Food-derived hydrophilic antioxidant ergothioneine is distributed to the brain and exerts antidepressant effect in mice

Edible and Medicinal Fungi as Candidate Natural Antidepressants: Mechanisms and Nutritional Implications

This systematic review examines the antidepressant potential of edible medicinal fungi (EMFs), focusing on their bioactive compounds and mechanisms of action. EMFs modulate neurotransmitter systems, including serotonin (5-HT) and dopamine (DA), alleviating depressive symptoms. Extracts from EMFs, such as Ganoderma lucidum, Hericium erinaceus, Poria cocos, and Cordyceps militaris, demonstrate significant antidepressant-like effects in preclinical studies. Their bioactive compounds influence the tryptophan-kynurenine (KYN) pathway, regulate the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, and reduce neuroinflammation, all of which are linked to stress response and mood regulation. The review also explores the gut-brain axis, highlighting how EMF-derived polysaccharides improve gut health by modulating microbiota, potentially mitigating depressive symptoms. Additionally, it discusses the use of EMFs in functional foods and dietary supplements, innovations like 3D food printing for depression-related issues, and synthetic biology for enhancing compound production. Artificial intelligence is used to model complex mechanisms. However, challenges remain, such as standardization and lack of clinical validation. Future research should address these gaps, emphasizing personalized interventions and advanced technologies for next-generation antidepressant foods.

Ergothioneine alleviates osteoporosis via the ROS-MAPK signaling Axis

The accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) within cells regulates the formation and function of osteoclasts, which is crucial therapeutic target for the treatment of osteoporosis. Ergothioneine (EGT) is a rare amino acid with strong antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. However, its application on osteoporosis has not been reported. In this study, we investigated the effects of EGT on osteoclastogenesis in vitro and in ovariectomized (OVX) mice. The results revealed that EGT could suppress RANKL-induced podosome belt formation and osteoclast development in vitro, while reducing intracellular ROS levels by upregulating key antioxidant enzymes, including HO-1 and Catalase. EGT was also found to downregulate the expression of critical osteoclast-specific proteins such as Trap, c-Fos, and Ctsk through attenuation of MAPK signaling. The potential of EGT to protect against trabecular bone loss in OVX mice was further demonstrated by micro-CT imaging, possibly by reducing osteoclast numbers shown by histological outcomes. These findings together highlighted the potential value of EGT as a novel tool for treating osteoporosis through its ability to suppress osteoclastogenesis and mitigate the accumulation of intracellular ROS.

Intranasal administration of ergothioneine improves memory in a mouse model of multiple system atrophy

No effective treatments have been established to delay or prevent the progression of multiple system atrophy (MSA), which is characterised by the accumulation of abnormal α-synuclein (α-Syn) species, including toxic α-Syn oligomers, in the central nervous system. In our previous study, we demonstrated that intranasal administration of trehalose reduces the levels of α-Syn oligomer by accelerating their conversion from toxic α-Syn oligomers to less harmful fibrils in a human α-Syn inducible MSA mouse model. This finding suggests that reducing α-Syn oligomers may be a crucial therapeutic strategy for MSA. The present study aimed to assess the potential of intranasal ergothioneine (ERG) administration in ameliorating MSA pathology within the MSA mouse model. A cognitive function test and electrophysiological analysis revealed that ERG administration significantly improved short-term spatial memory associated with hippocampal activity, with performance nearing normal levels. Immunohistochemical analysis showed that ERG treatment increased human α-Syn-positive areas within the dentate gyrus + dentate hilus regions of the hippocampus. By contrast, ERG treatment also led to a reduction in α-Syn phosphorylation in the cerebral cortex. Furthermore, immunoblotting confirmed that ERG treatment elevated expression levels of α-Syn monomer, while significantly reducing α-Syn dimer levels in the ERG-treated MSA model mice compared with untreated counterparts. Thus, the modification of α-Syn induced by ERG treatment may result in a reduction of α-Syn oligomers. Here, we demonstrate that intranasal administration of ERG improved short-term spatial memory in the MSA mouse model.

Ergothioneine controls mitochondrial function and exercise performance via direct activation of MPST

Ergothioneine (EGT) is a diet-derived, atypical amino acid that accumulates to high levels in human tissues. Reduced EGT levels have been linked to age-related disorders, including neurodegenerative and cardiovascular diseases, while EGT supplementation is protective in a broad range of disease and aging models. Despite these promising data, the direct and physiologically relevant molecular target of EGT has remained elusive. Here, we use a systematic approach to identify how mitochondria remodel their metabolome in response to exercise training. From these data, we find that EGT accumulates in muscle mitochondria upon exercise training. Proteome-wide thermal stability studies identify 3-mercaptopyruvate sulfurtransferase (MPST) as a direct molecular target of EGT; EGT binds to and activates MPST, thereby boosting mitochondrial respiration and exercise training performance in mice. Together, these data identify the first physiologically relevant EGT target and establish the EGT-MPST axis as a molecular mechanism for regulating mitochondrial function and exercise performance.

Effects of ergothioneine on oxidative DNA damage and immune response induced by circadian rhythm disturbance in mice

Ergothioneine has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cell-protective properties. Circadian rhythm disruption can lead to health issues, such as insomnia, mental illness, chronic diseases, and cancer. However, the impact of ergothioneine, as an antioxidant, on oxidative DNA damage and immune variations caused by circadian rhythm disruptions remains unclear. To investigate the effect of ergothioneine on oxidative DNA damage and immune responses caused by circadian rhythm disruption, 8-week-old mice were subjected to night time feeding and exercise restrictions for 14 days. Body weight, daytime running wheel activity, and anxiety-like behavior showed no significant differences between the night-restricted groups, regardless of ergothioneine administration. Serum interleukin-6 levels, 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine levels in urine and nuclear DNA of the liver, testes, lungs, and pancreas were significantly reduced in the night-restricted group receiving ergothioneine compared with that of the group without ergothioneine, with no significant differences observed when compared to the control group. Ergothioneine can mitigate immune function changes and oxidative DNA damage induced by circadian rhythm disruption caused by abnormal dietary timing in mice. However, it did not alleviate obesity or mental state dysregulation. These findings have important implications for improving night-shift workers health and developing therapies for diseases associated with circadian rhythm disturbances.

Ergothioneine exerts neuroprotective effects in Parkinson's disease: Targeting α-synuclein aggregation and oxidative stress

Ergothioneine (EGT) is a natural dietary antioxidant derived from certain edible mushrooms, commonly used as a food additive and supplement, but its effects on Parkinson's Disease (PD) are still unclear. The accumulation of α-synuclein (α-syn) plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis and development of PD. Here, this study demonstrated that EGT effectively inhibits α-syn aggregation, disrupts mature fibers, and reduces associated cytotoxicity and oxidative stress. The beneficial effects of EGT were confirmed in Caenorhabditis elegans, where it protected dopaminergic neurons, prolonged lifespan and enhanced behavioral functions by reducing α-syn plaque accumulation and associated oxidative stress. Molecular dynamics simulation revealed that EGT interacts directly with α-syn pentamer through van der Waals and electrostatic forces, disrupting the structural stability of the preformed pentamer. Furthermore, animal studies validated that EGT alleviated neuronal damage and improved behavioral deficits by reducing α-syn aggregation, oxidative stress and inflammatory response. In conclusion, EGT presents promising potential as a dietary supplement for preventing and alleviating PD.

