The required interaction between monocytes and peripheral blood T lymphocytes (T-PBL) upon activation via CD2 or CD3. Role of HLA class I molecules from accessory cells and the differential response of T-PBL subsets

Role of HLA-I Structural Variants and the Polyreactive Antibodies They Generate in Immune Homeostasis

Cell-surface HLA-I molecules consisting of β2-microglobulin (β2m) associated heavy chains (HCs), referred to as Face-1, primarily present peptides to CD8+ T-cells. HCs consist of three α-domains, with selected amino acid sequences shared by all alleles of all six isoforms. The cell-surface HLA undergoes changes upon activation by pathological conditions with the expression of β2m-free HCs (Face-2) resulting in exposure of β2m-masked sequences shared by almost all alleles and the generation of HLA-polyreactive antibodies (Abs) against them. Face-2 may homodimerize or heterodimerize with the same (Face-3) or different alleles (Face-4) preventing exposure of shared epitopes. Non-allo immunized males naturally carry HLA-polyreactive Abs. The therapeutic intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) purified from plasma of thousands of donors contains HLA-polyreactive Abs, admixed with non-HLA Abs. Purified HLA-polyreactive monoclonal Abs (TFL-006/007) generated in mice after immunizing with Face-2 are documented to be immunoregulatory by suppressing or activating different human lymphocytes, much better than IVIg. Our objectives are (a) to elucidate the complexity of the HLA-I structural variants, and their Abs that bind to both shared and uncommon epitopes on different variants, and (b) to examine the roles of those Abs against HLA-variants in maintaining immune homeostasis. These may enable the development of personalized therapeutic strategies for various pathological conditions.

Monoclonal antibody to the HLA class I alpha 3 domain inhibits T cell activation and prolongs cardiac allograft survival in HLA-transgenic mice

Antibodies recognizing MHC class I molecules expressed on the surface of T cells have been shown to inhibit T cell responses in vitro. These findings suggested that therapy with such an antibody may prevent rejection and promote graft acceptance. We therefore tested the effect of an anti-HLA class I alpha 3 domain antibody (TP25.99) in vivo using transgenic C57BL/6 mice expressing HLA-B2705. Flow cytometric analysis confirmed the binding of TP25.99 to normal human peripheral blood lymphocytes and to mouse spleen cells, bone marrow cells and thymocytes isolated from hemizygous (+/-) transgenic littermates but not from homozygous (-/-) littermates. TP25.99 inhibited OKT-3-induced, but not PMA+ionomycin-induced, proliferation of human peripheral blood lymphocyte as well as anti-CD3 or Con A-induced proliferation of HLA+ mouse T cells. Both intact monoclonal antibody TP25.99 and TP25.99 Fab inhibited T cell proliferation. Reduced proliferation was associated with suppressed production of interleukin-2 as measured by ELISA. The efficacy of TP25.99 Fab in vivo was evaluated in a heart allograft model. Antibody therapy of (H-2h, B2705+) transgenic recipients of allogeneic Balb/c (H-2d) heart grafts prolonged graft survival significantly (MST = 19.8 +/- 6.4, p = 0.003) compared to treated (H-2b, B2705-) (MST = 9.17 +/- 2.2) or untreated (H-2b, B2705+) (MST = 10.0 +/- 2.8) transgenic recipients. This demonstrates that immunomodulation through anti-HLA class I antibody therapy can lead to prolongation of graft survival.

The costimulatory and differentiating activity of soluble class I MHC antigens for an autologous thymocyte population

Combined cultivation of macrophages with syngeneic thymocytes resulted in accumulation of soluble H-2Kk antigens in culture medium. Incubation of intact autologous thymocytes with these soluble class I MHC molecules was shown to induce functional maturation of thymocytes assayed in local graft-vs-host reaction. Similar thymocyte costimulating activity was detected for the papain-solubilized purified H-2Kk antigens. Soluble class I antigens were shown to costimulate IL2 production by thymocytes in response to submitogenic doses of exogenous IL2 and to increase PHA-induced thymocyte proliferation. Soluble class I molecules were shown to increase the level of expression of function-associated membrane antigens, H-2Kk, CD8 and CD4, and to trigger thymocyte differentiation. The expression of I-Ak antigens remained invariable. It was also shown that soluble autologous class I molecules may function as direct amplifiers of thymocyte proliferation in autologous, but not allogeneic, mixed leukocyte reactions. It is concluded that soluble MHC class I molecules are capable of triggering functional and phenotype differentiation of syngeneic thymocytes and acting as restricted coaccessory molecules when thymocyte activation is induced by a submitogenic dose of different stimuli.

