Substances with estrogenic activity in effluents of sewage treatment plants in southwestern Germany. 1. Chemical analysis

Characterisation of ChE in Solea solea and exposure of isoflavones in juveniles of commercial flatfish (Solea solea and Solea senegalensis)

The isoflavones genistein and daidzein are flavonoid compounds mainly found in legumes, especially in soybeans and their derived products. These flavonoids can be present in agricultural, domestic and industrial wastewater effluents as a result of anthropogenic activities and may be discharged in the environment. Due to the large growth of the aquaculture sector in recent decades, new and cost-effective fish feeds are being sought, but there is also a particular need to determine the effects of exposed flavonoids on fish in the aquatic environment, as this is the main route of exposure of organisms to endocrine disruptors. This study evaluated the possible effects of these isoflavones on juveniles of Solea senegalensis and Solea solea. After 48-96 h of exposure, the acetylcholinesterase activity in the sole head tissues was measured, and the cholinesterase activity in juveniles of common sole (S. solea) was determined. Experiments were carried out to determine the optimal pH, investigate the specificity of three substrates (acetylthiocholine, butyrylthiocholine, propionylthiocholine) on cholinesterase activity and determine the kinetic parameters (Vmax and Km ). The results obtained showed that neither genistein nor daidzein exposure to S. senegalensis and S. solea inhibited the activity of acetylcholinesterase at the tested concentrations (genistein: 1.25, 2.5, 5, 10 and 20 mg/L; daidzein: 0.625, 1.25, 2.5, 5 and 10 mg/L).

Embryonic exposure to genistein induces anxiolytic and antisocial behavior in zebrafish: persistent effects until the adult stage

Genistein is a phytoestrogen, which is structurally similar to 17β-estradiol. It is present in plants, food, and as a contaminant in effluents. In this article, we demonstrate the effects of embryonic exposure to three different concentrations of genistein (10 μg/L, 40 μg/L, and 80 μg/L) which is similar to those found in effluents. Zebrafish eggs were exposed during the first 72 h post-fertilization (hpf). Heart rate was evaluated at 48 hpf and mortality rate was assessed during the first 72 hpf. The light/dark (LDT) and open field (OFT) behavioral tests were applied to the larvae (6 dpf), and the novel tank (NTT), social preference (SPT), light-dark (LDT), and sexing tests were performed on adult fish (90 dpf). Embryonic exposure to genistein caused anxiolytic-like behavior in both larvae and adult animals. In adult stage, we observed an increase in locomotor activity and antisocial behavior in the concentration of 40 μg/L. There was an increase in the mortality rate in all concentrations when compared to the control and an increase in heart rate at the concentration of 80 μg/L. Exposure to 10 μg/L generated a higher frequency of females when compared to the control group. Our results show that exposure to genistein during the embryonic phase brings damage in the short and long term as it increases the mortality rate and leads to behavioral disorders both in the larval stage, with perpetuation until adult stage. The anxiolytic-like effect and less social interaction are effects that harm fish survival.

Biocatalytic remediation of pharmaceutically active micropollutants for environmental sustainability

The discharge of an alarming number of recalcitrant pollutants from various industrial activities presents a serious threat to environmental sustainability and ecological integrity. Bioremediation has gained immense interest around the world due to its environmentally friendly and cost-effective nature. In contrast to physical and chemical methods, the use of microbial enzymes, particularly immobilized biocatalysts, has been demonstrated as a versatile approach for the sustainable mitigation of environmental pollution. Considerable attention is now devoted to developing novel enzyme engineering approaches and state-of-the-art bioreactor design for ameliorating the overall bio-catalysis and biodegradation performance of enzymes. This review discusses the contemporary and state of the art technical and scientific progress regarding applying oxidoreductase enzyme-based biocatalytic systems to remediate a vast number of pharmaceutically active compounds from water and wastewater bodies. A comprehensive insight into enzyme immobilization, the role of mediators, bioreactors designing, and transformation products of pharmaceuticals and their associated toxicity is provided. Additional studies are necessary to elucidate enzymatic degradation mechanisms, monitor the toxicity levels of the resulting degraded metabolites and optimize the entire bio-treatment strategy for technical and economical affordability.

Exposure and Transport of Alkaloids and Phytoestrogens from Soybeans to Agricultural Soils and Streams in the Midwestern United States

Phytotoxins are naturally produced toxins with potencies similar/higher than many anthropogenic micropollutants. Nevertheless, little is known regarding their environmental fate and off-field transport to streams. To fill this research gap, a network of six basins in the Midwestern United States with substantial soybean production was selected for the study. Stream water (n = 110), soybean plant tissues (n = 8), and soil samples (n = 16) were analyzed for 12 phytotoxins (5 alkaloids and 7 phytoestrogens) and 2 widely used herbicides (atrazine and metolachlor). Overall, at least 1 phytotoxin was detected in 82% of the samples, with as many as 11 phytotoxins detected in a single sample (median = 5), with a concentration range from below detection to 37 and 68 ng/L for alkaloids and phytoestrogens, respectively. In contrast, the herbicides were ubiquitously detected at substantially higher concentrations (atrazine: 99% and metolachlor: 83%; the concentrations range from below detection to 150 and 410 ng/L, respectively). There was an apparent seasonal pattern for phytotoxins, where occurrence prior to and during harvest season (September to November) and during the snow melt season (March) was higher than that in December-January. Runoff events increased phytotoxin and herbicide concentrations compared to those in base-flow conditions. Phytotoxin plant concentrations were orders of magnitude higher compared to those measured in soil and streams. These results demonstrate the potential exposure of aquatic and terrestrial organisms to soybean-derived phytotoxins.

Occurrence of pyrrolizidine alkaloids in ragwort plants, soils and surface waters at the field scale in grassland

Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PA)s are natural toxins produced by a variety of plants including ragwort. The PAs present a serious health risk to human and livestock. Although these compounds have been extensively studied in food and feed, little is known regarding their environmental fate. To fill this data gap, we investigated the occurrence of PAs in ragwort plants, soils and surface waters at three locations where ragwort was the dominant plant species to better understand their environmental distribution. The concentrations of PAs were quantified during the full growing season (April-November) and assessed in relation to rain events. PA concentrations ranged from 3.2-6.6 g/kg dry weight (dw) in plants, 0.8-4.0 mg/kg dw in soils, and 6.0-529 μg/L in surface waters. Maximum PA concentrations in the soil (4 mg/kg) and water (529 μg/L) were in mid-May just before flowering. The average distribution of PAs in water was approximately 5 g/10,000 L, compared to the average amounts present in ragwort (506 kg/ha), and soil (1.7 kg/ha). In general, concentrations of PAs increase in the soil and surface water following rain events.