The Association Between Serum Ergothioneine Concentration and Japanese Dietary Habits: The Third Survey of the ROAD Study

Background/Objectives: As a result of aging societies, the increasing number of older adults requiring nursing care has become a serious issue and the extension of healthy life expectancy has become an urgent priority. Ergothioneine (EGT) is a sulfur-containing amino acid found in foods such as mushrooms. Low EGT blood concentrations have been reported to be associated with the risk of onset and progression of various diseases. However, the distribution of EGT blood concentrations and their association with dietary habits in the Japanese general population remains unclear. Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted using data from the third survey of the Research on Osteoarthritis/osteoporosis Against Disability (ROAD) study, which analyzed 1457 participants (474 men and 983 women) aged ≥ 40 years. Serum EGT concentrations and their association with dietary habits were analyzed. Results: Serum EGT concentrations (1) peaked in the 70s in men and the 60s in women, (2) were higher in women than in men, and (3) showed a significant positive correlation with fish intake and nutrients commonly found in fish. Conclusions: In the present study, we report for the first time an age- and sex-specific serum EGT distribution in a Japanese population and its association with dietary habits, particularly fish intake. These findings help define normal and abnormal EGT levels and suggest new potential sources of EGT.

The gut microbiota derived metabolite trimethylamine N-oxide: Its important role in cancer and other diseases

An expanding body of research indicates a correlation between the gut microbiota and various diseases. Metabolites produced by the gut microbiota act as mediators between the gut microbiota and the host, interacting with multiple systems in the human body to regulate physiological or pathological functions. However, further investigation is still required to elucidate the underlying mechanisms. One such metabolite involved in choline metabolism by gut microbes is trimethylamine (TMA), which can traverse the intestinal epithelial barrier and enter the bloodstream, ultimately reaching the liver where it undergoes oxidation catalyzed by flavin-containing monooxygenase 3 (FMO3) to form trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO). While some TMAO is eliminated through renal excretion, remaining amounts circulate in the bloodstream, leading to systemic inflammation, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, mitochondrial stress, and disruption of normal physiological functions in humans. As a representative microbial metabolite originating from the gut, TMAO has significant potential both as a biomarker for monitoring disease occurrence and progression and for tailoring personalized treatment strategies for patients. This review provides an extensive overview of TMAO sources and its metabolism in human blood, as well as its impact on several major human diseases. Additionally, we explore the latest research areas related to TMAO along with future directions.

Ergothioneine promotes longevity and healthy aging in male mice

Healthy aging has emerged as a crucial issue with the increase in the geriatric population worldwide. Food-derived sulfur-containing amino acid ergothioneine (ERGO) is a potential dietary supplement, which exhibits various beneficial effects in experimental animals although the preventive effects of ERGO on aging and/or age-related impairments such as frailty and cognitive impairment are unclear. We investigated the effects of daily oral supplementation of ERGO dissolved in drinking water on lifespan, frailty, and cognitive impairment in male mice from 7 weeks of age to the end of their lives. Ingestion of 4 ~ 5 mg/kg/day of ERGO remarkably extended the lifespan of male mice. The longevity effect of ERGO was further supported by increase in life and non-frailty spans of Caenorhabditis elegans in the presence of ERGO. Compared with the control group, the ERGO group showed significantly lower age-related declines in weight, fat mass, and average and maximum movement velocities at 88 weeks of age. This was compatible with dramatical suppression by ERGO of the age-related increments in plasma biomarkers (BMs) such as the chemokine ligand 9, creatinine, symmetric dimethylarginine, urea, asymmetric dimethylarginine, quinolinic acid, and kynurenine. The oral intake of ERGO also rescued age-related impairments in learning and memory ability, which might be associated with suppression of the age-related decline in hippocampal neurogenesis and TDP43 protein aggregation and promotion of microglial shift to the M2 phenotype by ERGO ingestion. Ingestion of ERGO may promote longevity and healthy aging in male mice, possibly through multiple biological mechanisms.

Effects of Consuming White Button and Oyster Mushrooms within a Healthy Mediterranean-Style Dietary Pattern on Changes in Subjective Indexes of Brain Health or Cognitive Function in Healthy Middle-Aged and Older Adults

Limited research suggests mushroom consumption may improve indexes of brain health. Mushrooms contain bioactive compounds and antioxidants capable of crossing the blood-brain barrier and impacting vital neurological processes. We conducted a randomized controlled feeding trial assessing the effects of adopting a healthy U.S. Mediterranean-style dietary pattern (MED) with or without mushrooms on indexes of brain health and well-being. Sixty adults (aged 46 ± 12 y; BMI 28.3 ± 2.84 kg/m2; mean ± SD) without severe depression consumed a fully controlled MED diet with 84 g/d of mushrooms (4 d/week white button and 3 d/week oyster) or without (control with breadcrumbs) for 8 weeks. At baseline and post-intervention, surveys were used to evaluate anxiety, depression, mood, and well-being, and behavioral tests were used to evaluate cognition. Consumption of the MED diet, with or without mushrooms, increased (improved) self-reported vigor/activity (Time p = 0.026) and both behavioral measures of immediate memory (Time p < 0.05). Mixed effects were observed for other domains of neuropsychological function, and there were no changes in other measured indexes of brain health with the consumption of either MED diet. Adopting a healthy MED-style dietary pattern, with or without consuming white button and oyster mushrooms, may improve vigor/activity and immediate memory among middle-aged and older adults.

Exploring the causal association between serum metabolites and erectile dysfunction: a bidirectional Mendelian randomisation study

Erectile dysfunction is a common sexual disorder in men. Some studies have found a strong association between some serum metabolites and erectile dysfunction. To investigate this association further, we used bidirectional Mendelian randomisation to investigate causality and possible biological mechanisms.Firstly, this study screened the statistics of genome-wide association studies of serum metabolites and erectile dysfunction to obtain instrumental variables. Inverse variance weighting was used as the primary method for causal effect analysis of instrumental variables in forward or reverse Mendelian randomisation, and the results obtained by MR-Egger regression and the weighted median method were used as references. Subsequently, the metabolites causally associated with erectile dysfunction were subjected to replication analyses and meta-analyses, and the results of the meta-analyses were analysed by pathway analyses to find influential pathways. In this process, Mendelian randomisation results need to be assessed for stability and reliability using sensitivity analysis.It was found that a total of six serum metabolites were causally associated with erectile dysfunction in a forward Mendelian randomisation study. 1,3,7-trimethyluraten (0.85 (0.73-0.99), P = 0.0368), ergothioneine (0.65 (0.45-0.94), P = 0.0226) and gamma-glutamylglutamate (0.63 (0.46-0.88), P = 0.0059) were protective against the development of erectile dysfunction, whereas 2-hydroxyhippurate (1.10 (1.02-1.19), P = 0.0152), N2,N2-dimethylguanosine (1.57 (1.02-2.40), P = 0.0395) and octanoylcarnitine (1.38 (1.06-1.82), P = 0.0183) were able to induce the development of erectile dysfunction. In addition, metabolic pathway analysis showed that 1,3,7-trimethylurate was able to influence the development of erectile dysfunction via the caffeine metabolism pathway (P = 0.0454). On the other hand, reverse Mendelian randomisation analysis showed that erectile dysfunction reduced serum homocitrulline levels (0.99 (0.97-1.00), P = 0.0360). Sensitivity analyses, including heterogeneity tests and pleiotropy tests, confirmed the reliability of the results.In conclusion, this study demonstrated a bidirectional causal relationship between serum metabolites and erectile dysfunction using bidirectional Mendelian randomisation analysis and replication meta-analysis. On this basis, this study provides a new direction of thinking and strong evidence for the therapeutic application and adjunctive diagnosis of serum metabolites in erectile dysfunction, and provides a certain reference value for subsequent related studies.