Evidence for an ongoing role of class I histocompatibility molecules for the production of interleukin-2 in response to suboptimal concentrations of phytohaemagglutinin

To examine the role of cellular interactions involving class I histocompatibility antigens in the response to low concentrations of phytohaemagglutinin, we studied the effect of antibodies to components of these antigens on proliferative responses, interleukin-1 and interleukin-2 production, and IL-2 receptor expression. Antibody to human beta 2-microglobulin (beta 2m) had an inhibitory effect both on IL-2 accumulation at 48 h of culture and on the proliferative response 24 h later. Exogenous IL-2 completely reconstituted the inhibited proliferative responses, and also restored the modest decrease in IL-2 receptor expression that was induced by anti-beta 2m. Pretreatment of either purified monocytes or T cells with anti-beta 2m had a similar inhibitory effect both on proliferation and on interleukin-2 production. By contrast, IL-1 production by LPS- or silica-stimulated monocytes was not affected by this antibody. Kinetic experiments demonstrated that anti-beta 2m was equally inhibitory when added at the initiation of culture or after 24h, and significant inhibition occurred when the antibody was added as late as 48 h. Our results are consistent with an ongoing role for class I antigens in the cellular interactions between lymphocytes and accessory cells required for the production of IL-2.

Production of tumor necrosis factor-alpha by naive or memory T lymphocytes activated via CD28

While it is well established that activated T cells can produce tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha), it is less clear whether this function is confined to a given subset, e.g., memory cells. To approach this question, we investigated the production of TNF-alpha by human peripheral blood T lymphocytes activated with anti-CD28 mAb since this activation pathway is known to potentiate cytokine production. Under the culture conditions used, the amount of TNF-alpha produced was markedly enhanced compared to that obtained after activation with immobilized anti-CD3 mAb. The enhancement of TNF-alpha production was already apparent after incubation of T cells for 6 hr. Up to 5 ng/ml of TNF-alpha was measured on Day 2 in supernatants of cultures of 10(4) T lymphocytes. To determine the source of the cells producing high amounts of TNF-alpha, T lymphocytes were separated into two subpopulations, namely naive cells (expressing the CD45RA isoform) and memory cells (expressing the CD45RO isoform). While both subpopulations proliferated equally well after stimulation with anti-CD28 mAb, up to 90% of the TNF-alpha produced under these conditions originated from memory T cells. These results thus document that T cell activation via CD28 results in a marked increase in TNF-alpha production without affecting the functional disparity that exists between naive and memory T cells.

Immobilized anti-CD3-induced T cell growth: comparison of the frequency of responding cells within various T cell subsets

Human T cells can be divided into subsets based on the expression of CD29, CD45RA, CD45RO, LFA-3, or CD11a. It has been suggested that the subset of CD4+ T cells that expresses high densities of CD29, CD11a, CD45RO, and LFA-3 contains "memory" T cells, whereas the subset of cells that expresses CD45RA contains "naive" T cells. In order to obtain a more complete picture of the functional capacities of human naive and memory CD4+ and CD8+ T cell subsets, highly purified T cells were activated with a uniform stimulus and responses were examined in bulk cultures and under limiting dilution conditions. T cell activation was achieved with an immobilized mAb to the CD3 molecular complex, 64.1. In bulk cultures, immobilized 64.1 stimulated a vigorous response. Moreover, the number of cells entering the cell cycle, the magnitude of the [3H]thymidine incorporation, and the growth of the cells over 6 days in culture by naive and memory CD4+ T cells was comparable. To delineate the frequency of responsive cells in each subset more precisely, cells were cultured with immobilized 64.1 at limiting dilution and the precursor frequency of responding cells was assessed by examining wells microscopically for visible growth. Immobilized 64.1 was able to induce some T cells from each subset to grow in the complete absence of AC, when exogenous IL2 was present. The number of responding CD4+ and CD8+ cells was comparable. The percentage of naive cells responding in each population was approximately three times greater than the frequency of memory cells. IL4 could also support the growth of immobilized 64.1-activated CD4+ T cells, but the frequency of responding cells was much lower than that supported by IL2. The vast majority of the IL-4 responsive CD4+ cells resided within the naive cell subset. The data indicate that the response of CD4+ and CD8+ naive and memory T cell subsets to immobilized anti-CD3 depends on the density of responding cells. Naive T cells have an enhanced capacity to grow when cultured in the absence of other T cells or accessory cells. This ability may facilitate their expansion during primary immune responses.