Analyzing a broader spectrum of endocrine active organic contaminants in sewage sludge with high resolution LC-QTOF-MS suspect screening and QSAR toxicity prediction

Endocrine active contaminants (EACs) in environmental samples can pose a range of toxicological threats to ecosystems, especially through their impacts on reproductive pathways mediated by the estrogen receptor. The physicochemical properties of known organic EACs vary greatly and typically require different sample preparation techniques to identify different classes of compounds. EAC sources are similarly diverse, including both endogenous compounds and anthropogenic chemicals found in personal care products, pharmaceuticals, and their transformation products, which are often disposed of to sewers at their end of use. Looking for EACs in sewage sludge proposes a bottom-up, or end-of-use and treatment approach to discover environmentally relevant EACs, since many EACs accumulate in sludges even after application of robust wastewater treatment processes. This study demonstrates an extraction and analytical method capable of detecting a broad spectrum of known and suspected EACs via High Resolution Liquid Chromatography Quadropole Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry (LC-QTOF-MS) suspect screening of fourteen California sewage sludge samples. Spike-recovery experiments were performed using twelve carefully selected surrogates to assess different extraction solvents, sample weights, extraction pH values, procedures for combining extracts with different extraction pH's, and solid phase extraction cartridges. Using LC-QTOF-MS, identifications of several other organic compounds in the samples were made, a goal unachievable with unit resolution mass spectrometry. Suspect screening of California sludge samples discovered 118 compounds including hormones, pharmaceuticals, phosphate flame retardants, recreational drugs, antimicrobials, and pesticides. Additionally, 22 of these identified compounds are predicted to interfere with estrogen receptors or other reproductive/developmental pathways based on the VEGA QSAR toxicity prediction model.

The Presence of 17 Beta-Estradiol in the Environment: Health Effects and Increasing Environmental Concerns

Endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) as active biological compounds can pose a threat to the environment through acute and chronic toxicity in organisms, accumulation in the ecosystem, and loss of habitats and biodiversity. They also have a range of possible adverse effects on environmental and ecological health. Estradiol, as one of the natural estrogenic hormones released by the humans and livestock, may exert endocrine-disrupting effects on the nanogram-per-liter range and cause serious problems for the aquatic organisms and animals in many aquatic systems. Various studies have reported the presence of synthetic estrogens such as 17 alpha-ethinyl estradiol (EE2) and natural estrogens including 17 beta-estradiol (E2) in wastewater sludge, surface water, river bed sediment, and also digested and activated sludge. The aim of the present study was to review and evaluate the endocrine disrupting compounds especially 17 beta-estradiol, as a representative of estrogen hormones present in the environment and their disturbing effects on humans and wildlife.

Toxicity and non-harmful effects of the soya isoflavones, genistein and daidzein, in embryos of the zebrafish, Danio rerio

Based on the assumed oestrogenic and apoptotic properties of soya isoflavones (genistein, daidzein), and following the current OECD test-guidelines and principle of 3Rs, we have studied the potential toxicity of phytochemicals on the zebrafish embryos test (ZFET). For this purpose, zebrafish embryos at 2-3 h post-fertilisation (hpf) were exposed to both soya isoflavones (from 1.25 mg/L to 20 mg/L) and assayed until 96 hpf. Lethal and sub-lethal endpoints (mortality, hatching rates and malformations) were estimated in the ZFET, which was expanded to potential gene expression markers, determining the lowest observed effect (and transcriptional) concentrations (LOEC, LOTEC), and the no-observable effect (and transcriptional) concentrations (NOEC, NOTEC). The results revealed that genistein is more toxic (LC50-96 hpf: 4.41 mg/L) than daidzein (over 65.15 mg/L). Both isoflavones up-regulated the oestrogen (esrrb) and death receptors (fas) and cyp1a transcript levels. Most thyroid transcript signals were up-regulated by genistein (except for thyroid peroxidase/tpo), and the hatching enzyme (he1a1) was exclusively up-regulated by daidzein (from 1.25 mg/L onwards). The ZFET proved suitable for assessing toxicant effects of both isoflavones and potential disruptions (i.e. oestrogenic, apoptotic, thyroid, enzymatic) during the embryogenesis and the endotrophic larval period.

Removal of pharmaceutical compounds in water and wastewater using fungal oxidoreductase enzymes

Due to recalcitrance of some pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs), conventional wastewater treatment is not able to remove them effectively. Therefore, their occurrence in surface water and potential environmental impact has raised serious global concern. Biological transformation of these contaminants using white-rot fungi (WRF) and their oxidoreductase enzymes has been proposed as a low cost and environmentally friendly solution for water treatment. The removal performance of PhACs by a fungal culture is dependent on several factors, such as fungal species, the secreted enzymes, molecular structure of target compounds, culture medium composition, etc. In recent 20 years, numerous researchers tried to elucidate the removal mechanisms and the effects of important operational parameters such as temperature and pH on the enzymatic treatment of PhACs. This review summarizes and analyzes the studies performed on PhACs removal from spiked pure water and real wastewaters using oxidoreductase enzymes and the data related to degradation efficiencies of the most studied compounds. The review also offers an insight into enzymes immobilization, fungal reactors, mediators, degradation mechanisms and transformation products (TPs) of PhACs. In brief, higher hydrophobicity and having electron-donating groups, such as amine and hydroxyl in molecular structure leads to more effective degradation of PhACs by fungal cultures. For recalcitrant compounds, using redox mediators, such as syringaldehyde increases the degradation efficiency, however they may cause toxicity in the effluent and deactivate the enzyme. Immobilization of enzymes on supports can enhance the performance of enzyme in terms of reusability and stability. However, the immobilization strategy should be carefully selected to reduce the cost and enable regeneration. Still, further studies are needed to elucidate the mechanisms involved in enzymatic degradation and the toxicity levels of TPs and also to optimize the whole treatment strategy to have economical and technical competitiveness.

Effects of the isoflavone genistein in early life stages of the Senegalese sole, Solea senegalensis: role of the Survivin and proliferation versus apoptosis pathways

BACKGROUND

Phytochemical flavonoids are widely distributed in the environment and are derived from many anthropogenic activities. The isoflavone genistein is a naturally occurring compound found in soya products that are habitual constituents of the aquafeeds. This isoflavone possesses oestrogenic biological activity and also apoptotic properties. The present study has been performed to determine the effects of the genistein in the early life stages of the flatfish Senegalese sole during the first month of larval life, and it is focused especially at the metamorphosis, analysing the expression transcript levels and the immunohistochemical protein patterns implicated in the cell proliferation and apoptosis pathways (proliferation cellular/PCNA, anti-apoptosis Survivin/BIRC-5, death receptors/Fas, and Caspases).

RESULTS

The isoflavone genistein induced some temporal disrupting effects in several pro-apoptotic signalling pathways (Fas, CASP-6) at both genistein doses (3 mg/L and 10 mg/L), with increased Fas transcripts and also decreasing CASP-6 mRNA expression levels during metamorphic and post-metamorphic stages of the Senegalese sole. On the other hand, the anti-apoptotic BIRC-5 expression levels were weakly down-regulated with both the highest and lowest doses, but all of these imbalances were stabilised to the baseline levels. In early life stages of the controls, the constitutive basal transcript levels were temporarily and differentially expressed, reaching the highest levels at the pre-metamorphosis phase, as especially in endotrophic larvae (i.e. BIRC-5 mRNA), as well as in the metamorphic (i.e. CASP-6 mRNA) and post-metamorphic stages (i.e. Fas mRNA). In general, through development, continuous and progressive increases in the protein patterns of cell proliferation-PCNA (e.g. mitotic nuclei), anti-apoptotic Survivin (e.g. haematopoietic system, brain, digestive system, gills) and CASP-2 and -6 (e.g. brain, gills, kidney, digestive system, vascular systems, among others) have been immunohistochemically detected. Besides, both the controls and genistein exposed larvae displayed parallel immunostaining protein patterns in the different organ-systems and tissues.

CONCLUSIONS

The transcriptional imbalances observed in the studied genes (BIRC-5, CASP-6, Fas) were only temporarily induced, and apparently no changes in the immunohistochemical protein patterns were detected. Thus, the isoflavone genistein caused not harmful effects in the development and metamorphosis of the Senegalese sole exposed to chronic environmentally relevant concentrations (3 and 10 mg/L).