A scoping review of the effects of mushroom and fungus extracts in rodent models of depression and tests of antidepressant activity

One of the most important developments in psychopharmacology in the past decade has been the emergence of novel treatments for mood disorders, such as psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression. Psilocybin is most commonly found in different species of mushroom; however, the literature on mushroom and fungus extracts with potential antidepressant activity extends well beyond just psilocybin-containing mushrooms, and includes both psychedelic and non-psychedelic species. In the current review, we systematically review the preclinical literature on mushroom and fungus extracts, and their effects of animal models of depression and tests of antidepressant activity. The PICO structure, PRISMA checklist and the Cochrane Handbook for systematic reviews of intervention were used to guide the search strategy. A scoping search was conducted in electronic databases PubMed, CINAHL, Embase and Web of Science. The literature search identified 50 relevant and suitable published studies. These included 19 different species of mushrooms, as well as seven different species of other fungi. Nearly all studies reported antidepressant-like effects of treatment with extracts. Treatments were most commonly delivered orally, in both acute and chronically administered studies to predominantly male rodents. Multiple animal models of depression were used, the most common being unpredictable chronic mild stress, while the tail suspension test and forced swim test were most frequently used as standalone antidepressant screens. Details on each experiment with mushroom and fungus species are discussed in detail, while an evaluation is provided of the strengths and weaknesses of these studies.

Are age-related neurodegenerative diseases caused by a lack of the diet-derived compound ergothioneine?

We propose that the diet-derived compound ergothioneine (ET) is an important nutrient in the human body, especially for maintenance of normal brain function, and that low body ET levels predispose humans to significantly increased risks of neurodegenerative (cognitive impairment, dementia, Parkinson's disease) and possibly other age-related diseases (including frailty, cardiovascular disease, and eye disease). Hence, restoring ET levels in the body could assist in mitigating these risks, which are rapidly increasing due to ageing populations globally. Prevention of neurodegeneration is especially important, since by the time dementia is usually diagnosed damage to the brain is extensive and likely irreversible. ET and vitamin E from the diet may act in parallel or even synergistically to protect different parts of the brain; both may be "neuroprotective vitamins". The present article reviews the substantial scientific basis supporting these proposals about the role of ET.

Exercise mitigates a gut microbiota-mediated reduction in adult hippocampal neurogenesis and associated behaviours in rats

Lifestyle factors, especially exercise, impact the manifestation and progression of psychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders such as depression and Alzheimer's disease, mediated by changes in hippocampal neuroplasticity. The beneficial effects of exercise may be due to its promotion of adult hippocampal neurogenesis (AHN). Gut microbiota has also been showed to be altered in a variety of brain disorders, and disturbances of the microbiota have resulted in alterations in brain and behaviour. However, whether exercise can counteract the negative effects of altered gut microbiota on brain function remains under explored. To this end, chronic disruption of the gut microbiota was achieved using an antibiotic cocktail in rats that were sedentary or allowed voluntary access to running wheels. Sedentary rats with disrupted microbiota displayed impaired performance in hippocampal neurogenesis-dependent tasks: the modified spontaneous location recognition task and the novelty suppressed feeding test. Performance in the elevated plus maze was also impaired due to antibiotics treatment. These behaviours, and an antibiotics-induced reduction in AHN were attenuated by voluntary exercise. The effects were independent of changes in the hippocampal metabolome but were paralleled by caecal metabolomic changes. Taken together these data highlight the importance of the gut microbiota in AHN-dependent behaviours and demonstrate the power of lifestyle factors such as voluntary exercise to attenuate these changes.

Ergothioneine boosts mitochondrial respiration and exercise performance via direct activation of MPST

Ergothioneine (EGT) is a diet-derived, atypical amino acid that accumulates to high levels in human tissues. Reduced EGT levels have been linked to age-related disorders, including neurodegenerative and cardiovascular diseases, while EGT supplementation is protective in a broad range of disease and aging models in mice. Despite these promising data, the direct and physiologically relevant molecular target of EGT has remained elusive. Here we use a systematic approach to identify how mitochondria remodel their metabolome in response to exercise training. From this data, we find that EGT accumulates in muscle mitochondria upon exercise training. Proteome-wide thermal stability studies identify 3-mercaptopyruvate sulfurtransferase (MPST) as a direct molecular target of EGT; EGT binds to and activates MPST, thereby boosting mitochondrial respiration and exercise training performance in mice. Together, these data identify the first physiologically relevant EGT target and establish the EGT-MPST axis as a molecular mechanism for regulating mitochondrial function and exercise performance.

Ganoderma Fusions with High Yield of Ergothioneine and Comparative Analysis of Its Genomics

Ergothioneine (EGT), an exceptional antioxidant found ubiquitously across diverse living organisms, plays a pivotal role in various vital physiological regulatory functions. Its principal natural sources are mushrooms and animal liver tissues. Ganoderma spp., a traditional Chinese food and medicinal mushroom, boasts high concentrations of EGT. To advance the development of novel Ganoderma spp. strains with enhanced EGT yields, we employed an efficient Ganoderma spp. protoplasmic fusion system. Through molecular and biological characterization, we successfully generated seven novel fusion strains. Notably, fusion strain RS7 demonstrated a remarkable increase in mycelial EGT production (12.70 ± 1.85 mg/L), surpassing the parental strains FQ16 and FQ23 by 34.23% and 39.10%, respectively. Furthermore, in the context of the fruiting body, fusion strain RS11 displayed a notable 53.58% enhancement in EGT production (11.24 ± 1.96 mg/L) compared to its parental strains. Genomic analysis of the RS7, the strain with the highest levels of mycelial EGT production, revealed mutations in the gene EVM0005141 associated with EGT metabolism. These mutations led to a reduction in non-productive shunts, subsequently redirecting more substrate towards the EGT synthesis pathway. This redirection significantly boosted EGT production in the RS7 strain. The insights gained from this study provide valuable guidance for the commercial-scale production of EGT and the selective breeding of Ganoderma spp. strains.

Reactive oxygen species, toxicity, oxidative stress, and antioxidants: chronic diseases and aging

A physiological level of oxygen/nitrogen free radicals and non-radical reactive species (collectively known as ROS/RNS) is termed oxidative eustress or "good stress" and is characterized by low to mild levels of oxidants involved in the regulation of various biochemical transformations such as carboxylation, hydroxylation, peroxidation, or modulation of signal transduction pathways such as Nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade, phosphoinositide-3-kinase, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and other processes. Increased levels of ROS/RNS, generated from both endogenous (mitochondria, NADPH oxidases) and/or exogenous sources (radiation, certain drugs, foods, cigarette smoking, pollution) result in a harmful condition termed oxidative stress ("bad stress"). Although it is widely accepted, that many chronic diseases are multifactorial in origin, they share oxidative stress as a common denominator. Here we review the importance of oxidative stress and the mechanisms through which oxidative stress contributes to the pathological states of an organism. Attention is focused on the chemistry of ROS and RNS (e.g. superoxide radical, hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl radicals, peroxyl radicals, nitric oxide, peroxynitrite), and their role in oxidative damage of DNA, proteins, and membrane lipids. Quantitative and qualitative assessment of oxidative stress biomarkers is also discussed. Oxidative stress contributes to the pathology of cancer, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, neurological disorders (Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases, Down syndrome), psychiatric diseases (depression, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder), renal disease, lung disease (chronic pulmonary obstruction, lung cancer), and aging. The concerted action of antioxidants to ameliorate the harmful effect of oxidative stress is achieved by antioxidant enzymes (Superoxide dismutases-SODs, catalase, glutathione peroxidase-GPx), and small molecular weight antioxidants (vitamins C and E, flavonoids, carotenoids, melatonin, ergothioneine, and others). Perhaps one of the most effective low molecular weight antioxidants is vitamin E, the first line of defense against the peroxidation of lipids. A promising approach appears to be the use of certain antioxidants (e.g. flavonoids), showing weak prooxidant properties that may boost cellular antioxidant systems and thus act as preventive anticancer agents. Redox metal-based enzyme mimetic compounds as potential pharmaceutical interventions and sirtuins as promising therapeutic targets for age-related diseases and anti-aging strategies are discussed.