Differential inhibition of mitogenic responsiveness by monoclonal antibodies to beta 2-microglobulin

A panel of 10 monoclonal antibodies (MoAbs) to human beta 2-microglobulin (beta 2m) was used to evaluate the modulation of lymphocyte activation induced by different mitogenic stimuli. All 10 MoAbs inhibited proliferative responses of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) to phytohemagglutinin (PHA), concanavalin A (Con A), pokeweed mitogen (PWM), and allogeneic cells in mixed lymphocyte culture (MLC), although some MoAbs were inhibitory at much lower concentrations than others. No enhancement or direct mitogenicity was observed, but at low MoAb concentrations a delayed peak response sometimes occurred. Differentiation of B cells in PWM-stimulated PBMC cultures was also inhibited as measured by reduced accumulation of supernatant IgM and IgG. Anti-beta 2m MoAb did not interfere with the binding of PHA or PWM to PBMC, and membrane mobility as judged by subsequent capping of these lectins also appeared to be normal. Furthermore, anti-beta 2m was inhibitory when added 24 hr prior to peak responsiveness, and proliferative responses to the phorbol ester PMA in combination with ionomycin were also inhibited by MoAb, indicating that membrane-mediated events were not the target of inhibition. A comparison of the inhibitory effects of anti-beta 2m MoAb on activation by different stimuli revealed that PWM and MLC responses were much more sensitive to inhibition followed by, in order of decreasing inhibition, Con A, PHA, ionomycin alone, and PMA/ionomycin. A MoAb to a monomorphic determinant of HLA-A, B, C exhibited the same inhibitory trend, suggesting that the mechanism of inhibition was the same as for anti-beta 2m MoAbs. No inhibition was observed when PBMC were stimulated by PMA alone, suggesting that the MoAbs have little effect on activation mediated by protein kinase C but may preferentially affect the calcium-dependent pathway of activation. Thus, this differential inhibition observed with different stimuli may reflect the relative contribution of class I antigens to lymphocyte activation by a particular mitogen.

Age-related changes in the activation requirements of human CD4+ T-cell subsets

In agreement with previous studies, we found that the proliferative response of unfractionated T-cells to phytohaemagglutinin (PHA) was severely impaired in healthy aged individuals (70-85 years). On the other hand, we did not observe significant differences between aged and young adults in T-cell responsiveness to mab OKT3 (anti-CD3). PHA responses in "old" T-cells could be substantially improved, however, by the addition of recombinant interleukin-2 (rIL-2) or KOLT2 (anti-CD28 mab). When individual CD4+ T-cell subpopulations were isolated from young and old donors and stimulated with PHA in the presence of autologous accessory cells, age-related deficiencies were seen in both CD4+CD45RA+ (naive) and CD4+CD45RO+ (memory) cell populations. Further analysis using a panel of coactivators in cultures depleted of accessory cells identified specific abnormalities in the CD2 or alternate pathway of T-cell activation. These were predominantly seen in CD4+ naive T-cells. The capacity of rIL-2, KOLT2, and PMA to restore, at least partially, T-cell responsiveness in the aged suggests a defect(s) in an early signal transduction mechanism.

HLA class II molecules on monocytes regulate T cell proliferation through physical interaction in the CD3 activation pathway

HLA class II molecules are involved in the OKT3-induced T cell activation, since monoclonal antibodies (mAb) to monomorphic determinants of class II antigens are able to inhibit T cell proliferation. This effect involves several of the events leading to T cell activation and proliferation, i.e. interleukin (IL) 1, IL 6 and IL2 secretion and IL2 receptor expression. The main target of the inhibition is represented by monocytes, and the interference of anti-class II mAb in the direct interaction of monocytes with T cells is likely to play a relevant role in the inhibition mechanism. To test this hypothesis, we investigated in the present study the effect of anti-class II mAb on the proliferation of T cells stimulated with mAb OKT3 in the presence of paraformaldehyde-treated monocytes. We show that the inhibition of proliferation is specific and dose dependent, and seems to involve particular class II epitopes. Addition of fixed monocytes to inhibited T cell cultures restores proliferation to a moderate extent, only if monocytes are added within the first 12 h of culture, suggesting that class II antigens or spatially related molecules deliver signals concurrently with the mitogenic stimulus. The blocking capability of anti-class II mAb was not restricted to the CD4+ or the CD8+ T cell subsets, suggesting that, under inhibitory conditions, these mAb affect other structures on the T cell surface, relevant to the monocyte-T cell interaction.