Effects of the soya isoflavone genistein in early life stages of the Senegalese sole, Solea senegalensis: Thyroid, estrogenic and metabolic biomarkers

This study examines the effects induced by environmentally relevant concentrations of the isoflavone genistein (3mg/L and 10mg/L) during early life stages of the Senegalese sole. Throughout the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis, several neurohormonal regulatory thyroid signalling patterns (thyroglobulin/Tg, thyroid peroxidase/TPO, transthyretin/TTR, thyroid receptors/TRβ, and iodothrynonine deiodinases, Dio2 and Dio3) were analysed. Furthermore, the expression patterns of estrogen receptor ERβ and haemoprotein Cyp1a were also evaluated. In the control larvae, progressive increases of constitutive hormonal signalling pathways have been evidenced from the pre-metamorphosis phase onwards, reaching the highest expression basal levels at the metamorphosis (Tg, TPO, Dio2) and/or during post-metamorphosis (TTR, TRβ, ERβ). When the early larvae were exposed to both genistein concentrations (3mg/L and 10mg/L), a statistically significant down-regulation of TPO, TTR and Tg mRNA levels was clearly detected at the metamorphic stages. In addition, the Dio2 and Dio3 transcript expression levels were also down and up-regulated when exposed to both genistein concentrations. In the larvae exposed to genistein, no statistically significant responses were recorded for the TRβ expression patterns. Nevertheless, the ERβ and Cyp1a transcript levels were up-regulated at the middle metamorphic stage (S2, at 16 dph) in the larvae exposed to high genistein concentrations and, only the ERβ was down-regulated (S1, at 12dph) at the lower doses. Finally, all these pointed out imbalances were only temporarily disrupted by exposure to genistein, since most of the modulated transcriptional signals (i.e. up or down-regulation) were quickly restored to the baseline levels. Additionally, the control and genistein-exposed Senegalese sole specimens showed characteristic ontogenetic patterns and completely suitable for an optimal development, metamorphosis, and growth.

Androgens, oestrogens, and progesterone concentrations in wastewater purification processes measured with capillary electrophoresis

A novel analytical-scale concept to improve reliability of detection and analysis of natural and processed wastewater samples from a purification plant was developed. A sequential sample clean-up system of polymer-based octadecyl and silane-based quaternary amine sorbents were used for concentrating human based steroid hormones and their metabolites and detecting them by UV absorption with capillary electrophoresis (CE). The water samples were collected from influent and effluent processes of the water purification plant in Helsinki, Finland.The CE methods were partial-filling micellar electrokinetic chromatography and capillary zone electrophoresis. The analysis times and method concentration levels were optimized with eight steroids at the range of 0.5-10 mg/L. Since in CE the detectable quantities were higher than the existing amounts in the process waters, the real samples needed matrix removal combined with steroid enrichment. After 20,000-fold concentration testosterone-glucoside, androstenedione, progesterone, and estradiol-glucoside could be determined in the process water samples. The amounts of individual steroids in influent and effluent waters were 0-429 and 0-207 ng/L, respectively. Correspondently, their total amounts were 735 and 212 ng/L with excellent in day and inter-day repeatability. The RSD values were less than 1, 9.7, and 19% in repeated analyses, calculated from 60 analyses during 24 h, and from 130 analyses during 15 months, respectively. The steroid removal in purification process was 65% on average. The solid particles separated in three steps during the water clean-up concept contained 9.8-45 ng/g steroids in combined dry precipitates.

Vitellogenin induction and reduced fecundity in zebrafish exposed to effluents from the City of Bulawayo, Zimbabwe

Industrial and municipal effluents regularly pollute water bodies and cause various toxic effects to aquatic life. Because of the diverse nature of industrial processes and domestic products, urban effluents are often tainted with various anthropogenic endocrine disrupting chemicals that may interfere with the reproductive physiology of aquatic fauna. In this study, we tested effluents from the City of Bulawayo for the presence of estrogenic endocrine disrupting chemicals and their effects on fish gonads and fecundity. Effluents were collected from two sewage treatment plants (STPs), which receive largest volume of industrial effluents from the City, and from a textile factory. Male and female zebrafish (Danio rerio) were exposed to effluents and analyzed for vitellogenin induction, gonad alterations, and fertility. Male zebrafish exposed to effluent from Thorngrove STP had significantly higher (p ≤ 0.05) vitellogenin compared to control. Textile effluent caused adverse gonad alterations such as oocyte atresia (females) and increased proportion of spermatogonia (males) which could lead to reduced fertility. Textile effluent (5% v/v) and Thorngrove effluent also caused a decline in fertilization success of breeding groups of zebrafish. The results of this study show the potential effects of effluent pollution and the occurrence of EDCs in developing countries. This underscores the need to effectively prevent pollution of environmental water bodies from industrial and municipal sewage treatment plant effluents. We recommend a follow-up study to monitor the effects of the effluents on feral fish in effluent polluted downstream dams of Bulawayo.

Concentrations of levonorgestrel and ethinylestradiol in wastewater effluents: Is the progestin also cause for concern?

Synthetic hormones have been widely reported in treated sewage effluents, and consequently receiving aquatic environments. Ethinylestradiol (EE2) is a potent synthetic estrogen commonly used in conjunction with levonorgestrel in oral contraceptive pills. Both EE2 and levonorgestrel have been identified in the aquatic environment, but although there is a significant amount of literature on EE2, there is much less information on levonorgestrel. Using Australian prescription data as well as excretion and predicted wastewater removal rates, the concentrations of EE2 and levonorgestrel in Australian wastewater were calculated at 0.1 ng/L to 0.5 ng/L and 0.2 ng/L to 0.6 ng/L, respectively. Both compounds were analyzed in treated wastewater and surface water grab samples from 3 Southeast Queensland, Australia sites. The predicted no-effect concentration (PNEC) for EE2 of 0.1 ng/L was exceeded at most sites, with EE2 concentrations up to 2 ng/L in treated effluent, albeit quickly diluted to 0.1 ng/L to 0.2 ng/L in the receiving environment. A provisional PNEC for levonorgestrel of 0.1 ng/L derived in the present study was slightly lower than predicted effluent concentrations of 0.2 ng/L to 0.6 ng/L, indicating a potential risk of endocrine-related effects in exposed aquatic species. The detection limit for levonorgestrel in the present study was 2.5 ng/L, and all samples were below detection limit. The present study's results suggest that improvements in analytical capabilities for levonorgestrel are warranted to more accurately quantify the risk of this compound in the receiving environment. Environ Toxicol Chem 2016;35:1378-1385. © 2015 SETAC.