Preventive Roles of Rice-koji Extracts and Ergothioneine on Anxiety- and Pain-like Responses under Psychophysical Stress Conditions in Male Mice

This study determined the effect of daily administration of Rice-koji on anxiety and nociception in mice subjected to repeated forced swim stress (FST). In a parallel experiment, it was determined whether ergothioneine (EGT) contained in Rice-koji displayed similar effects. Anxiety and nociception were assessed behaviorally using multiple procedures. c-Fos and FosB immunoreactivities were quantified to assess the effect of both treatments on neural responses in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN), nucleus raphe magnus (NRM), and lumbar spinal dorsal horn (DH). FST increased anxiety- and pain-like behaviors in the hindpaw. Rice-koji or EGT significantly prevented these behaviors after FST. In the absence of formalin, both treatments prevented decreased FosB expressions in the PVN after FST, while no effect was seen in the NRM and DH. In the presence of formalin, both treatments prevented changes in c-Fos and FosB expressions in all areas in FST mice. Further, in vitro experiments using SH-SY5Y cells were conducted. Rice-koji and EGT did not affect cell viability but changed the level of brain-derived neurotrophic factor. In conclusion, Rice-koji could reduce anxiety and pain associated with psychophysical stress, possibly mediated by the modulatory effects of EGT on neural functions in the brain.

Systematic metabolic characterization of mental disorders reveals age-related metabolic disturbances as potential risk factors for depression in older adults

Mental disorders are associated with dysregulated metabolism, but comprehensive investigations of their metabolic similarities and differences and their clinical relevance are few. Here, based on the plasma metabolome and lipidome of subcohort1, comprising 100 healthy participants, 55 cases with anxiety, 52 persons with depression, and 41 individuals with comorbidity, which are from WCHAT, a perspective cohort study of community-dwelling older adults aged over 50, multiple metabolites as potential risk factors of mental disorders were identified. Furthermore, participants with mental illnesses were classified into three subtypes (S1, S2, and S3) by unsupervised classification with lipidomic data. Among them, S1 showed higher triacylglycerol and lower sphingomyelin, while S2 displayed opposite features. The metabolic profile of S3 was like that of the normal group. Compared with S3, individuals in S1 and S2 had worse quality of life, and suffered more from sleep and cognitive disorders. Notably, an assessment of 6,467 individuals from the WCHAT showed an age-related increase in the incidence of depression. Seventeen depression-related metabolites were significantly correlated with age, which were validated in an independent subcohort2. Collectively, this work highlights the clinical relevance of metabolic perturbation in mental disorders, and age-related metabolic disturbances may be a bridge-linking aging and depressive.

Low Plasma Ergothioneine Predicts Cognitive and Functional Decline in an Elderly Cohort Attending Memory Clinics

Low blood concentrations of the diet-derived compound ergothioneine (ET) have been associated with cognitive impairment and cerebrovascular disease (CeVD) in cross-sectional studies, but it is unclear whether ET levels can predict subsequent cognitive and functional decline. Here, we examined the temporal relationships between plasma ET status and cognition in a cohort of 470 elderly subjects attending memory clinics in Singapore. All participants underwent baseline plasma ET measurements as well as neuroimaging for CeVD and brain atrophy. Neuropsychological tests of cognition and function were assessed at baseline and follow-up visits for up to five years. Lower plasma ET levels were associated with poorer baseline cognitive performance and faster rates of decline in function as well as in multiple cognitive domains including memory, executive function, attention, visuomotor speed, and language. In subgroup analyses, the longitudinal associations were found only in non-demented individuals. Mediation analyses showed that the effects of ET on cognition seemed to be largely explainable by severity of concomitant CeVD, specifically white matter hyperintensities, and brain atrophy. Our findings support further assessment of plasma ET as a prognostic biomarker for accelerated cognitive and functional decline in pre-dementia and suggest possible therapeutic and preventative measures.

Ergothioneine Production by Submerged Fermentation of a Medicinal Mushroom Panus conchatus

Ergothioneine is a natural and safe antioxidant that plays an important role in anti-aging and the prevention of various diseases. This study aimed to report on a kind of medicinal mushroom of Panus conchatus with great potential for the bioproduction of ergothioneine. The effect of different nutritional and environmental conditions on the growth of Panus conchatus and ergothioneine production were investigated. Molasses and soy peptone were found to promote cell growth of Panus conchatus and enhance ergothioneine accumulation. Adding precursors of histidine, methionine and cysteine could increase ergothioneine production and the highest ergothioneine concentration of 148.79 mg/L was obtained. Finally, the extraction and purification processes were also established to obtain the crude ergothioneine extract for further antioxidant property evaluation. The ergothioneine from Panus conchatus showed high antioxidant activity with good stability in a lower pH environment. This study provided a new strain and process for the bioproduction of ergothioneine.

Ergothioneine and central nervous system diseases

Ergothioneine (ERGO) is a thiol contained in the food that exhibits an excellent antioxidant effect similar to that of glutathione. Although mammals lack a biosynthetic pathway for ERGO, the carnitine/organic cation transporter OCTN1/SLC22A4, which transports ERGO in vivo, is expressed throughout the body, and ERGO is distributed to various organs after oral intake. ERGO is a stable compound that remains in the body for a long time after ingestion. OCTN1 is also expressed in brain parenchymal cells, including neurons, and ERGO in the blood permeates the blood-brain barrier and is distributed to the brain, exhibiting a neuroprotective effect. Recently, the association between central nervous system (CNS) diseases and ERGO has become a research focus. ERGO concentrations in the blood components are lower in patients with cognitive impairment, Parkinson's disease, and frailty than in healthy subjects. ERGO exerts a protective effect against various neurotoxins and improves the symptoms of cognitive impairment, depression, and epilepsy in animal models. The promotion of neurogenesis and induction of neurotrophic factors, in addition to the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, may be involved in the neuroprotective effect of ERGO. This review shows the association between ERGO and CNS diseases, discusses the possible biomarkers of peripheral ERGO in CNS diseases, and the possible preventive and improvement effects of ERGO on CNS diseases.

Ergothioneine: A Stress Vitamin with Antiaging, Vascular, and Neuroprotective Roles?

Significance: Ergothioneine (ET) is an unusual sulfur-containing amino acid derived from histidine, acquired predominantly from food. Its depletion is associated with deleterious consequences in response to stress stimuli in cell culture models, prompting us to classify it as a vitamin in 2010, which was later supported by in vivo studies. ET is obtained from a variety of foods and is taken up by a selective transporter. ET possesses antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties that confer cytoprotection. ET crosses the blood-brain barrier and has been reported to have beneficial effects in the brain. In this study, we discuss the cytoprotective and neuroprotective properties of ET, which may be harnessed for combating neurodegeneration and decline during aging. Recent Advances: The designation of ET as a stress vitamin is gaining momentum, opening a new field of investigation involving small molecules that are essential for optimal physiological functioning and maintenance of health span. Critical Issues: Although ET was discovered more than a century ago, its physiological functions are still being elucidated, especially in the brain. As ET is present in most foods, toxicity associated with its deprivation has been difficult to assess. Future Directions: Using genetically engineered cells and mice, it may now be possible to elucidate roles of ET. This coupled with advances in genomics and metabolomics may lead to identification of ET function. As ET is a stable antioxidant with anti-inflammatory properties, whose levels decline during aging, supplementing ET in the diet or consuming an ET-rich diet may prove beneficial. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 36, 1306-1317.

