Subversion of the chemokine world by microbial pathogens

Chemokine-targeted nanoparticles: stimulation of the immune system in cancer immunotherapy

Surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and immunotherapy are potential therapeutic choices for many malignant and metastatic cancers. Despite adverse side effects and pain, surgery and chemotherapy continue to be the most common cancer treatments. However, patients treated with immunotherapy had better cancer control than those who got other treatments. There are two methods to activate immunological pathways: systemically and locally. To modify the tumor microenvironment (TME), the former uses systemic cytokine/chemokine (CK) delivery, whilst the latter uses immunological checkpoints or small molecule inhibitors. Organic and inorganic nanomaterials (NMs) enhanced the efficacy of cancer immunotherapy. NMs can transmit drugs, peptides, antigens, antibodies, whole cell membranes, etc. Surface-modified NMs precisely target and enter the tissues. The inner core of surface-modified NMs is composed of chemicals with limited bioavailability and biocompatibility, resulting in prolonged blood retention and decreased renal clearance. These platforms hinder or prevent many immune cell activities and modify the TME, enhancing the efficiency of cancer immunotherapy. By inhibiting CK/CK receptor signaling, cell migration and other immune responses could be controlled. Developing CK-targeted nanoparticles (NPs) that inhibit CK signaling or take advantage of the ligand-receptor connection is possible. Surface chemical modification of NMs with CKs or specific peptides has several medicinal applications, including tissue-specific drug delivery and limited cell migration in cancer-afflicted conditions. This review covers current developments in the role of different groups of CK-loaded NP in tumor therapy targeting immune cells and cancer. It also covers the role of NP targeting CK signaling which aids in immunogenic cell death (ICD) and induction of antitumor immunity. In addition, CK gene silencing and its capacity to prevent cancer metastasis as well as inhibition of immune cell migration to modulate the TME are discussed.

Analysis of Manifestation of CC and CXC Chemokine Genes in Olive Flounders (Paralichthys olivaceus) Artificially Infected with VHSV during the Early Developmental Stage

Chemokines is a small protein that plays a major role in inflammatory reactions and viral infections as a chemotactic factor of cytokines involved in innate immunity. Most of the chemokines belong to the chemokine groups CC and CXC. To investigate the immune system of the olive flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus), an expression pattern specifically induced in the early developmental stages of analysis is examined using qRT-PCR. We also examined tissue-specific expression of both CC and CXC chemokine in healthy olive flounder samples. CC and CXC chemokine shows increased expression after immune-related organs are formed compared to expression during early development. CC chemokine was more highly expressed in the fin, but CXC chemokine showed higher expression in the gills, spleen, intestines, and stomach. Spatial and temporal expression analysis of CC and CXC chemokine were performed following viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) infection. CC chemokine showed high expression in the gills, which are respiratory organs, whereas CXC chemokine was more highly expressed in the kidneys, an immune-related organ. These results suggest that CC and CXC chemokine play an important role in the immune response of the olive flounder, and may be used as basic data for the immunological activity and gene analysis of it as well as other fish.

Molecular characterization and expression analysis of nine CC chemokines in half-smooth tongue sole, Cynoglossus semilaevis

Chemokines are a large, diverse group of small cytokines that can be classified into several families, including the CC chemokine family, which plays a pivotal role in host defense by inducing leukocyte chemotaxis under physiological and inflammatory conditions. Here we studied 9 CC chemokines from half-smooth tongue sole (Cynoglossus semilaevis). Phylogenetic analysis divided these chemokines into four groups. The tissue specific expression patterns of the 9 chemokines under normal physiological conditions varied much, with most chemokines highly expressed in immune organs, while some other chemokines showing high expression levels in non-immune organs. In addition, the 9 chemokines exhibited similar or distinctly different expression profiles in response to the challenge of virus and intracellular and extracellular bacterial pathogens. These results indicate that in tongue sole, CC chemokines may be involved in different immune responses as homeostatic or inflammatory chemokines.