Occurrence of Natural Contaminants of Emerging Concern in the Douro River Estuary, Portugal

Many studies demonstrated the presence of diverse environmental contaminants in the Douro River estuary, such as natural and synthetic estrogens, pharmaceuticals, industrial compounds and pesticides. This estuary is located between two densely populated cities and is highly impacted due to anthropogenic activities, such as industry and agriculture. Although the presence of mycotoxins and phytoestrogens, such as lignans and coumestrans, in the aquatic environment is reported by some authors, their occurrence in Portuguese waters was not investigated yet. To evaluate the presence of phytoestrogens, phytosterols and mycotoxins in Douro River estuary, water samples were collected seasonally at nine sampling points, preconcentrated by solid phase extraction and analysed by gas chromatography mass spectrometry. Local flora was collected on the riverside, in the same sampling points, for identification and evaluation of the possible relation to the presence of phytoestrogens and/or phytosterols in the estuarine water. Results showed the ubiquitous presence of mycotoxins, namely deoxynivalenol up to 373.5 ng L(-1). Both phytoestrogens and phytosterols showed a possible seasonal fluctuation, which is in accordance to the life cycle of the local flora and agricultural practices. Physicochemical parameters were also determined for water quality evaluation. This study revealed for the first time the presence of mycotoxins and lignans in estuarine waters from Portugal, and highlights the need to consider natural contaminants in future monitoring programs.

Experimental paradigm for in-laboratory proxy aquatic studies under conditions of static, non-flow-through chemical exposures

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) such as 17α-ethynylestradiol, 17β-estradiol, estrone, and para-nonylphenol have been measured in wastewater-treatment plant effluents, surface waters, sediments, and sludge and have been shown to induce liver-specific vitellogenin (vtg) messenger RNA in male fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas). The purpose of the present study was to establish minimal concentrations of select EDCs necessary to induce transcription of vtg in 48-h static renewal exposures, as measured by quantitative real-time thermal cycle amplification. Adult males were exposed to 17α-ethynylestradiol, 17β-estradiol, estrone, and para-nonylphenol. Dose-dependent increases in vtg expression were significant with all chemicals tested. The lowest concentrations of these chemicals to induce measurable vtg expression, with significant difference from respective controls, were 17α-ethynylestradiol, 2.2 ng L(-1); para-nonylphenol, 13.9 μg L(-1); 17β-estradiol, 42.7 ng L(-1); and estrone, 46.7 ng L(-1), measured as 48-h average concentrations. The present experiments were designed to frame a commonly acceptable approach for investigators who conduct static, in-laboratory proxy environmental aquatic exposures. The present study highlights the need for investigators to report in peer-reviewed submissions the observed concentration values for minimal induction levels when measuring molecular responses to chemical exposures by means of real-time polymerase chain reaction, quantitative polymerase chain reaction, or other "omic" technologies.

Endocrine-disrupting compounds in reclaimed water and residential ponds and exposure potential for dislodgeable residues in turf irrigated with reclaimed water

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) occur in reclaimed water (RW), which may serve as an exposure source for humans. The presence of EDCs in RW used to irrigate turf and in nearby water-retention ponds was determined. In addition, the total dislodgeable mass of each EDC was determined after irrigation (using RW) to simulate exposure of a 3-year-child playing in turf grass recently irrigated with RW. Five EDCs (estrone, 17β-estradiol, 17α-ethynylestradiol, bisphenol A, and 4-n-nonylphenol) were quantified in 28 samples of RWs (wastewater-treatment plant effluents) and 88 samples from residential surface water-retention ponds. St. Augustine variety of turf grass was irrigated with spiked RW to study dislodgement of the five EDCs overtime using a drag-sled method. Grass clippings were analyzed to relate masses of EDC on grass with masses dislodged. EDCs were detected in both RW and ponds at ng/L concentrations. Maximum EDC masses were dislodged immediately after irrigation. Dislodged masses of estrone and 17β-estradiol are two separate EDCs, 17β-estradiol and 17α-ethynylestradiol decreased rapidly and were lower than detection limits 4 h after application. Dislodged bisphenol-A and nonylphenol decreased more slowly but were not detected 6 h after application. Avoiding contact with recently irrigated turf grass should decrease the risks of exposure to these EDCs.

Global Assessment of Bisphenol A in the Environment: Review and Analysis of Its Occurrence and Bioaccumulation

Because bisphenol A (BPA) is a high production volume chemical, we examined over 500 peer-reviewed studies to understand its global distribution in effluent discharges, surface waters, sewage sludge, biosolids, sediments, soils, air, wildlife, and humans. Bisphenol A was largely reported from urban ecosystems in Asia, Europe, and North America; unfortunately, information was lacking from large geographic areas, megacities, and developing countries. When sufficient data were available, probabilistic hazard assessments were performed to understand global environmental quality concerns. Exceedances of Canadian Predicted No Effect Concentrations for aquatic life were >50% for effluents in Asia, Europe, and North America but as high as 80% for surface water reports from Asia. Similarly, maximum concentrations of BPA in sediments from Asia were higher than Europe. Concentrations of BPA in wildlife, mostly for fish, ranged from 0.2 to 13 000 ng/g. We observed 60% and 40% exceedences of median levels by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey in Europe and Asia, respectively. These findings highlight the utility of coordinating global sensing of environmental contaminants efforts through integration of environmental monitoring and specimen banking to identify regions for implementation of more robust environmental assessment and management programs.

Biological removal of antiandrogenic activity in gray wastewater and coking wastewater by membrane reactor process

A recombinant human androgen receptor yeast assay was applied to investigate the occurrence of antiandrogens as well as the mechanism for their removal during gray wastewater and coking wastewater treatment. The membrane reactor (MBR) system for gray wastewater treatment could remove 88.0% of antiandrogenic activity exerted by weakly polar extracts and 97.3% of that by moderately strong polar extracts, but only 32.5% of that contributed by strong polar extracts. Biodegradation by microorganisms in the MBR contributed to 95.9% of the total removal. After the treatment, the concentration of antiandrogenic activity in the effluent was still 1.05 μg flutamide equivalence (FEQ)/L, 36.2% of which was due to strong polar extracts. In the anaerobic reactor, anoxic reactor, and membrane reactor system for coking wastewater treatment, the antiandrogenic activity of raw coking wastewater was 78.6 mg FEQ/L, and the effluent of the treatment system had only 0.34 mg FEQ/L. The antiandrogenic activity mainly existed in the medium strong polar and strong polar extracts. Biodegradation by microorganisms contributed to at least 89.2% of the total antiandrogenic activity removal in the system. Biodegradation was the main removal mechanism of antiandrogenic activity in both the wastewater treatment systems.

Screening of multiple hormonal activities in water and sediment from the river Nile, Egypt, using in vitro bioassay and gonadal histology

In Egypt, until yet no records are available regarding possible multiple hormonal activities in the aquatic systems and especially in the river Nile. In this paper, in vitro yeast estrogen screen (YES) and yeast androgen screen (YAS) were used to assess (for the first time) the multiple hormonal activities in surface waters and sediments of the river Nile. This study aimed to determine whether river Nile water can cause changes in gonadal histology of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus niloticus). All water samples exhibited extremely low levels of estrogenicity. Estrogenicity was nearly not detected in any of the sediment samples. Unlike the estrogenicity, significant androgenic activities were recorded in the water and sediment samples along the course of the river Nile. The present study reports for the first time quantification anti-estrogenic and anti-androgenic activities with high levels in both water and sediment of the river Nile. The greatest anti-estrogenic and anti-androgenic activities were observed in samples from downstream river Nile. These results indicated that the anti-estrogenic and anti-androgenic activities along the Nile course were great and the pollution of the sites at downstream was more serious than the upstream sites due to industrial and anthropogenic activities at these sites. Good correlations were observed among some hormonal activities, suggesting coexistence of these contaminants in the environmental matrices. There were no signs of sexual disruption in any of the gonads analyzed from either male or female Nile tilapia, demonstrating that no hormonal activity present along the Nile course was sufficient to induce adverse effects on reproductive development. Further investigation is necessary to identify the compounds responsible for the hormonal activities in the river Nile and to examine effects of very low levels of hormonally active compounds on gonadal histology, as well as in the development of more sensitive biomarkers.