Toward more efficient ergothioneine production using the fungal ergothioneine biosynthetic pathway

Background

Ergothioneine (ERG) is a potent histidine-derived antioxidant that confers health-promoting effects. Only certain bacteria and fungi can biosynthesize ERG, but the ERG productivity in natural producers is low. ERG overproduction through genetic engineering represents an efficient and cost-effective manufacturing strategy.

Results

Here, we showed that Trichoderma reesei can synthesize ERG during conidiogenesis and hyphal growth. Co-expression of two ERG biosynthesis genes (tregt1 and tregt2) from T. reesei enabled E. coli to generate 70.59 mg/L ERG at the shaking flask level after 48 h of whole-cell biocatalysis, whereas minor amounts of ERG were synthesized by the recombinant E. coli strain bearing only the tregt1 gene. By fed-batch fermentation, the extracellular ERG production reached 4.34 g/L after 143 h of cultivation in a 2-L jar fermenter, which is the highest level of ERG production reported thus far. Similarly, ERG synthesis also occurred in the E. coli strain engineered with the two well-characterized genes from N. crassa and the ERG productivity was up to 4.22 g/L after 143 h of cultivation under the above-mentioned conditions.

Conclusions

Our results showed that the overproduction of ERG in E. coli could be achieved through two-enzymatic steps, demonstrating high efficiency of the fungal ERG biosynthetic pathway. Meanwhile, this work offers a more promising approach for the industrial production of ERG.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12934-022-01807-3.

Nutraceuticals as Modulators of Autophagy: Relevance in Parkinson’s Disease

Dietary supplements and nutraceuticals have entered the mainstream. Especially in the media, they are strongly advertised as safe and even recommended for certain diseases. Although they may support conventional therapy, sometimes these substances can have unexpected side effects. This review is particularly focused on the modulation of autophagy by selected vitamins and nutraceuticals, and their relevance in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, especially Parkinson’s disease (PD). Autophagy is crucial in PD; thus, the induction of autophagy may alleviate the course of the disease by reducing the so-called Lewy bodies. Hence, we believe that those substances could be used in prevention and support of conventional therapy of neurodegenerative diseases. This review will shed some light on their ability to modulate the autophagy.

Ergothioneine as a Natural Antioxidant Against Oxidative Stress-Related Diseases

L-Ergothioneine (EGT) is a natural antioxidant derived from microorganisms, especially in edible mushrooms. EGT is found to be highly accumulated in tissues that are susceptible to oxidative damage, and it has attracted extensive attention due to its powerful antioxidant activity and the tight relationships of this natural product with various oxidative stress-related diseases. Herein, we 1) introduce the biological source and in vivo distribution of EGT; 2) review the currently available evidence concerning the relationships of EGT with diabetes, ischemia-reperfusion injury-related diseases like cardiovascular diseases and liver diseases, neurodegenerative diseases, and other diseases pathogenically associated with oxidative stress; 3) summarize the potential action mechanisms of EGT against these diseases; 4) discuss the advantages of EGT over other antioxidants; and 5) also propose several future research perspectives for EGT. These may help to promote the future application of this attractive natural antioxidant.

Mycotherapy: Potential of Fungal Bioactives for the Treatment of Mental Health Disorders and Morbidities of Chronic Pain

Mushrooms have been used as traditional medicine for millennia, fungi are the main natural source of psychedelic compounds. There is now increasing interest in using fungal active compounds such as psychedelics for alleviating symptoms of mental health disorders including major depressive disorder, anxiety, and addiction. The anxiolytic, antidepressant and anti-addictive effect of these compounds has raised awareness stimulating neuropharmacological investigations. Micro-dosing or acute dosing with psychedelics including Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and psilocybin may offer patients treatment options which are unmet by current therapeutic options. Studies suggest that either dosing regimen produces a rapid and long-lasting effect on the patient post administration with a good safety profile. Psychedelics can also modulate immune systems including pro-inflammatory cytokines suggesting a potential in the treatment of auto-immune and other chronic pain conditions. This literature review aims to explore recent evidence relating to the application of fungal bioactives in treating chronic mental health and chronic pain morbidities.

Effects of 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 on the pharmacokinetics and biodistribution of ergothioneine, an endogenous organic cation/carnitine transporter 1 substrate, in rats

Purpose

This study aimed to investigate the effects of 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D₃ (1,25(OH)₂D₃) on the expression levels of organic cation/carnitine transporter 1 (OCTN1) as well as the pharmacokinetics and biodistribution of ergothioneine, an OCTN1 substrate, in rats.

Methods

Rats pretreated with 1,25(OH)₂D₃ (2.56 nmol/kg/day) for four days were administered ergothioneine (2 mg/kg) intravenously. The expression levels of rat OCTN1 (rOCTN1) in organs were determined using real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Ergothioneine levels in plasma, urine, and organs (with and without intravenous injection of exogenous ergothioneine) were determined using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.

Results

1,25(OH)₂D₃ pretreatment resulted in a significant decrease in rOCTN1 mRNA expression levels in the kidney and brain, a significant increase in basal plasma levels of ergothioneine (from 48 h), and a significant decrease in the tissue-plasma partition coefficient (K_p) in all tissues (except the heart and lungs) and the basal urine levels of ergothioneine. After intravenous administration, the pharmacokinetic profiles of ergothioneine were consistent with the basal levels of endogenous ergothioneine, with an increase in AUC_∞ by 85%, a significant decrease in total clearance by 49%, and a decrease in V_ss by 32% in 1,25(OH)₂D₃-treated rats. The K_p value and urinary recovery of ergothioneine also decreased in the 1,25(OH)₂D₃-treated group.

Conclusion

This study showed the effects of 1,25(OH)₂D₃ on the expression and function of rOCTN1 by investigating the interaction between 1,25(OH)₂D₃ and ergothioneine. Dose adjustment and possible changes in bioavailability should be considered before the co-administration of vitamin D or its active forms and OCTN1 substrates.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40005-022-00563-1.

Improved synthesis of an ergothioneine PET radioligand for imaging oxidative stress in Alzheimer's disease

L-ergothioneine (ERGO) is a potent antioxidant with cytoprotective effects. To study ERGO biodistribution and detect oxidative stress in vivo, we report an efficient and reproducible preparation of [¹¹ C]-labeled ERGO PET radioligand based on protecting the histidine carboxylic group with a methyl ester. Overall, this new protection approach using methyl ester improved the chemical yield of a 4-step reaction from 14% to 24% compared to the previous report using t-butyl ester. The [¹¹ C]CH₃ methylation of the precursor provided the desired product with 55 ± 10% radiochemical purity and a molar activity of 450 ± 200 TBq/mmol. The [¹¹ C]ERGO radioligand was able to detect threshold levels of oxidative stress in a preclinical animal model of Alzheimer's disease.

