers with dispersion corrected density functional theory based calculations, this work aims at a molecular scale understanding of the fundamental processes at the electrode | electrolyte interface, which are crucial for the development of the so-called solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer in batteries. Performed under idealized conditions, in an ultrahigh vacuum environment, these model studies provide detailed insights on the structure formation in the adlayer, the substrate-adsorbate and adsorbate-adsorbate interactions responsible for this, and the tendency for chemically induced decomposition of the IL. To mimic the situation in an electrolyte, we also investigated the interaction of adsorbed IL (sub-)monolayers with coadsorbed lithium. Even at 80 K, postdeposited Li is found to react with the IL, leading to decomposition products such as LiF, Li₃N, Li₂S, Li_xSO_y, and Li₂O. In the absence of a [BMP]⁺[TFSI]^- adlayer, it tends to adsorb, dissolve, or intercalate into the substrate (metals, HOPG) or to react with the substrate (TiO₂) above a critical temperature, forming LiO_x and Ti³⁺ species in the latter case. Finally, the formation of stable decomposition products was found to sensitively change the equilibrium between surface Li and Li⁺ intercalated in the bulk, leading to a deintercalation from lithiated HOPG in the presence of an adsorbed IL adlayer at >230 K. Overall, these results provide detailed insights into the surface chemistry at the solid | electrolyte interface and the initial stages of SEI formation at electrode surfaces in the absence of an applied potential, which is essential for the further improvement of future Li-ion batteries.

Tuning the Electrocatalytic Performance of Ionic Liquid Modified Pt Catalysts for the Oxygen Reduction Reaction via Cationic Chain Engineering

Modifying Pt catalysts using hydrophobic ionic liquids (ILs) has been demonstrated to be a facile approach for boosting the performance of Pt catalysts for the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR). This work aims to deepen the understanding and initiate a rational molecular tuning of ILs for improved activity and stability. To this end, Pt/C catalysts were modified using a variety of 1-methyl-3-alkylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide ([C _n C₁im][NTf₂], n = 2-10) ILs with varying alkyl chain lengths in imidazolium cations, and the electrocatalytic properties (e.g., electrochemically active surface area, catalytic activity, and stability) of the resultant catalysts were systematically investigated. We found that ILs with long cationic chains (C6, C10) efficiently suppressed the formation of nonreactive oxygenated species on Pt; however, at the same time they blocked active Pt sites and led to a lower electrochemically active surface area. It is also disclosed that the catalytic activity strongly correlates with the alkyl chain length of cations, and a distinct dependence of intrinsic activity on the alkyl chain length was identified, with the maximum activity obtained on Pt/C-[C₄C₁im][NTf₂]. The optimum arises from the counterbalance between more efficient suppression of oxygenated species formation on Pt surfaces and more severe passivation of Pt surfaces with elongation of the alkyl chain length in imidazolium cations. Moreover, the presence of an IL can also improve the electrochemical stability of Pt catalysts by suppressing the Pt dissolution, as revealed by combined identical-location transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and in situ inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) analyses.

Emerging tools for studying single entity electrochemistry

Electrochemistry studies charge transfer and related processes at various microscopic structures (atomic steps, islands, pits and kinks on electrodes), and mesoscopic materials (nanoparticles, nanowires, viruses, vesicles and cells) made by nature and humans, involving ions and molecules. The traditional approach measures averaged electrochemical quantities of a large ensemble of these individual entities, including the microstructures, mesoscopic materials, ions and molecules. There is a need to develop tools to study single entities because a real system is usually heterogeneous, e.g., containing nanoparticles with different sizes and shapes. Even in the case of "homogeneous" molecules, they bind to different microscopic structures of an electrode, assume different conformations and fluctuate over time, leading to heterogeneous reactions. Here we highlight some emerging tools for studying single entity electrochemistry, discuss their strengths and weaknesses, and provide personal views on the need for tools with new capabilities for further advancing single entity electrochemistry.

Quantitative Determining of Ultra-Trace Aluminum Ion in Environmental Samples by Liquid Phase Microextraction Assisted Anodic Stripping Voltammetry

Direct detecting of trace amount Al(III) in aqueous solution by stripping voltammetry is often frustrated by its irreversible reduction, resided at &minus;1.75 V (vs. Ag/AgCl reference), which is in a proximal potential of proton reduction. Here, we described an electroanalytical approach, combined with liquid phase microextraction (LPME) using ionic liquid (IL), to quantitatively assess trace amount aluminum in environmental samples. The Al(III) was caged by 8-hydroxyquinoline, forming a superb hydrophobic metal⁻chelate, which sequentially transfers and concentrates in the bottom layer of IL-phase during LPME. The preconcentrated Al(III) was further analyzed by a square-wave anodic stripping voltammetry (SW-ASV). The resulting Al-deposited electrodes were characterized by scanning electron microscopy and powder X-ray diffraction, showing the intriguing amorphous nanostructures. The method developed provides a linear calibration ranging from 0.1 to 1.2 ng L^&minus;1 with a correlation coefficient of 0.9978. The LOD attains as low as 1 pmol L^&minus;1, which reaches the lowest report for Al(III) detection using electroanalytical techniques. The applicable methodology was implemented for monitoring Al(III) in commercial distilled water.