Chemokine-Releasing Nanoparticles for Manipulation of Lymph Node Microenvironment

Chemokines (CKs) secreted by the host cells into surrounding tissue establish concentration gradients directing the migration of leukocytes. We propose an in vivo CK gradient remodeling approach based on sustained release of CKs by the crosslinked poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) hydrogel open meshwork nano-particles (NPs) containing internal crosslinked dye affinity baits for a reversible CK binding and release. The sustained release is based on a new principle of affinity off-rate tuning. The NPs with Cibacron Blue F3G-A and Reactive Blue-4 baits demonstrated a low-micromolar affinity binding to IL-8, MIP-2, and MCP-1 with a half-life of several hours at 37°C. The capacity of NPs loaded with IL-8 and MIP-1α to increase neutrophil recruitment to lymph nodes (LNs) was tested in mice after footpad injection. Fluorescently-labeled NPs used as tracers indicated the delivery into the sub-capsular compartment of draining LNs. The animals administered the CK-loaded NPs demonstrated a widening of the sub-capsular space and a strong lymph node influx of leukocytes, while mice injected with control NPs without CKs or bolus doses of soluble CKs alone showed only a marginal neutrophil response. This technology provides a new means therapeutically direct or restore immune cell traffic, and can also be employed for simultaneous therapy delivery.

Determinism and randomness in the evolution of introns and sine inserts in mouse and human mitochondrial solute carrier and cytokine receptor genes

In the homologous genes studied, the exons and introns alternated in the same order in mouse and human. We studied, in both species: corresponding short segments of introns, whole corresponding introns and complete homologous genes. We considered the total number of nucleotides and the number and orientation of the SINE inserts. Comparisons of mouse and human data series showed that at the level of individual relatively short segments of intronic sequences the stochastic variability prevails in the local structuring, but at higher levels of organization a deterministic component emerges, conserved in mouse and human during the divergent evolution, despite the ample re-editing of the intronic sequences and the fact that processes such as SINE spread had taken place in an independent way in the two species. Intron conservation is negatively correlated with the SINE occupancy, suggesting that virus inserts interfere with the conservation of the sequences inherited from the common ancestor.

CXCR4: a virus's best friend?

Viruses are dependent on their hosts for replication and dispersal in the environment; thus, the most successful viruses are those that co-evolve with their hosts. CXCR4 is a cellular chemokine receptor that plays central roles in development, hematopoiesis, and immune surveillance through signaling induced by its ligand, CXCL12. The CXCR4-CXCL12 axis has been besieged by many pathogens that employ a range of strategies to modify or exploit CXCR4 activity. While CXCR4 was identified as a critical co-factor for entry of HIV into CD4+ T cells early on, other viruses may utilize CXCR4 to gain cell entry as well. Moreover, several viruses have been found to modulate CXCR4 expression or alter its functional activity, with direct effects on cell trafficking, immune responses, cell proliferation, and cell survival. Because CXCR4 is targeted by a diverse group of viral pathogens, modification of host CXCR4 signaling activity is emerging as a common theme in virus persistence and is likely to be important for subversion of the host immune system. This review highlights major viral pathogens that use and abuse CXCR4 and explores the possible reasons why this chemokine receptor has become "a virus's best friend".

Evidence for endogenous retroviruses in human chemokine receptor gene introns: possible evolutionary inferences and biological roles

The human chemokine receptor (CKR) genes CCR2, CCR6, CCR7, CCR9, CCR10, CXCR4, and CXCR5 harbor one or two introns. CCR7, CCR9, CCR10, and CXCR5 introns, (but not CCR2, CCR6, and CXCR4 introns) encompass retrovirus-like inserts with the characteristics of SINEs (short interspersed nuclear elements) up to 300 nucleotides (nt) long. Other characteristic elements of the retroviral genome, such as long terminal repeats and gag, pol, and env genes, are lacking. The inserts likely derived from one (or more) of the following retroviruses: XA34 (NCBI GenBank Nucleotides, U29659), HERV-P-T47D (AF087913), ERV FTD (U27241), HERV-K (Y17832), HML6p (U86698), HERV-H/env60 (AJ289710), XA38 (U37066). Virus-like inserts are remarkably homogeneous in all CKR introns, with nt identities of about 80%. Percentages of nt identities between the CKR inserts and the corresponding viral sequences are also about 80%. With reference to the CKR sequence, the viral sequence aligns in some instances Plus/Plus (XA34, HML6p, HERV-H/env60, and XA38) and in other instances Plus/Minus (HERV-P-T47D, ERV FTD, and HERV-K). Some aspects of the evolution of retroviruses and CKRs as well as hypotheses on the biological significance of the SINE inserts are discussed.