Ergothioneine in the brain

Ergothioneine (ERGO) is a naturally occurring food-derived antioxidant. Despite its extremely hydrophilic properties, ERGO is easily absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and distributed to various organs, including the brain. This is primarily because its entry into brain cells is mediated by the ERGO-specific transporter OCTN1/SLC22A4. Octn1 gene knockout mice do not have ERGO in the brain, due to the absence of OCTN1 in neurons, neural stem cells, and microglia. The existence of OCTN1 and uptake of ERGO into the brain parenchymal cells may suggest that ERGO and its transporter play a pivotal role in brain function. Oral administration of ERGO has antidepressant activities in mice. Furthermore, repeated oral administration of ERGO and ERGO-containing food extract tablets enhance memory function in mice and humans, respectively. ERGO also protects against stress-induced sleep disturbance and neuronal injury induced by amyloid β in rodents. In vitro observations suggest that ERGO benefits brain function through both its antioxidative activity and by promoting neurogenesis and neuronal maturation. This review discusses the possible involvement of ERGO in brain function and its potential therapeutic properties.

The Ergothioneine Transporter (ETT): Substrates and Locations, an Inventory

In all vertebrates including mammals, the ergothioneine transporter ETT (obsolete name OCTN1; human gene symbol SLC22A4) is a powerful and highly specific transporter for the uptake of ergothioneine (ET). ETT is not expressed ubiquitously and only cells with high ETT cell-surface levels can accumulate ET to high concentration. Without ETT, there is no uptake because the plasma membrane is essentially impermeable to this hydrophilic zwitterion. Here, we review the substrate specificity and localization of ETT, which is prominently expressed in neutrophils, monocytes/macrophages, and developing erythrocytes. Most sites of strong expression are conserved across species, but there are also major differences. In particular, we critically analyze the evidence for the expression of ETT in the brain as well as recent data suggesting that the transporter SLC22A15 may transport also ET. We conclude that, to date, ETT remains the only well-defined biomarker for intracellular ET activity. In humans, the ability to take up, distribute, and retain ET depends principally on this transporter.

The Impact of the hAPP695SW Transgene and Associated Amyloid-β Accumulation on Murine Hippocampal Biochemical Pathways

Background: Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by the accumulation of amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide in the brain. Objective: Gain a better insight into alterations in major biochemical pathways underlying AD. Methods: We compared metabolomic profiles of hippocampal tissue of 20-month-old female Tg2576 mice expressing the familial AD-associated hAPP695SW transgene with their 20-month-old wild type female littermates. Results: The hAPP695SW transgene causes overproduction and accumulation of Aβ in the brain. Out of 180 annotated metabolites, 54 metabolites differed (30 higher and 24 lower in Tg2576 versus wild-type hippocampal tissue) and were linked to the amino acid, nucleic acid, glycerophospholipid, ceramide, and fatty acid metabolism. Our results point to 1) heightened metabolic activity as indicated by higher levels of urea, enhanced fatty acid β-oxidation, and lower fatty acid levels; 2) enhanced redox regulation; and 3) an imbalance of neuro-excitatory and neuro-inhibitory metabolites in hippocampal tissue of aged hAPP695SW transgenic mice. Conclusion: Taken together, our results suggest that dysregulation of multiple metabolic pathways associated with a concomitant shift to an excitatory-inhibitory imbalance are contributing mechanisms of AD-related pathology in the Tg2576 mouse.

Comment on "Mushroom intake and depression: A population-based study using data from the US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), 2005-2016"

The collection of wild mushrooms for consumption remain highly popular in different populations and is also practiced in the US. It cannot be ruled out that the decreased (not dose-dependent) odd of depression in mushroom consumers is, at least partially, due to their exposure to the natural environment and associated lifestyle factors. Therefore, further research focusing on depression rates in groups of mushroom hunters is encouraged.

Aminothioneine, a product derived from golden oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus cornucopiae var. citrinopileatus), activates Ca2+ signal-mediated brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression in cultured cortical neurons

Ameliorating reduced brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression or maintaining high BDNF levels in the brain has been suggested to improve brain function in neurological diseases and prevent aging-related brain dysfunction. In this study, we found that a food-derived product, Aminothioneine® (AT), which is prepared from the extract of golden oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus cornucopiae var. citrinopileatus), increased Bdnf mRNA expression levels in primary rat cortical neuron cultures. Ergothioneine (ET) comprises more than 1% in AT and is an active constituent of AT, and ET has been reported to increase neurotrophin-4/5, but not BDNF, expression levels in neural stem cells. ET also did not affect Bdnf mRNA expression in cultured cortical neurons, suggesting that AT contains other active constituents that induce Bdnf mRNA expression in neurons. AT-induced Bdnf mRNA expression was completely blocked by d-(−)-2-Amino-5-phosphonopentanoic acid but partially blocked by nicardipine, U0126, and FK506. This result suggested that N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor-derived Ca²⁺ signals, including those mediated by extracellular signal-regulated kinase/mitogen-activated protein kinase and calcineurin, are the main contributors to Bdnf mRNA induction. In addition, AT increased cAMP-response element-binding protein (CREB) phosphorylation and the nuclear localization of CREB-regulated transcriptional coactivator 1 in neurons. Thus, AT can increase Bdnf mRNA expression via Ca²⁺ signal-induced CREB-dependent transcription in neurons. Because AT is a food-derived product, increasing and/or maintaining BDNF levels in the brain by daily intake of the product could be possible, which may be beneficial for neurological and aging-related disorders.

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Aminothioneine® (AT) induced Bdnf mRNA expression in cultured rat cortical neurons.

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Ergothioneine tended to induce Nt-4/5 but did not affect Bdnf mRNA expression.

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AT activated MAPK and calcineurin-regulated CREB-dependent transcription.

Mushroom intake and depression: A population-based study using data from the US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), 2005-2016

BACKGROUND

Mushrooms contain numerous bioactive compounds that may be associated with reduced anxiety including vitamin B12, nerve growth factor, antioxidants, and anti-inflammatory agents. We hypothesized that mushroom consumption is associated with a lower risk of depression in American adults.

METHODS

Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2005-2016 was used. Up to two days of 24 h dietary recall were analyzed to assess mushroom intake frequency. Depression was measured using the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9, score ≥ 10). We used multivariable logistic regression models, adjusting for potential confounding factors.

RESULTS

Among 24,699 participants (mean (SE) age: 45.5 (0.3) years), the weighted prevalence of depression was 5.9%. Mushrooms were consumed by 5.2% of participants. Compared with the lowest tertile of mushroom intake, participants in the middle tertile (median intake = 4.9 g/d, number of cases = 16) had lower odds of depression (adjusted OR = 0.31; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.16, 0.60) while those in the highest tertile did not differ (median intake = 19.6 g/d, adjusted OR = 0.91; 95% CI: 0.47, 1.78, number of cases = 22) (P-trend = 0.42).

LIMITATIONS

Cross-sectional data and lack of information on specific types of mushrooms consumed.

CONCLUSION

Mushroom consumers had a lower odd of depression. However, we did not observe a dose-response relationship.