Spatial distribution and migration of nonylphenol in groundwater following long-term wastewater irrigation

Seen as a solution to water shortages, wastewater reuse for crop irrigation does however poses a risk owing to the potential release of organic contaminants into soil and water. The frequency of detection (FOD), concentration, and migration of nonylphenol (NP) isomers in reclaimed water (FODRW), surface water (FODSW), and groundwater (FODGW) were investigated in a long-term wastewater irrigation area in Beijing. The FODRW, FODSW and FODGW of any or all of 12 NP isomers were 66.7% to 100%, 76.9% to 100% and 13.3% to 60%, respectively. The mean (±standard deviation) NP concentrations of the reclaimed water, surface water, and groundwater (NPRW, NPSW, NPGW, repectively) were 469.4±73.4 ng L(-1), 694.6±248.7 ng(-1) and 244.4±230.8 ng(-1), respectively. The existence of external pollution sources during water transmission and distribution resulted in NPSW exceeding NPRW. NP distribution in groundwater was related to the duration and quantity of wastewater irrigation, the sources of aquifer recharge, and was seen to decrease with increasing aquifer depth. Higher riverside infiltration rate nearby leads to higher FODGW values. The migration rate of NP isomers was classified as high, moderate or low.

Distribution of selected antiandrogens and pharmaceuticals in a highly impacted watershed

Endocrine disruption and high occurrences of intersex have been observed in wild fish associated with municipal wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluents in urbanized reaches of rivers around the globe. These reproductive effects have often been attributed to the presence of estrogen receptor agonists in effluents. However, recent studies have isolated a number of androgen receptor antagonists (antiandrogens) that may also contribute to the endocrine disruption observed at sites that are influenced by WWTP outfalls. This study aimed to characterize the spatial and temporal distribution of antiandrogenic personal care products (triclosan, chlorophene, dichlorophene, oxybenzone, 1-naphthol, and 2-naphthol), along with a herbicide (atrazine) and representative pharmaceuticals (carbamazepine, ibuprofen, naproxen, and venlafaxine) in the Grand River watershed in southern Ontario. Surface water sampling of 30 sites associated with six municipal WWTP outfalls was conducted during a summer low flow. Monthly samples were also collected immediately upstream and downstream of a major WWTP from August to November 2012. Atrazine was consistently found in all surface water sampling locations. Many of the target pharmaceuticals and triclosan were detected in WWTP effluents, especially those that did not nitrify. Under low flow conditions, the concentrations of triclosan and several pharmaceuticals increased directly downstream of the WWTPs then decreased rapidly with distance downstream. Chlorophene was either found at trace levels or below detection limits in the effluents while dichlorophene, oxybenzone, 1-naphthol, and 2-naphthol were not detected in any samples. Chlorophene was detected in surface water during the low flow summer period and once during the monthly sampling from August to November. However, the primary source of chlorophene did not appear to be associated with WWTP effluent. This study documents the spatial and temporal occurrence of several antiandrogens and pharmaceuticals in a highly impacted Canadian watershed. It supports previous observations that there is a diversity of contaminants in wastewater effluents and other sources that have the potential to alter endocrine function in wild fish.

Evaluating the treatment of a synthetic wastewater containing a pharmaceutical and personal care product chemical cocktail: compound removal efficiency and effects on juvenile rainbow trout

Pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) can evade degradation in sewage treatment plants (STPs) and can be chronically discharged into the environment, causing concern for aquatic organisms, wildlife, and humans that may be exposed to these bioactive chemicals. The ability of a common STP process, conventional activated sludge (CAS), to remove PPCPs (caffeine, di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate, estrone, 17α-ethinylestradiol, ibuprofen, naproxen, 4-nonylphenol, tonalide, triclocarban and triclosan) from a synthetic wastewater was evaluated in the present study. The removal of individual PPCPs by the laboratory-scale CAS treatment plant ranged from 40 to 99.6%. While the efficiency of removal for some compounds was high, remaining quantities have the potential to affect aquatic organisms even at low concentrations. Juvenile rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) were exposed to influent recreated model wastewater with methanol (IM, solvent control) or with PPCP cocktail (IC), or CAS-treated effluent wastewater with methanol (EM, treated control) or with PPCP cocktail (EC). Alterations in hepatic gene expression (evaluated using a quantitative nuclease protection plex assay) and plasma vitellogenin (VTG) protein concentrations occurred in exposed fish. Although there was partial PPCP removal by CAS treatment, the 20% lower VTG transcript levels and 83% lower plasma VTG protein concentration found in EC-exposed fish compared to IC-exposed fish were not statistically significant. Thus, estrogenic activity found in the influent was retained in the effluent even though typical percent removal levels were achieved raising the issue that greater reduction in contaminant load is required to address hormone active agents.

Unraveling the mechanisms involved in zearalenone-mediated toxicity in permanent fish cell cultures

The world-wide occurrence of zearalenone (ZEN) as a contaminant in feed for farm animals and fish requires the evaluation of toxicity mechanisms of action of ZEN. The present study investigates possible metabolization of ZEN in fish cell lines suggesting that mainly glucuronidation takes place. It demonstrates that concentrations up to 20,000 ng ml(-1) ZEN are capable of influencing cell viability in permanent fish cell cultures in a dose-response manner with different response patterns between the five tested cell lines, whereby lysosomes appeared to be the main target of ZEN. ZEN toxicity is often discussed in the context of oxidative stress. Our study shows a biphasic response of the cell lines when reactive oxygen species (ROS) production is monitored. Damage in cells was observed by measuring lipid peroxidation, DNA strand breaks, and alterations of intracellular glutathione levels. Metabolization of ZEN, especially at concentrations above 7500 ng ml(-1) ZEN, does not prevent cytotoxicity. ZEN as an estrogenic compound may involve processes mediated by binding to estrogen receptors (ER). Since one cell line showed no detectable expression of ER, an ER-mediated pathway seems to be unlikely in these cells. This confirms a lysosomal pathway as a main target of ZEN in fish cells.

Removal of surfactants nonylphenol ethoxylates from municipal sewage-comparison of an A/O process and biological aerated filters

The concentrations of nonylphenol ethoxylates (NPnEO, n=1 to 2) and nonylphenol (NP) in water and sludge samples were measured from a full scale sewage treatment plant (STP) with an Anaerobic/Oxic (A/O) and a Biological Aerated Filter (BAF) process. The A/O process was found to exhibit improved performance in comparison to the BAF process. Mean values of NP, NP1EO and NP2EO concentrations in influents from the STP were similar, ranging from 1.8 to 2.0×10(3)ngL(-1). In the A/O process, the removal efficiency of NP, NP1EO and NP2EO from the aqueous phase was 78%, 84%, and 89%, respectively. In contrast, the removal efficiencies of NP, NP1EO, and NP2EO were relatively lower for the BAF process, at 55%, 76%, and 79%, respectively. High concentrations of NP, NP1EO and NP2EO detected in the sludge samples had a maximum value of 2.7μgg(-1) dw, which indicates that improvement in the overall elimination of NP, NP1EO and NP2EO may be associated with adsorption by the sludge. To further investigate the fate of NP, NP1EO and NP2EO in the STP, our research assessed the degradation characteristics of NP by calculating its transformational loss in the STP. The results demonstrate that the quantity of NP measured in the effluent from the oxic unit increased by 32%, which indicates that NP1EO and NP2EO may undergo degradation in the oxic conditions.