Neospora caninum excreted/secreted antigens trigger CC-chemokine receptor 5-dependent cell migration

Neospora caninum, the causative agent of neosporosis, is an obligate intracellular parasite considered to be a major cause of abortion in cattle throughout the world. Most studies concerning N. caninum have focused on life cycle, seroepidemiology, pathology and vaccination, while data on host-parasite interaction, such as host cell migration, mechanisms of evasion and dissemination of this parasite during the early phase of infection are still poorly understood. Here we show the ability of excreted/secreted antigens from N. caninum (NcESAs) to attract monocytic cells to the site of primary infection in both in vitro and in vivo assays. Molecules from the family of cyclophilins present on the NcESAs were shown to work as chemokine-like proteins and NcESA-induced chemoattraction involved G(i) protein signaling and participation of CC-chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5). Additionally, we demonstrate the ability of NcESAs to enhance the expression of CCR5 on monocytic cells and this increase occurred in parallel with the chemotactic activity of NcESAs by increasing cell migration. These results suggest that during the first days of infection, N. caninum produces molecules capable of inducing monocytic cell migration to the sites of infection, which will consequently enhance initial parasite invasion and proliferation. Altogether, these results help to clarify some key features involved in the process of cell migration and may reveal virulence factors and therapeutic targets to control neosporosis.

The M33 chemokine receptor homolog of murine cytomegalovirus exhibits a differential tissue-specific role during in vivo replication and latency

M33, encoded by murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV), is a member of the UL33 homolog G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) family and is conserved across all the betaherpesviruses. Infection of mice with recombinant viruses lacking M33 or containing specific signaling domain mutations in M33 results in significantly diminished MCMV infection of the salivary glands. To determine the role of M33 in viral dissemination and/or infection in other tissues, viral infection with wild-type K181 virus and an M33 mutant virus, DeltaM33B(T2), was characterized using two different routes of inoculation. Following both intraperitoneal (i.p.) and intranasal (i.n.) inoculation, M33 was attenuated for infection of the spleen and pancreas as early as 7 days after infection. Following i.p. inoculation, DeltaM33B(T2) exhibited a severe defect in latency as measured by a diminished capacity to reactivate from spleens and lungs in reactivation assays (P < 0.001). Subsequent PCR analysis revealed markedly reduced DeltaM33B(T2) viral DNA levels in the latently infected spleens, lungs, and bone marrow. Following i.n. inoculation, latent DeltaM33B(T2) viral DNA was significantly reduced in the spleen and, in agreement with results from i.p. inoculation, did not reactivate from the spleen (P < 0.001). Furthermore, in vivo complementation of DeltaM33B(T2) virus replication and/or dissemination to the salivary glands and pancreas was achieved by coinfection with wild-type virus. Overall, our data suggest a critical tissue-specific role for M33 during infection in the salivary glands, spleen, and pancreas but not the lungs. Our data suggest that M33 contributes to the efficient establishment or maintenance of long-term latent MCMV infection.

Staphylococcal SSL5 inhibits leukocyte activation by chemokines and anaphylatoxins

Staphylococcus aureus secretes several virulence factors modulating immune responses. Staphylococcal superantigen-like (SSL) proteins are a family of 14 exotoxins with homology to superantigens, but with generally unknown function. Recently, we showed that SSL5 binds to P-selectin glycoprotein ligand 1 dependently of sialyl Lewis X and inhibits P-selectin-dependent neutrophil rolling. Here, we show that SSL5 potently and specifically inhibits leukocyte activation by anaphylatoxins and all classes of chemokines. SSL5 inhibited calcium mobilization, actin polymerization, and chemotaxis induced by chemokines and anaphylatoxins but not by other chemoattractants. Antibody competition experiments showed that SSL5 targets several chemokine and anaphylatoxin receptors. In addition, transfection studies showed that SSL5 binds glycosylated N-termini of all G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) but only inhibits stimuli of protein nature that require the receptor N-terminus for activation. Furthermore, SSL5 increased binding of chemokines to cells independent of chemokine receptors through their common glycosaminoglycan-binding site. Importance of glycans was shown for both GPCR and chemokine binding. Thus, SSL5 is an important immunomodulatory protein of S aureus that targets several crucial, initial stages of leukocyte extravasation. It is therefore a potential new antiinflammatory compound for diseases associated with chemoattractants and their receptors and disorders characterized by excessive recruitment of leukocytes.