A novel antioxidant ergothioneine PET radioligand for in vivo imaging applications

Ergothioneine (ERGO) is a rare amino acid mostly found in fungi, including mushrooms, with recognized antioxidant activity to protect tissues from damage by reactive oxygen species (ROS) components. Prior to this publication, the biodistribution of ERGO has been performed solely in vitro using extracted tissues. The aim of this study was to develop a feasible chemistry for the synthesis of an ERGO PET radioligand, [¹¹C]ERGO, to facilitate in vivo study. The radioligand probe was synthesized with identical structure to ERGO by employing an orthogonal protection/deprotection approach. [¹¹C]methylation of the precursor was performed via [¹¹C]CH₃OTf to provide [¹¹C]ERGO radioligand. The [¹¹C]ERGO was isolated by RP-HPLC with a molar activity of 690 TBq/mmol. To demonstrate the biodistribution of the radioligand, we administered approximately 37 MBq/0.1 mL in 5XFAD mice, a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease via the tail vein. The distribution of ERGO in the brain was monitored using 90-min dynamic PET scans. The delivery and specific retention of [¹¹C]ERGO in an LPS-mediated neuroinflammation mouse model was also demonstrated. For the pharmacokinetic study, the concentration of the compound in the serum started to decrease 10 min after injection while starting to distribute in other peripheral tissues. In particular, a significant amount of the compound was found in the eyes and small intestine. The radioligand was also distributed in several regions of the brain of 5XFAD mice, and the signal remained strong 30 min post-injection. This is the first time the biodistribution of this antioxidant and rare amino acid has been demonstrated in a preclinical mouse model in a highly sensitive and non-invasive manner.

Whole-blood metabolomics of dementia patients reveal classes of disease-linked metabolites

Dementia is caused by factors that damage neurons. We quantified small molecular markers in whole blood of dementia patients, using nontargeted liquid chromatography-mass spectroscopy (LC-MS). Thirty-three metabolites, classified into five groups (A to E), differed significantly in dementia patients, compared with healthy elderly subjects. Seven A metabolites present in plasma, including quinolinic acid, kynurenine, and indoxyl-sulfate, increased. Possibly they act as neurotoxins in the central nervous system (CNS). The remaining 26 compounds (B to E) decreased, possibly causing a loss of support or protection of the brain in dementia. Six B metabolites, normally enriched in red blood cells (RBCs), all contain trimethylated ammonium moieties. These metabolites include ergothioneine and structurally related compounds that have scarcely been investigated as dementia markers, validating the examination of RBC metabolites. Ergothioneine, a potent antioxidant, is significantly decreased in various cognition-related disorders, such as mild cognitive impairment and frailty. C compounds also include some oxidoreductants and are normally abundant in RBCs (NADP+, glutathione, adenosine triphosphate, pantothenate, S-adenosyl-methionine, and gluconate). Their decreased levels in dementia patients may also contribute to depressed brain function. Twelve D metabolites contains plasma compounds, such as amino acids, glycerophosphocholine, dodecanoyl-carnitine, and 2-hydroxybutyrate, which normally protect the brain, but their diminution in dementia may reduce that protection. Seven D compounds have been identified previously as dementia markers. B to E compounds may be critical to maintain the CNS by acting directly or indirectly. How RBC metabolites act in the CNS and why they diminish significantly in dementia remain to be determined.

Discovering the Potentials of Medicinal Mushrooms in Combating Depression - A Review

Depression is the most common form of mental illness and the major cause of disability worldwide. Symptoms of depression, including feelings of intense sadness and hopelessness, may occur after a specific event or in response to a gradual decline in health and functional status, often associated with aging. Current therapies for treating these symptoms include antidepressant drugs, counseling and behavioral therapy. However, antidepressant drugs are associated with mild to severe adverse effects, which has prompted the need for better treatment options. Medicinal mushrooms are valuable sources of food and medicine and are increasingly being used as supplements or as alternative medicines in standard healthcare. Numerous studies have provided insights into the neuroprotective effects of medicinal mushrooms, which are attributed to their antioxidant, anti-neuroinflammatory, cholinesterase inhibitory and neuroprotective properties. In this review, we comprehensively examine the role of these medicinal mushrooms in the treatment of depression. However, to apply these natural products in clinical settings, the therapeutic agent needs to be properly evaluated, including the active ingredients, the presence of synergistic effects, efficient extraction methods, and stabilization of the active ingredients for delivery into the body as well as crossing the blood-brain barrier.

The current status of biotechnological production and the application of a novel antioxidant ergothioneine

Ergothioneine is a sulfur-containing histidine derivative, that possessesexcellent antioxidant activity and has been used in the food and cosmetics industries. It plays a significant role in anti-aging and the prevention of various diseases. This review will briefly introduce the functions and applications of ergothioneine, elaborate the biosynthetic pathways of ergothioneine and describe several strategies to increase the production of ergothioneine. Then the efficient extraction and detection methods of ergothioneine will be presented. Finally, several proposals are put forward to increase the yield of ergothioneine, and the development prospects of ergothioneine will be discussed.

Ergothioneine, recent developments

There has been a recent surge of interest in the unique low molecular weight dietary thiol/thione, ergothioneine. This compound can accumulate at high levels in the body from diet and may play important physiological roles in human health and development, and possibly in prevention and treatment of disease. Blood levels of ergothioneine decline with age and onset of various diseases. Here we highlight recent advances in our knowledge of ergothioneine.

Capabilities of selenoneine to cross the in vitro blood-brain barrier model

The naturally occurring selenoneine (SeN), the selenium analogue of the sulfur-containing antioxidant ergothioneine, can be found in high abundance in several marine fish species. However, data on biological properties of SeN and its relevance for human health are still scarce. This study aims to investigate the transfer and presystemic metabolism of SeN in a well-established in vitro model of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Therefore, SeN and the reference Se species selenite and Se-methylselenocysteine (MeSeCys) were applied to primary porcine brain capillary endothelial cells (PBCECs). Se content of culture media and cell lysates was measured via ICP-MS/MS. Speciation analysis was conducted by HPLC-ICP-MS. Barrier integrity was shown to be unaffected during transfer experiments. SeN demonstrated the lowest transfer rates and permeability coefficient (6.7 × 10-7 cm s-1) in comparison to selenite and MeSeCys. No side-directed accumulation was observed after both-sided application of SeN. However, concentration-dependent transfer of SeN indicated possible presence of transporters on both sides of the barrier. Speciation analysis demonstrated no methylation of SeN by the PBCECs. Several derivatives of SeN detected in the media of the BBB model were also found in cell-free media containing SeN and hence not considered to be true metabolites of the PBCECs. In concluding, SeN is likely to have a slow transfer rate to the brain and not being metabolized by the brain endothelial cells. Since this study demonstrates that SeN may reach the brain tissue, further studies are needed to investigate possible health-promoting effects of SeN in humans.

Construction of a genetic linkage map and detection of quantitative trait locus for the ergothioneine content in tamogitake mushroom (Pleurotus cornucopiae var. citrinopileatus)

Developing high-content strains of L-ergothioneine (EGT), an antioxidant amino acid, is an important breeding target for tamogitake mushroom, Pleurotus cornucopiae var. citrinopileatus. We constructed a genetic linkage map based on segregation analysis of markers in 105 F1 progenies. The loci of 245 markers, including 10 AFLP markers, 195 Rad markers, 2 mating type factors, and 38 gene markers, were mapped. The map contained 12 linkage groups with a total genetic distance of 906.8 cM, and an average marker interval of 4.0 cM. The population from crossing between tester monokaryon and F1 progenies was used to characterize quantitative trait loci (QTL) for EGT content. With composite interval mapping (CIM) method, QTL of EGT content were found to be located in linkage group 10, having a Logarithm of the odds (LOD) score of 2.53 with a 10.1% contribution rate. Moreover, a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), A/T, was identified in a gene region of the genome in the neighborhood where the QTL peak existed. This SNP genotype was in good agreement with the EGT phenotypes of each strain in the both QTL population and wild population. Thus, this SNP would have great potential value to use the marker-assisted selection (MAS) for this mushroom with high EGT content.