Molecular associations on the T cell surface correlate with immunological memory

Different isoforms of CD45 are expressed on naive and memory CD4 T cells in the mouse, as revealed by an antibody to a set of isoforms of CD45 that utilize exon B, called CD45RB. Cloned TH1 and TH2 lines also differ for expression of isoforms detected by this antibody. Differential expression of CD45 isoforms correlates with different behavior of cell surface molecules involved in transmembrane signal transduction. On naive T cells, CD4, CD45 and the CD3/T cell receptor complex behave as independent entities. On memory T cells, these three molecules are stably associated on the T cell surface. Furthermore, on TH2 cells, which express intermediate levels of CD45RB, CD4 is stably associated with CD45 isoforms other than CD45RB, but this complex is not associated with the CD3/T cell receptor. These results lead us to propose that immunological memory in CD4 T cells consists of an altered structure of the T cell's specific signal transduction apparatus controlled by low-molecular weight CD45 isoforms. This altered receptor structure would allow the more sensitive triggering of the T cell characteristic of memory cells. The organization of multimolecular signal transduction systems may be a general means by which cells alter their physiological behavior, allowing the acquisition of new phenotypic characteristics.

Involvement of major histocompatibility complex class I antigens in T cell activation

During the last few years ample evidence has been collected indicating a regulatory role for major histocompatibility complex class I antigens (Ag) in T cell activation. However, due to differential effects (stimulatory and inhibitory) of anti-class I antibodies (Ab) observed under different conditions, no coherent scheme of the mechanism of action of these Ag has emerged. Here, we present evidence that the mode of action of anti-class I Ab depends upon the presence or absence of monocytes/macrophages (M phi) in the culture. The Ab inhibit Ag presentation by binding to M phi. Coating of tetanus toxin -pulsed M phi with anti-class I Ab is sufficient to suppress T cell activation. On the contrary, these Ab enhance lectin- as well as phorbol ester-induced T cell activation in the absence of M phi. Cross-linking of class I Ag on T cell surface mobilizes cytoplasmic Ca2+, and also enhances the CD3-induced Ca2+ flux inside the cells indicating a functional relationship between CD3 and class I Ag. Though surface modulation and immunoprecipitation experiments do not indicate any physical association between these two types of molecules on the T cell surface, capping studies show that cross-linking of class I Ag induces an association of these Ag with CD3. Binding of anti-CD3 Ab enhances the strength of association between CD3 and class I Ag, and the former co-caps completely with the latter. Based on these observations we propose that during antigen presentation M phi (or Ag-presenting cells) and T cells, besides interacting via peptide--class II Ag/CD3--T cell receptor complex formation, also interact through class I Ag. The latter interaction may stabilize the contact formation between T cells and Ag-presenting cell and support T cell activation.

Is T-cell memory maintained by crossreactive stimulation?

Whether or not T- and B-cell memory is antigen driven remains unresolved. Recent studies indicate that, in humans, naive and memory T cells can be distinguished by their expression of different CD45 isoforms. Extensive phenotypic analysis of naive and memory T cells shows that the latter express greater amounts of several adhesion molecules as well as low levels of several antigens indicative of activation. These features suggest to Peter Beverley that memory T cells may be more readily activated and that memory may be maintained by crossreactive restimulation.

Hyporesponsiveness of "naive" (CD45RA+) human T cells to multiple receptor-mediated stimuli but augmentation of responses by co-stimuli

