Cyberchondria in the time of the COVID-19 pandemic

Online health information seeking behavior, healthcare access, and health status during exceptional times

Online health information seeking behavior (e-HISB) is becoming increasingly common and the trend has accelerated as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic when individuals strongly relied upon the Internet to stay informed by becoming exposed to a wider array of health information. Despite e-HISB having become a global trend, very few empirical investigations have analyzed its potential influence on healthcare access and individuals' health status. In this paper, we try to fill this gap. We use data from the second SHARE Corona Survey, supplemented with data from the previous 8th wave of SHARE, and estimate a recursive model of e-HISB, healthcare access, and individuals' health status that accounts for individuals' unobserved heterogeneity. Our findings suggest that e-HISB can empower individuals to better understand health concerns, facilitating improved health condition management. However, e-HISB can also trigger a chain reaction, as navigating vast amonts of online health information can heighten fear and anxiety. This increased anxiety may lead to higher utilization of medical services, adversely affecting individuals' perceptions of their health.

Evaluation of healthcare-related factors influencing mental health of Taiwanese citizens among different age groups

The issue of mental health has gained heightened recognition as a significant public health concern due to its potential to significantly impact various aspects of individuals' lives. Numerous factors may influence mental health, and this study seeks to investigate and compare potential healthcare-related factors that affect the mental health of Taiwanese individuals across different age groups. Data for this study were taken from the Taiwan Social Change Survey (TSCS), conducted in 2021. Descriptive statistics were calculated to compare the three age groups. Then, multiple regression models were constructed with mental health conditions as the dependent variable and demographics and other key healthcare-related components as independent variables, respectively. Results showed that, among the three age groups, the middle-aged adults had the highest BMI, and the older adults had significantly better mental health. As compared with the other age groups, the older adults had significantly better perceptions of fair distribution of healthcare resources, and their trust in the healthcare system was the highest. With regard to searching for online healthcare information, the frequency reported by the older adults was the lowest. The regression model showed that, religious belief, trust in the healthcare system and searching for online healthcare information were significantly associated with mental health of middle-aged adults. In the younger group, searching for online healthcare information was significantly negatively associated with mental health. The study's findings provide insight into how to provide Taiwanese citizens of different age groups with proper and targeted mental health promotion activities.

The relationship between orthorexia nervosa and cyberchondria levels in nurses: A cross-sectional study

PURPOSE

The study was conducted with the aim of investigating the relationship between orthorexia nervosa and cyberchondria levels among nurses.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study was conducted with 399 nurses through face-to-face interviews. The data were collected using a participant information form, the Cyberchondria Severity Scale, and the Orthorexia Nervosa-11 scale (ORTO-11).

RESULTS

The mean score of the nurses' cyberchondria severity scale was 73.95 ± 18.53, while the mean score of the Orthorexia Nervosa-11 scale was 28.23 ± 4.76. In the study, a low negative correlation was found between the cyberchondria and orthorexia nervosa levels (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The increase in the level of cyberchondria among nurses increases the risk of orthorexia nervosa. Therefore, it is recommended that nurses receive proper nutritional education and psychosocial support to reduce their tendency towards orthorexia nervosa and cyberchondria.

Exploring how health-related advertising interference contributes to the development of cyberchondria: A stressor-strain-outcome approach

Objectives

Cyberchondria is increasingly recognized as the dark side of digital health, given the pervasive use of the internet as a main source of health information in people's daily lives. While previous studies have identified many factors contributing to cyberchondria, there is a dearth of research on the impact of health-related advertisements. Therefore, this study adopts the stressor-strain-outcome (SSO) model to investigate how health-related advertising interference is directly and indirectly related to cyberchondria.

Methods

To empirically validate the proposed research model, we conducted an online survey with 437 internet users with medical information seeking experience in China. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed to analyze the survey data.

Results

Our findings revealed a positive, direct association between health-related advertising interference and cyberchondria. Meanwhile, advertising interference was positively related to both information overload and information irrelevance, with the former further predicting cyberchondria. Moreover, doctor-patient communication weakened the positive effect of information overload on cyberchondria.

Conclusions

The study not only theoretically contributes to the literature by theorizing the relationship between health-related advertising interference and cyberchondria but also practically underlines the pivotal role of effective doctor-patient communication in reducing the development of cyberchondria.

Investigation of the relationship between depression, cyberchondria levels and the quality of life of female students during the COVID-19 pandemic

This study aimed to explore the correlation between cyberchondria levels, depression risk, and the quality of life among female students amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. The research was conducted with 534 female students enrolled in a public university. Participants were asked to complete a Personal Information Form, Cyberchondria Severity Scale (CSS), Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), and "Short Form-36 (SF-36)" questionnaire. The findings from the multiple linear regression analysis revealed that the level of cyberchondria increased the depression risk by 0.06 times among students. Additionally, nonsmokers were found to have a depression risk that was 4.06 times lower than smokers. A negative and weak correlation was observed between the total score of the CSS and the SF-36 survey. Based on the study's results, it can be concluded that the participants exhibited a moderate level of cyberchondria. Moreover, the study revealed a decreased quality of life and an increased risk of depression in participants as their level of cyberchondria increased. In order to mitigate the adverse impact of current and future health crises, it is imperative to prioritize organizing educational programs aimed at enhancing the e-health literacy level among female students, along with interventions to manage cyberchondria behaviors.