Regulation of Neurogenesis by Organic Cation Transporters: Potential Therapeutic Implications

Neurogenesis is the process by which new neurons are generated from neural stem cells (NSCs), which are cells that have the ability to proliferate and differentiate into neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes. The process is essential for homeostatic tissue regeneration and the coordination of neural plasticity throughout life, as neurons cannot regenerate once injured. Therefore, defects in neurogenesis are related to the onset and exacerbation of several neuropsychiatric disorders, and therefore, the regulation of neurogenesis is considered to be a novel strategy for treatment. Neurogenesis is regulated not only by NSCs themselves, but also by the functional microenvironment surrounding the NSCs, known as the "neurogenic niche." The neurogenic niche consists of several types of neural cells, including neurons, glial cells, and vascular cells. To allow communication with these cells, transporters may be involved in the secretion and uptake of substrates that are essential for signal transduction. This chapter will focus on the involvement of polyspecific solute carriers transporting organic cations in the possible regulation of neurogenesis by controlling the concentration of several organic cation substrates in NSCs and the neurogenic niche. The potential therapeutic implications of neurogenesis regulation by these transporters will also be discussed.

The biology of ergothioneine, an antioxidant nutraceutical

Ergothioneine (ERG) is an unusual thio-histidine betaine amino acid that has potent antioxidant activities. It is synthesised by a variety of microbes, especially fungi (including in mushroom fruiting bodies) and actinobacteria, but is not synthesised by plants and animals who acquire it via the soil and their diet, respectively. Animals have evolved a highly selective transporter for it, known as solute carrier family 22, member 4 (SLC22A4) in humans, signifying its importance, and ERG may even have the status of a vitamin. ERG accumulates differentially in various tissues, according to their expression of SLC22A4, favouring those such as erythrocytes that may be subject to oxidative stress. Mushroom or ERG consumption seems to provide significant prevention against oxidative stress in a large variety of systems. ERG seems to have strong cytoprotective status, and its concentration is lowered in a number of chronic inflammatory diseases. It has been passed as safe by regulatory agencies, and may have value as a nutraceutical and antioxidant more generally.

A Mechanistic Review on Medicinal Mushrooms-Derived Bioactive Compounds: Potential Mycotherapy Candidates for Alleviating Neurological Disorders

According to the World Health Organization, neurological and neurodegenerative diseases are highly debilitating and pose the greatest threats to public health. Diseases of the nervous system are caused by a particular pathological process that negatively affects the central and peripheral nervous systems. These diseases also lead to the loss of neuronal cell function, which causes alterations in the nervous system structure, resulting in the degeneration or death of nerve cells throughout the body. This causes problems with movement (ataxia) and mental dysfunction (dementia), both of which are commonly observed symptoms in Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and multiple sclerosis. Medicinal mushrooms are higher fungi with nutraceutical properties and are low in calories and fat. They are also a rich source of nutrients and bioactive compounds such as carbohydrates, proteins, fibers, and vitamins that have been used in the treatment of many ailments. Medicinal mushrooms such as Pleurotus giganteus, Ganoderma lucidium, and Hericium erinaceus are commonly produced worldwide for use as health supplements and medicine. Medicinal mushrooms and their extracts have a large number of bioactive compounds, such as polysaccharide β-glucan, or polysaccharide-protein complexes, like lectins, lactones, terpenoids, alkaloids, antibiotics, and metal-chelating agents. This review will focus on the role of the medicinal properties of different medicinal mushrooms that contain bioactive compounds with a protective effect against neuronal dysfunction. This information will facilitate the development of drugs against neurodegenerative diseases.

Assessing the Causal Effects of Human Serum Metabolites on 5 Major Psychiatric Disorders

Psychiatric disorders are the leading cause of disability worldwide while the pathogenesis remains unclear. Genome-wide association studies (GWASs) have made great achievements in detecting disease-related genetic variants. However, functional information on the underlying biological processes is often lacking. Current reports propose the use of metabolic traits as functional intermediate phenotypes (the so-called genetically determined metabotypes or GDMs) to reveal the biological mechanisms of genetics in human diseases. Here we conducted a two-sample Mendelian randomization analysis that uses GDMs to assess the causal effects of 486 human serum metabolites on 5 major psychiatric disorders, which respectively were schizophrenia (SCZ), major depression (MDD), bipolar disorder (BIP), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Using genetic variants as proxies, our study has identified 137 metabolites linked to the risk of psychiatric disorders, including 2-methoxyacetaminophen sulfate, which affects SCZ (P = 1.7 × 10-5) and 1-docosahexaenoylglycerophosphocholine, which affects ADHD (P = 5.6 × 10-5). Fourteen significant metabolic pathways involved in the 5 psychiatric disorders assessed were also detected, such as glycine, serine, and threonine metabolism for SCZ (P = .0238), Aminoacyl-tRNA biosynthesis for both MDD (P = .0144) and ADHD (P = .0029). Our study provided novel insights into integrating metabolomics with genomics in order to understand the mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of human diseases.

Could Ergothioneine Aid in the Treatment of Coronavirus Patients?

Infection with SARS-CoV-2 causes the coronavirus infectious disease 2019 (COVID-19), a pandemic that has, at present, infected more than 11 million people globally. Some COVID-19 patients develop a severe and critical illness, spurred on by excessive inflammation that can lead to respiratory or multiorgan failure. Numerous studies have established the unique array of cytoprotective properties of the dietary amino acid ergothioneine. Based on studies in a range of in vitro and in vivo models, ergothioneine has exhibited the ability to modulate inflammation, scavenge free radicals, protect against acute respiratory distress syndrome, prevent endothelial dysfunction, protect against ischemia and reperfusion injury, protect against neuronal damage, counteract iron dysregulation, hinder lung and liver fibrosis, and mitigate damage to the lungs, kidneys, liver, gastrointestinal tract, and testis, amongst many others. When compiled, this evidence suggests that ergothioneine has a potential application in the treatment of the underlying pathology of COVID-19. We propose that ergothioneine could be used as a therapeutic to reduce the severity and mortality of COVID-19, especially in the elderly and those with underlying health conditions. This review presents evidence to support that proposal.

Ergothioneine, a metabolite of the gut bacterium Lactobacillus reuteri, protects against stress-induced sleep disturbances

The relationships between depression and gut microbiota, particularly those involving the immune system, have become a major focus of recent research. Here, we analyzed changes in gut microbiota and their sulfur metabolites in the feces of a depression rat model using the modified 14-day social defeat stress (SDS) paradigm. Our results showed that SDS increased fecal Lactobacillus reuteri in correlation with ergothioneine levels at around day 11, which continued for at least 1 month following SDS administration. In vitro study further revealed that L. reuteri is capable of producing ergothioneine. Although the known anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative actions of ergothioneine suggested that the increased fecal ergothioneine levels may be related to intestinal anti-inflammatory defense mechanisms, no change was observed in the plasma ergothioneine levels during the same observation period, indicating that the defense mechanisms may not be sufficiently reflected in the body. As ergothioneine is a natural ingredient that is absorbed mainly from the upper gastrointestinal tract, we hypothesized that oral ergothioneine may exert antidepressant effects. As expected, oral administration of ergothioneine prior to and during the SDS paradigm had a preventative effect on SDS-induced depressive behaviors, such as social avoidance and depression-like sleep abnormalities, particularly those of rapid eye movement sleep. These findings indicate that ergothioneine, a metabolite of L. reuteri, may be a common substance in the microbiota-gut-brain axis that prevents stress-induced sleep disturbances, especially those associated with depression.