Impact of environmental estrogens on Yfish considering the diversity of estrogen signaling

Research on endocrine disruption in fish has been dominated by studies on estrogen-active compounds which act as mimics of the natural estrogen, 17β-estradiol (E2), and generally exert their biological actions by binding to and activation of estrogen receptors (ERs). Estrogens play central roles in reproductive physiology and regulate (female) sexual differentiation. In line with this, most adverse effects reported for fish exposed to environmental estrogens relate to sexual differentiation and reproduction. E2, however, utilizes a variety of signaling mechanisms, has multifaceted functions and targets, and therefore the toxicological and ecological effects of environmental estrogens in fish will extend beyond those associated with the reproduction. This review first describes the diversity of estrogen receptor signaling in fish, including both genomic and non-genomic mechanisms, and receptor crosstalk. It then considers the range of non-reproductive physiological processes in fish that are known to be responsive to estrogens, including sensory systems, the brain, the immune system, growth, specifically through the growth hormone/insulin-like growth factor system, and osmoregulation. The diversity in estrogen responses between fish species is then addressed, framed within evolutionary and ecological contexts, and we make assessments on their relevance for toxicological sensitivity as well as ecological vulnerability. The diversity of estrogen actions raises questions whether current risk assessment strategies, which focus on reproductive endpoints, and a few model fish species only, are protective of the wider potential health effects of estrogens. Available - although limited - evidence nevertheless suggests that quantitative environmental threshold concentrations for environmental protection derived from reproductive tests with model fish species are protective for non-reproductive effects as well. The diversity of actions of estrogens across divergent physiological systems, however, may lead to and underestimation of impacts on fish populations as their effects are generally considered on one functional process only and this may underrepresent the impact on the different physiological processes collectively.

Induction and recovery of estrogenic effects after short-term 17β-estradiol exposure in juvenile rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

Estrogenic compounds found in the aquatic environment include natural and synthetic estrogen hormones as well as other less potent estrogenic xenobiotics. In this study, a comprehensive approach was used to examine effects on fish endocrine system endpoints during a short-term xenoestrogen exposure as well as after post-exposure recovery. Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) were exposed to an aqueous 17β-estradiol (E2) concentration of 0.473 μg l(-1) for 2 and 7 days (d) followed by a 14-d recovery period. At d2 and d7, plasma E2 concentrations in treated fish were 458- and 205-fold higher than in control fish and 23- and 16-fold higher than the exposure water concentration. E2 treatment resulted in significant increases in hepatosomatic index (HSI), plasma vitellogenin (VTG) protein concentrations, and liver VTG and estrogen receptor alpha mRNA levels. All of these parameters, with the exception of plasma VTG protein, returned to baseline values during the recovery period. Plasma cortisol concentrations were unaffected by treatment. This research shows varied time frames of the estrogen-responsive molecular-, biochemical-, and tissue-level alterations, as well as their persistence, in juvenile rainbow trout treated with aqueous E2. These results have implications for feral rainbow trout exposed to xenoestrogens and indicate the importance of evaluating a comprehensive suite of endpoints in assessing the impact of this type of environmental contaminant.

Potential water quality impacts originating from land burial of cattle carcasses

Among the conventional disposal methods for livestock mortalities, on-farm burial is a preferred method, but the potential water quality impacts of animal carcass burial are not well understood. Typically, on-farm burial pits are constructed without liners and any leachate produced may infiltrate into soil and groundwater. To date, no information is available on temporal trends for contaminants in leachate produced from livestock mortality pits. In our study, we examined the concentrations of conventional contaminants including electrical conductivity, COD, TOC, TKN, TP, and solids, as well as veterinary antimicrobials and steroid hormones in leachate over a period of 20 months. Most of the contaminants were detected in leachate after 50 days of decomposition, reaching a peak concentration at approximately 200 days and declined to baseline levels by 400 days. The estrogen 17β-estradiol and a veterinary antimicrobial, monensin, were observed at maximum concentrations of 20,069 ng/L and 11,980 ng/L, respectively. Estimated mass loading of total steroid hormone and veterinary pharmaceuticals were determined to be 1.84 and 1.01 μg/kg of buried cattle carcass materials, respectively. These data indicate that leachate from carcass burial sites represents a potential source of nutrients, organics, and residues of biologically active micro-contaminants to soil and groundwater.

Fluctuations in natural and synthetic estrogen concentrations in a tidal estuary in south-eastern Australia

Estuaries are often the final repositories for aquatic pollutants but how estuarine hydrology influences the availability of marine- and freshwater-derived pollutants is not well understood, particularly for micro-pollutants such as endocrine disrupting chemicals. To address this knowledge gap, this study measured natural and synthetic estrogen concentrations within the Little River, a tidal estuary in close vicinity to the major discharge point of Melbourne's largest waste water treatment plant (WWTP), the Western Treatment Plant. Quantitative enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) were used to determine concentrations of natural estrogens (ES: ∑E1 (estrone), E2 (17β-estradiol), E3 (estriol)) and the synthetic estrogen, 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2). The highest concentrations were measured in samples taken from the WWTP effluent discharge channel (29.0 ng/L and 0.35 ng/L, respectively). Within the estuary, concentrations of ES (2.25-23.16 ng/L) varied somewhat between locations and sampling periods (p < 0.05), however patterns were not consistent. Significant spatial variation was observed on only one sampling occasion, and likewise temporal variation was only observed once. In the upstream freshwaters, ES (2.95-7.26 ng/L) concentrations were lower than in the estuary, although their presence suggests an additional source of ES to the environment, most likely of agricultural origin. The EE2 concentrations measured in both the estuarine and freshwater areas were all low (mostly below 0.20 ng/L), which created difficulties in interpretation due to problems associated with trying to measure such low concentrations with confidence. However, some patterns did emerge, with EE2 concentrations exhibiting significant temporal and tidal variation (p < 0.05), with concentrations greatest during low and flooding (incoming) tides. Physico-chemical properties explained 30% of the variation in ES concentrations, whereby concentrations increased with decreasing pH and DO and increasing salinity. Given the higher concentrations observed during flooding tides and the association of higher estrogen concentrations with increased salinity and low DO, we suggest that estrogens might accumulate in estuarine bottom waters and upon disturbance from the incoming tidal flows, may be a contributing source of estrogens into the estuary. This study contributes the first comprehensive investigation of estrogen dynamics in an Australian estuary, and provides the foundation for further research aimed at identifying which compounds are present in estuarine waterways, where they are coming from and how their concentrations vary through space and time.

Estrogenic effects along the river Saale

Sediments along the river Saale, one of the main tributaries of the river Elbe, were characterized with the yeast estrogen screen to elucidate possible sources of endocrine-disrupting compounds that might contribute to the downstream contamination of the river Elbe. At two sampling sites, elevated levels of estrogenic activity up to 55,000 ng ethinylestradiol equivalents per kilogram sediment dry weight were detected in the respective sediment extracts. Aliquots of the sediment extracts were analyzed for 4-nonylphenols and natural steroidal estrogens as possible candidates with an estrogenic potential. The maximal concentrations of 4-iso-nonylphenol and estrone were 115 mg/kg dry weight and 20 µg/kg dry weight at the sampling site Luppe, which showed in accordance the highest biological activity. Under consideration of compound concentration and compound specific estrogenic activity the 4-iso-nonylphenols contributed most to the observed estrogenic effect. A strong correlation between the measured estrogenic activity and the concentration of the sediment-associated 4-iso-nonylphenol underlines the relevance of this compound class as a xenoestrogen in the catchment area of the river Saale.