Timely interaction between prostaglandin and chemokine signaling is a prerequisite for successful fertilization

Timely interaction between the egg and sperm is required for successful fertilization; however, little is known about the signaling therein. Prostaglandin (PG) E receptor EP2-deficient (Ptger2(-/-)) female mice exhibit a severe fertilization defect. We investigated the molecular events leading to this failure. We found increased gene expression for chemokines, such as Ccl2, Ccl7, and Ccl9, in Ptger2(-/-) cumulus cells (the somatic cells surrounding the egg) compared with wild-type cells. Furthermore, under physiological conditions, cumulus-derived chemokine signaling was found to have a dual action; CCL7 facilitates sperm migration to the cumulus-egg complex and integrin-mediated cumulus extracellular matrix (ECM) assembly to protect eggs. However, in the absence of PGE(2)-EP2 signaling, chronic CCL7 signaling results in excessive integrin engagement to the ECM, making the cumulus ECM resistant to sperm hyaluronidase, thereby preventing sperm penetration. Our findings indicate that PGE(2)-EP2 signaling negatively regulates the autocrine action of chemokines and prevents excessive cumulus ECM assembly. This interaction between PG and chemokine signaling is required for successful fertilization.

Role of chemokines in tumor growth

Chemokines play a paramount role in the tumor progression. Chronic inflammation promotes tumor formation. Both tumor cells and stromal cells elaborate chemokines and cytokines. These act either by autocrine or paracrine mechanisms to sustain tumor cell growth, induce angiogenesis and facilitate evasion of immune surveillance through immunoediting. The chemokine receptor CXCR2 and its ligands promote tumor angiogenesis and leukocyte infiltration into the tumor microenvironment. In harsh acidic and hypoxic microenvironmental conditions tumor cells up-regulate their expression of CXCR4, which equips them to migrate up a gradient of CXCL12 elaborated by carcinoma-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) to a normoxic microenvironment. The CXCL12-CXCR4 axis facilitates metastasis to distant organs and the CCL21-CCR7 chemokine ligand-receptor pair favors metastasis to lymph nodes. These two chemokine ligand-receptor systems are common key mediators of tumor cell metastasis for several malignancies and as such provide key targets for chemotherapy. In this paper, the role of specific chemokines/chemokine receptor interactions in tumor progression, growth and metastasis and the role of chemokine/chemokine receptor interactions in the stromal compartment as related to angiogenesis, metastasis, and immune response to the tumor are reviewed.

Regulation of chemotactic networks by ‘atypical’ receptors

Directed cell migration is a fundamental component of numerous biological systems and is critical to the pathology of many diseases. Although the importance of secreted chemoattractant factors in providing navigational cues to migrating cells bearing specific chemoattractant receptors is now well-established, how the function of these factors is regulated is not so well understood and may be of key importance to the design of new therapeutics for numerous human diseases. While regulation of migration clearly takes place on a number of different levels, it is becoming clear that so-called 'atypical' receptors play a role in scavenging, or altering the localisation of, chemoattractant molecules such as chemokines and complement components. These receptors do this through binding and/or internalising their chemoattractant ligands without activating signal transduction cascades leading to cell migration. The atypical chemokine receptor family currently comprises the receptors D6, DARC and CCX-CKR. In this review, we discuss the evidence from in vitro and in vivo studies that these receptors play a role in regulating cell migration, and speculate that other orphan receptors may also belong to this family. Furthermore, with the advent of gene therapy on the horizon, the therapeutic potential of these receptors in human disease is also considered.

The binding of CCL2 to the surface of Trypanosoma cruzi induces chemo-attraction and morphogenesis

Adhesion of Trypanosoma cruzi to host cells employs mechanisms which are complex and not completely understood. Upon infection, host cells release pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in the environment. These had been found to be involved with increasing parasite uptake as well as killing by macrophages and cardiomyocytes. In the present study, we focused on the interaction of murine beta-chemokine CCL2 with trypomastigote forms of T. cruzi. We found that this chemokine directly triggers the chemotaxis and morphogenesis of trypomastigote forms of parasites. Binding assays showed that the interaction of CCL2 with molecules present in trypomastigote forms is abolished by the addition of condroitin 6-sulphate, a glycosaminoglycan. Moreover, we also observed that the parasite glycoproteins are the major players in this interaction. In summary, our study demonstrates a host ligand/parasite receptor interaction that may have relevant implications in the tissue tropism of this important parasitic disease.