Much remains to be clarified the functional capacities of the two major reciprocal subsets of human CD4+ cells which we interpret to be naive and memory cells. CD4+ naive (CD45RA+, LFA-3-) and memory (CD45R0+, LFA-3+) cells were rigorously purified by immunomagnetic negative selection. Their proliferation was measured in response to four protocols of receptor-mediated activation: soluble anti-CD3 mAb, plastic-immobilized anti-CD3 mAb, activating pairs of anti-CD2 mAb, and "superantigens" staphyloccocal enterotoxins A and B (SEA and SEB). Naive cells proliferated much less than memory cells to each of these four regimens although their capacity to respond was demonstrated by strong PHA-induced proliferation. Although three of the regimens depend on autologous monocytes, poorer naive cell responses are also observed to anti-CD3 mAb immobilized on plastic in the absence of monocytes; this implies an intrinsic hyporesponsiveness of naive cells, independent of their potentially weaker interaction with monocytes. Naive cells proliferated less than memory cells to superantigens SEA and SEB over a wide dose range; this assumes particular importance because such superantigens are believed to more closely mimic antigen-specific stimulation than anti-CD3 mAb. The possibility was explored that hyporesponsiveness of naive cells reflects the fact that naive cells require additional co-stimuli to facilitate their activation. In support of this concept, we observed that proliferation of naive cells to anti-CD3 mAb and SEA or SEB (but not to anti-CD2 mAb pairs) was consistently enhanced by pre-activation of monocytes present in the culture. Naive cell proliferative responses were augmented further in cultures supplemented with interleukin (IL) 1 beta and IL 6 or exposed to the co-stimulating mAb anti-CD28 and anti-CD44. The pattern of augmentation was dependent on the specific triggering regimen: anti-CD44 mAb was particularly effective in augmenting the response to superantigens, anti-CD28 mAb for the anti-CD3 response and IL 1 beta/IL 6 for that induced by anti-CD2 mAb pairs. With particular combinations of stimulus/co-stimuli naive cell proliferation was as strong as that of memory cells. We interpret these findings to indicate that naive cells are capable of responding to antigen, but that such responses are critically dependent on the available co-stimuli in vivo.

Dichotomous effect of monocyte Fc receptor interaction on anti-CD3-induced immunoglobulin synthesis

Monoclonal antibodies against the TCR/CD3 complex are capable of activating T cells which in turn may induce immunoglobulin synthesis in B cells under appropriate conditions. Here we present evidence that distinct immune responses, induced by four commonly used TCR/CD3 mAb (Leu4, OKT3, BMA030, BMA031) were related to the mAb interaction with monocyte Fc receptors for IgG. Depending on their isotype and on the technique by which they were crosslinked, TCR/CD3 mAb induced variable IgM and IgG synthesis in PBMC: If the mAb were crosslinked by monocyte IgG-Fc receptors they induced a high Ig production, while crosslinking the same mAb by plastic-bound goat anti-mouse antibodies (panning) failed to do so. Nevertheless, both crosslinking techniques triggered a strong proliferation and IL-2, IL-4, and IFN gamma lymphokine gene expression. The lack of Ig production under panning conditions was due to an additional IgG-Fc receptor interaction with monocytes: (a) If namely mAb F(ab')2 fragments, or mAb isotypes unable to bind to monocyte Fc receptors (IgG2b, IgG1 in nonresponders) were crosslinked by panning, both a good proliferation as well as Ig production ensued; (b) if TCR/CD3 mAb isotypes which could additionally bind to monocyte Fc receptor (IgG2a) were crosslinked, no Ig production occurred; (c) if mAb F(ab')2 fragments were crosslinked with a second anti-T cell antibody of IgG2a isotype, which could bind to monocyte Fc receptors, Ig synthesis was reduced. Interestingly enough, this diminishing effect, due to monocyte Fc receptor interaction, was only observed if CD4-positive cells were proliferating, but not if CD8-positive cells were activated.

Lack of a role of monocytes in the inhibition by monoclonal antibodies to monomorphic and polymorphic determinants of HLA class I antigens of PHA-P-induced peripheral blood mononuclear cell proliferation

This study aimed at characterizing the mechanism(s) underlying the regulatory role of distinct determinants of HLA Class I antigens in PHA-P-induced T cell proliferation and the involvement of monocytes in this phenomenon. The anti-HLA-A2,A28 monoclonal antibodies (MoAb) CR11-351, the MoAb Q6/64 to a determinant restricted to the gene products of the I antigens HLA-B locus, and the MoAb CR10-215 and W6/32 to distinct monomorphic determinants of HLA Class I antigens were found to inhibit PHA-P-induced peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) proliferation in a dose-dependent fashion. The inhibition is specific and reflects neither inhibition of PHA-P binding to cells nor a toxic effect of the anti-HLA Class I MoAb. The latter differed in the concentration required to induce inhibition, in the influence of the concentration of PHA-P used as mitogen, in the differential effect on the donors used as a source of PBMC, and/or in the requirement of the Fc portion to induce inhibition. At variance with the information in the literature, the inhibitory effect of anti-HLA Class I MoAb on PHA-P-induced PBMC proliferation neither reflected their interaction with accessory cells nor was mediated by suppressor factors released by monocytes stimulated with PHA-P in the presence of anti-HLA Class I MoAb. Therefore, the regulatory role of HLA Class I antigens in T cell proliferation is not likely to be mediated by monocytes and/or factors released from them, but may reflect an involvement of these molecules in T cell activation pathways.