Meta-analysis of environmental contamination by alkylphenols

Alkylphenols and alkylphenol ethoxylates (APE) are toxics classified as endocrine-disrupting compounds; they are used in detergents, paints, herbicides, pesticides, emulsifiers, wetting and dispersing agents, antistatic agents, demulsifiers, and solubilizers. Many studies have reported the occurrence of alkylphenols in different environmental matrices, though none of these studies have yet to establish a comprehensive overview of such compounds in the water cycle within an urban environment. This review summarizes APE concentrations for all environmental media throughout the water cycle, from the atmosphere to receiving waters. Once the occurrence of compounds has been assessed for each environmental compartment (urban wastewater, wastewater treatment plants [WWTP], atmosphere, and the natural environment), data are examined in order to understand the fate of APE in the environment and establish their geographical and historical trends. From this database, it is clear that the environment in Europe is much more contaminated by APE compared to North America and developing countries, although these APE levels have been decreasing in the last decade. APE concentrations in the WWTP effluent of developed countries have decreased by a factor of 100 over the past 30 years. This study is aimed at identifying both the correlations existing between environmental compartments and the processes that influence the fate and transport of these contaminants in the environment. In industrial countries, the concentrations observed in waterways now represent the background level of contamination, which provides evidence of a past diffuse pollution in these countries, whereas sediment analyses conducted in developing countries show an increase in APE content over the last several years. Finally, similar trends have been observed in samples drawn from Europe and North America.

Dissolved organic carbon as an indicator of the presence of zearalenone in the aquatic environment

Zearalenone is a non-steroidal, strongly oestrogenic substance, which can occur in food and feed. It causes functional changes in the reproductive system similar to those of oestrogens. Due to the occurrence of this toxin in agricultural areas it has been assumed that it may penetrate to surface and ground waters and thus poses a health hazard both for humans and animals. We examined the occurrence of zearalenone in Polish surface and ground waters as well as in sewage during 2010 and investigated the relation between organic carbon found in samples and toxin concentration. The highest zearalenone concentration was found in samples collected from the river Bogdanka: 65.2 ng/l, in August. In addition, in all cases investigated the dissolved organic carbon concentration was found to decrease with an increase in zearalenone concentration.

Detection of estrogenic activity in Slovenian wastewaters by bioassay

Estrogenic activity has been detected in aquatic ecosystems across the world. However, there is a lack of such data for Slovenian wastewaters and surface waters. The Slovenian monitoring program of effluents discharged into surface waters does not require that emissions of natural and synthetic estrogens into aquatic environments be assessed and controlled. In our study, we assessed the potential estrogenicity of wastewater samples from three wastewater treatment plants using a yeast estrogen screen assay (YES assay). Due to the high inhibition of yeast growth in samples obtained during our first sampling period, it was impossible to detect any estrogenic activity. An additional silica gel clean-up step reduced the toxicity of samples collected during our second sampling period; as a result, we were able to record up to 95% relative estrogenic activity inhibition. Deconjugation of the estrogens did not significantly influence our results. We detected estrogenic activity using a YES assay in almost all influent and effluent samples tested, which suggests that the wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) examined do not effectively remove (xeno)estrogens from wastewaters. Our results suggest that a YES assay is an appropriate screening method for monitoring estrogenic activity in effluents. However, prediction of the potential impacts of wastewater (xeno)estrogens on aquatic organisms require additional in vitro and in vivo assays.

Estrogen receptor mediated activity in bankside groundwater, with flood suspended particulate matter and floodplain soil - an approach combining tracer substance, bioassay and target analysis

Bankside groundwater is widely used as drinking water resource and, therefore, contamination has to be avoided. In the European Union groundwater protection is explicit subject to Water Framework Directive. While groundwater pollution may originate from different sources, this study investigated on impacts via flood events. Groundwater was sampled with increasing distance to the river Rhine near Karlsruhe, Germany. Samples were HPLC-MS-MS analyzed for the river contaminant carbamazepine to indicate river water infiltration, giving permanent presence in 250 m distance to the river (14-47 μg L⁻¹). Following a flood event, concentrations of about 16-20 μg L⁻¹ could also be detected in a distance of 750 m to the river. Furthermore, estrogenic activity as determined with the Yeast Estrogen Screen assay was determined to increase up to a 17β-ethinylestradiol equivalent concentration (E-EQ)=2.9 ng L⁻¹ near the river, while activity was initially measured following the flood with up to E-EQ=2.6 ng L⁻¹ in 750 m distance. Detections were delayed with increasing distance to the river indicating river water expansion into the aquifer. Flood suspended matter and floodplain soil were fractionated and analyzed for estrogenic activity in parallel giving up to 1.4 ng g⁻¹ and up to 0.7 ng g⁻¹, respectively. Target analysis focusing on known estrogenic active substances only explained < 1% of measured activities. Nevertheless, river water infiltration was shown deep into bankside groundwater, thus, impacting groundwater quality. Therefore, flood events have to be in the focus when aiming for groundwater and drinking water protection as well as for implementation of Water Framework Directive.

Influence of operational parameters (sludge retention time and hydraulic residence time) on the removal of estrogens by membrane bioreactor

INTRODUCTION

This paper deals with the removal of two natural estrogens, estrone (E1) and 17β-estradiol (E2) and a synthetic one 17α ethinylestradiol (EE2) from wastewater in a laboratory-scale membrane bioreactor (MBR).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The effects of both solid retention time (SRT) and hydraulic residence time (HRT) were studied using synthetic wastewater in the MBR. At 35, 45, 60, 75, and 95 days, SRT was studied. The HRT was varied in the range of 7-12 h.

RESULTS

The results showed that the increases in HRT and SRT enhanced the biodegradation process after adaptation to microorganisms. At HRT of 12 h, the estrogen removals were close to 100% in the MBR. The highest estrogen removals were obtained at SRT of 60 days. Continuous tests showed a linear relationship between nitrification and estrogen removal rates.

CONCLUSIONS

The most biodegradable compound was the E2. The membrane fouling rates increased with the decreased of SRT and HRT. Optimal process conditions in this work was obtained at the SRT and HRT of 60 days and 12 h, respectively, with high efficient of estrogen removal, nitrification efficiencies, as well as a minimum membrane fouling rate.

Assessment of toxicological profiles of the municipal wastewater effluents using chemical analyses and bioassays

The hazardous chemical contamination of untreated wastewater and secondary effluent from the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) of the city of Zagreb, Croatia was comprehensively characterized using large-volume solid-phase extraction (SPE) and silica gel fractionation, followed by a detailed analysis of the resulting extracts by a combination of chemical and bioassay methods. Over 100 individual contaminants or closely related-contaminant groups were identified by high-resolution gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) and liquid chromatography/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QTOF). Ecotoxicity profiling of the investigated samples, including cytotoxicity, chronic toxicity and EROD activity; inhibition of the multixenobiotic resistance (MXR), genotoxicity and estrogenic potential, revealed the most significant contribution of toxic compounds to be present in polar fractions. Wastewater treatment using conventional activated sludge process reduced the initial toxicity of raw wastewater to various extents, ranging from 28% for algal toxicity to 73.2% for an estrogenic activity. The most efficient toxicity removal was observed for the polar compounds.