Chemoattractants, extracellular proteases, and the integrated host defense response

The host response to tissue injury and/or infection is dependent on the action of numerous extracellular proteases. Proteolytic cascades trigger blood clotting, fibrinolysis, and complement activation, while proteases released upon leukocyte degranulation are integral to the processes of inflammation and immunity. Modulation of effector protein activity by proteases provides a critical layer of posttranslational control that enables rapid enzymatic regulation of target proteins. This report reviews the emerging literature describing a novel class of proteolytic targets, leukocyte chemoattractants, and, in particular, chemerin, a dendritic cell and macrophage chemoattractant activated by serine proteases of the coagulation, fibrinolytic, and inflammatory cascades. As chemoattractants are critical for both systemic leukocyte positioning by triggering integrin activation and subsequent recruitment from circulation, and local intratissue leukocyte positioning via chemotaxis, modulation of attractant activities by proteases may have profound effects on the immune response.

Peptides derived from HIV-1, HIV-2, Ebola virus, SARS coronavirus and coronavirus 229E exhibit high affinity binding to the formyl peptide receptor

Peptides derived from the membrane proximal region of fusion proteins of human immunodeficiency viruses 1 and 2, Coronavirus 229 E, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus and Ebola virus were all potent antagonists of the formyl peptide receptor expressed in Chinese hamster ovary cells. Binding of viral peptides was affected by the naturally occurring polymorphisms at residues 190 and 192, which are located at second extracellular loop-transmembrane helix 5 interface. Substitution of R190 with W190 enhanced the affinity for a severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus peptide 6 fold but reduced the affinity for N-formyl-Nle-Leu-Phe by 2.5 fold. A 12 mer peptide derived from coronavirus 229E (ETYIKPWWVWL) was the most potent antagonist of the formyl peptide receptor W190 with a K(i) of 230 nM. Fluorescently labeled ETYIKPWWVWL was effectively internalized by all three variants with EC(50) of approximately 25 nM. An HKU-1 coronavirus peptide, MYVKWPWYVWL, was a potent antagonist but N-formyl-MYVKWPWYVWL was a potent agonist. ETYIKPWWVWL did not stimulate GTPgammaS binding but inhibited the stimulation by formyl-NleLeuPhe. It also blocked beta arrestin translocation and receptor downregulation induced by formyl-Nle-Leu-Phe. This indicates that formyl peptide receptor may be important in viral infections and that variations in its sequence among individuals may affect their likelihood of viral and bacterial infections.

Chemokines: key players in innate and adaptive immunity

Healthy individuals initiate an immediate immune response to microbes by using a set of germline-encoded receptors that recognize common molecular patterns found on the surface of pathogens that are distinct from self-antigens. This innate immune response is the first line of defense against microorganisms in vertebrates, and constitutes the only immune response in plants and invertebrates. The innate immune system includes cellular components, as well as a host of soluble products (antimicrobial peptides, complement fragments, cytokines, and chemokines). The adaptive immune response, which provides long-lasting protection, takes days to develop and requires somatic mutations leading to the development of antigen-specific T cell receptors (cell-mediated immunity) and immunoglobulins (humoral immunity). Members of the chemokine superfamily are crucially involved in both innate and adaptive responses. We review the biological actions of the chemokine superfamily, focusing on several functions that are relevant for both immune responses, such as cell recruitment, microbicidal activity, cell activation, polarization of CD4+ T cells, and effects on structural cells. In particular, we will illustrate the central role that chemokines play in host defense, best demonstrated by the tremendous number of chemokine and chemokine receptor homologs found in microbial genomes, which deflect the immune response of the host.

Dengue virus nonstructural protein NS5 induces interleukin-8 transcription and secretion