Reproductive consequences of exposure to waterborne phytoestrogens in male fighting fish Betta splendens

Phytoestrogens are plant compounds that can act as endocrine disruptors in vertebrates. Biologically active levels of phytoestrogens have been found in aquatic habitats near wood pulp and paper mills, biofuel manufacturing plants, sewage-treatment plants, and agricultural fields. Phytoestrogens are known to cause hormonal and gonadal changes in male fish, but few studies have connected these effects to outcomes relevant to reproductive success. In one experiment, we exposed sexually mature male fighting fish Betta splendens to environmentally relevant (1 μg L(-1)) and pharmacological concentrations (1000 μg L(-1)) of the phytoestrogen genistein as well as to a positive control of waterborne 17β-estradiol (E2; 1 μg L(-1)), and a negative control of untreated water. In a second experiment, we exposed male B. splendens to environmentally relevant concentrations (1 μg L(-1)) of genistein and β-sitosterol singly and in combination as well as to the positive and negative controls. All exposures were 21 days in duration. We measured sex-steroid hormone levels, gonadosomatic index (GSI), sperm concentration and motility, and fertilization success in these fish. We found that exposure to genistein did not affect circulating levels of the androgen 11-ketotestosterone or the estrogen E2 relative to negative-control fish. We also found that neither of the compounds nor their mixture affected GSI, sperm concentration or motility, or fertilization success in exposed fish relative to negative-control fish. However, fish exposed to phytoestrogens showed some evidence of fewer but more motile sperm than fish exposed to the positive control E2. We conclude that sexually mature male B. splendens are relatively immune to reproductive impairments from short-term exposure to waterborne phytoestrogens.

Endocrine potency of wastewater: contents of endocrine disrupting chemicals and effects measured by in vivo and in vitro assays

Industrial and municipal effluents are important sources of endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) discharged into the aquatic environment. This study investigated the endocrine potency of wastewater and the cleaning efficiency of two typical urban Danish sewage treatment plants (STPs), using chemical analysis and a battery of bioassays. Influent samples, collected at the first STP grate, and effluent samples, collected after the sewage treatment, were extracted using solid phase extraction. Extracts were analyzed for the content of a range of industrial chemicals with endocrine disrupting properties: phthalate metabolites, parabens, industrial phenols, ultraviolet screens, and natural and synthetic steroid estrogens. The endocrine disrupting bioactivity and toxicity of the extracts were analyzed in cell culture assay for the potency to affect the function of the estrogen, androgen, aryl hydrocarbon, and thyroid receptors as well as the steroid hormone synthesis. The early-life stage (ELS) development was tested in a marine copepod. The concentrations of all analyzed chemicals were reduced in effluents compared with influents, and for some to below the detection limit. Influent as well as effluent samples from both STPs were found to interact with all four receptors and to interfere with the steroid hormone synthesis showing the presence of measured EDCs. Both influent samples and one of the effluent samples inhibited the development of the copepod Acartia tonsa. In conclusion, the presence of EDCs was reduced in the STPs but not eliminated, as verified by the applied bioassays that all responded to the extracts of effluent samples. Our data suggest that the wastewater treatment processes are not efficient enough to prevent contamination of environmental surface waters.

The arrival and discharge of conjugated estrogens from a range of different sewage treatment plants in the UK

The occurrence of free and conjugated estrogens was examined in a survey of eleven sewage treatment plants (STPs) and their discharge water in the United Kingdom using grab sampling. The STPs included trickling filter with and without tertiary treatment, and activated sludge with tertiary treatment. For three activated sludge plants both influent and effluent samples were compared. For a further 8STPs only the effluent was examined. The estrone-3-sulphate, estradiol-3-sulphate and estriol-3-sulphate concentrations (up to 20 ng L(-1)) were typically 5-fold that of the respective free estrogen concentration in the effluents. This represents a substantial additional 'potential' estrogen load arriving in the receiving waters. Estrone-3-glucuronide was found at 9 ng L(-1), estradiol-3-glucuronide at 7 ng L(-1), and estriol-3-glucuronide at 32 ng L(-1) in sewage influent. Except on one occasion, no glucuronide conjugates could be found in the effluent. The results suggest in most cases glucuronide conjugates will be completely transformed in sewage treatment whilst sulphate conjugates will only be partially removed.

Assessment of estrogenic activity conducted by combining bioassay and chemical analyses of the effluent from wastewater treatment plants in Nanjing, China

The estrogenic activity of the effluent from three municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Nanjing, China, was investigated. The water samples were enriched by solid-phase extraction and then eluted with different polar solvents, which gave 11 fractionated extracts. Chemical analysis and a vitellogenin (Vtg) assay in goldfish (Carassias auratus) were then utilized to evaluate the estrogenic activities 7 d after a single injection of the effluent extracts of WWTPs and to identify causative agents that led to the induction of Vtg in male fish. The results reveal that Vtg induction occurred primarily in response to the 75 to 90% methanol extracts, and different concentrations of the natural estrogens estrone (E(1)) and 17beta-estradiol (E(2)) were detected in these extracts. As the Vtg induction increased, the plasma E(2) levels increased, and a correlation between Vtg and E(2) does exist. Furthermore, the gonadal somatic index (GSI) did not decrease significantly (p > 0.05) when the Vtg concentrations were elevated after 7 d. Different concentrations of estrogens were detected in the effluents, which demonstrated that the current treatment processes employed by the three WWTPs could not fully remove these compounds. As a result, the aquatic organisms in the receiving water (Yangtze River) were at a risk of feminization.

An assessment of potential exposure and risk from estrogens in drinking water

BACKGROUND

Detection of estrogens in the environment has raised concerns in recent years because of their potential to affect both wildlife and humans.

OBJECTIVES

We compared exposures to prescribed and naturally occurring estrogens in drinking water to exposures to naturally occurring background levels of estrogens in the diet of children and adults and to four independently derived acceptable daily intakes (ADIs) to determine whether drinking water intakes are larger or smaller than dietary intake or ADIs.

METHODS

We used the Pharmaceutical Assessment and Transport Evaluation (PhATE) model to predict concentrations of estrogens potentially present in drinking water. Predicted drinking water concentrations were combined with default water intake rates to estimate drinking water exposures. Predicted drinking water intakes were compared to dietary intakes and also to ADIs. We present comparisons for individual estrogens as well as combined estrogens.

RESULTS

In the analysis we estimated that a child's exposures to individual prescribed estrogens in drinking water are 730-480,000 times lower (depending upon estrogen type) than exposure to background levels of naturally occurring estrogens in milk. A child's exposure to total estrogens in drinking water (prescribed and naturally occurring) is about 150 times lower than exposure from milk. Adult margins of exposure (MOEs) based on total dietary exposure are about 2 times smaller than those for children. Margins of safety (MOSs) for an adult's exposure to total prescribed estrogens in drinking water vary from about 135 to > 17,000, depending on ADI. MOSs for exposure to total estrogens in drinking water are about 2 times lower than MOSs for prescribed estrogens. Depending on the ADI that is used, MOSs for young children range from 28 to 5,120 for total estrogens (including both prescribed and naturally occurring sources) in drinking water.

CONCLUSIONS

The consistently large MOEs and MOSs strongly suggest that prescribed and total estrogens that may potentially be present in drinking water in the United States are not causing adverse effects in U.S. residents, including sensitive subpopulations.