Elevated circulating levels of chemokines have been reported in patients with dengue fever and are proposed to contribute to the pathogenesis of dengue disease. To establish in vitro models for chemokine induction by dengue 2 virus (DEN2V), we studied a variety of human cell lines and primary cells. DEN2V infection of HepG2 and primary dendritic cells induced the production of interleukin-8 (IL-8), RANTES, MIP-1alpha, and MIP-1beta, whereas only IL-8 and RANTES were induced following dengue virus infection of HEK293 cells. Chemokine secretion was accompanied by an increase in steady-state mRNA levels. No chemokine induction was observed in HEK293 cells treated with poly(I:C) or alpha interferon, suggesting a direct effect of virus infection. To determine the mechanism(s) involved in the induction of chemokine production by DEN2V, individual dengue virus genes were cloned into plasmids and expressed in HEK293 cells. Transfection of a plasmid expressing NS5 or a dengue virus replicon induced IL-8 gene expression and secretion. RANTES expression was not induced under these conditions, however. Reporter assays showed that IL-8 induction by NS5 was principally through CAAT/enhancer binding protein, whereas DEN2V infection also induced NF-kappaB. These results indicate a role for the dengue virus NS5 protein in the induction of IL-8 by DEN2V infection. Recruitment and activation of potential target cells to sites of DEN2V replication by virus-induced chemokine production may contribute to viral replication as well as to the inflammatory components of dengue virus disease.

The synthetic peptide Trp-Lys-Tyr-Met-Val-D-Met inhibits human monocyte-derived dendritic cell maturation via formyl peptide receptor and formyl peptide receptor-like 2

Trp-Lys-Tyr-Met-Val-D-Met (WKYMVm) has been reported to stimulate monocytes, neutrophils, and dendritic cells (DCs). However, although WKYMVm has been reported to function as a DC chemoattractant, its role on DC maturation has not been examined. In this study, we investigated the effects of WKYMVm on human DC maturation. The costimulation of DCs with WKYMVm and LPS dramatically inhibited LPS-induced IL-12 production, CD86 and HLA-DR surface expression, and DC-mediated T cell proliferation. However, DC phagocytic activity was increased by WKYMVm stimulation. These findings demonstrate that WKYMVm inhibits DC maturation by LPS. In terms of the mechanism underlying DC maturation inhibition by WKYMVm, we found that LPS-induced DC maturation was negatively regulated by WKYMVm-stimulated ERK activity. Moreover, the costimulation of DCs with WKYMVm and LPS dramatically inhibited the LPS-induced accumulations of IL-12 mRNA, thus suggesting that WKYMVm inhibits LPS-induced IL-12 production at the transcriptional level. We also found that DCs express two WKYMVm receptors, formyl peptide receptor (FPR) and FPR-like 2 (FPRL2). In addition, formyl-Met-Leu-Phe (a FPR ligand), Trp-Lys-Tyr-Met-Val-Met, Hp(2-20) peptide, and F2L (three FPRL2 ligands) inhibited LPS-induced IL-12 production in DCs. Taken together, our findings indicate that the activations of FPR and FPRL2 inhibit LPS-induced DC maturation, and suggest that these two receptors should be regarded as important potential therapeutic targets for the modulation of DC maturation.

Expression of genes related to the early immune response in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) after viral haemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) infection

In the last few years, many cytokine and other immune related genes have been identified in different teleost species, thus allowing their study at a molecular level. However, very little is known about their effect on fish antiviral responses. In the current work, we have studied the effect of viral haemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) infection on the expression of different immune genes in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) through semi-quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). We have studied the effect of the viral infection on the expression of different cytokines such as interleukin 1beta (IL-1beta) and transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta), the CXC chemokine IL-8, and other immune genes such as inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and the class II major histocompatibility complex (MHC II). The virus induced an increased transcription of IL-1beta in the spleen, and to a lesser extent in the head kidney and liver at early times post-infection. IL-8 transcription was also significantly induced with the virus in the spleen at early times post-infection. TGF-beta transcription was significantly induced in VHSV infection in the spleen and liver. In the spleen, a significant induction of TGF-beta at day 1 post-infection was observed. A further significant increase occurred in the spleen and liver at day 7 post-infection. No effect of the virus on MHC II expression was ever observed while iNOS was induced in the spleen, head kidney and liver of VHSV-infected fish mostly at day 7 post-infection. These results constitute a first step towards the understanding of which molecules may have a role in antiviral defence in fish.

Role of glycosaminoglycans in cellular communication

Glycosaminoglycans are of critical importance in intercellular communication in organisms. This ubiquitous class of linear polyanions interacts with a wide variety of proteins, including growth factors and chemokines, which regulate important physiological processes. The presence of glycosaminoglycans on cell membranes and in the extracellular matrix also has resulted in their exploitation by infectious pathogens to gain access and entry into animal cells. This Account examines the structural and physical characteristics of these molecules responsible for their interaction with proteins important in cell-cell communication.