COVID-19 era-related e-learning: a cross-sectional web-scale study of cyberchondria, internet addiction and anxiety-related symptomatology among university nursing students

OBJECTIVE

The study assessed COVID-19 era-related e-learning cyberchondria, internet addiction and anxiety-related symptomatology among nursing students. The relationships, predictors and differences between the studied concepts were measured.

DESIGN

In 2021, a quantitative cross-sectional research design using a web survey with a sample size of 333 nursing students yielded a response rate of 70%.

RESULTS

Nursing students had a moderate level of cyberchondria, low to moderate internet addiction, a moderate to severe level of anxiety and depression, and a normal stress level. Demographic characteristics, cyberchondria, internet addiction and anxiety-related symptomatology were significantly correlated. Grade point average, age, type of organisation where the students were trained and level of education were significant predictors of the studied variables. Significant differences in the studied concepts were found based on the sample's characteristics such as gender, type of organisations or universities where the students were trained or studied, and age.

CONCLUSION

Cyberchondria, internet addiction, depression, anxiety and stress symptomatology are troublesome. Higher education organisations might benefit from examining the variables of interest and investigating the relations between internet addiction and depression and anxiety symptomatology among nursing students. Such research will aid in tailoring treatments to assist vulnerable students by targeting counselling and educational efforts toward building a future generation of nurses with reduced cyberchondria, internet addiction and anxiety-related symptomatology.

COVID-19 victimization experience and university students' smartphone addiction: the mediating role of emotional intelligence

OBJECTIVES

During the post-COVID-19 era, everyone has the risk of contracting the virus and becoming the victims of COVID-19. Examining the relationship between the COVID-19 victimization experience and its effects is more urgent. The aim of present study is to propose a mediation model to investigate the association between COVID-19 victimization experience and smartphone addiction, and the mediating role of emotional intelligence.

METHODS

A online questionnaire including the COVID-19 Victimization Experience Scale, the Smartphone Addiction Scale, and the Emotional Intelligence Scale among Chinese university students, were employed in this study. Finally, 1154 valid questionnaires were collected. The reliability and confirmatory factor analysis results showed that all three scales had good reliability and validity.

RESULTS

Structural Equation Model (SEM) demonstrated that COVID-19 victimization experience significantly predicted smartphone addiction in university students, and emotional intelligence partially mediated the association between COVID-19 victimization experience and smartphone addiction. Bootstrap results furthermore tested the rigor of the mediating effect.

CONCLUSION

COVID-19 victimization experience was a important variables in predicting university students's martphone addiction, and emotional intelligence was a protective factor in decreasing the negative effect of COVID-19 victimization experience on addictive behaviors. It is suggested that instructors should integrate emotional intelligence training programs into mental health courses so as to improve students' emotional intelligence ability.

Cyberchondria and Chinese Adolescent Mental Health in the Age of COVID-19 Pandemic

One of the far-reaching impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic is that it has become the fertile soil of cyberchondria. Adolescents' mental health was severely hit by this by-product of the COVID-19 pandemic both due to the direct effects and its indirect effects on security. This study investigated whether and how cyberchondria was associated with Chinese adolescents' mental health (i.e., well-being and depressive symptoms). Based on a large Internet sample (N = 1,108, 67.5 percent female, M_age = 16.78 years), cyberchondria, psychological insecurity, mental health, and a series of covariates were assessed. Preliminary analyses were conducted in SPSS Statistics software and main analyses were conducted in Mplus. Path analyses indicated that (a) cyberchondria was negatively associated with well-being (b = -0.12, p = 0.001) and positively associated with depressive symptoms (b = 0.17, p < 0.001); (b) psychological insecurity could fully mediate the association between cyberchondria and mental health (indirect effect _well-being = -0.15, 95% confidence interval [CI -0.19 to -0.12] and indirect effect _{depressive symptoms} = 0.15, 95% CI [0.12 to 0.19]); (c) the two dimensions (social insecurity and uncertainty) of psychological insecurity could play the mediating role in the associations between cyberchondria and mental health, uniquely and parallelly; and (d) these results did not vary by gender. This study suggests that cyberchondria may arouse individuals' psychological insecurity about interpersonal interaction and the development of events, which ultimately decreases their well-being and increases the risk of depressive symptoms. These findings facilitate the establishment and implementation of relevant prevention and intervention programs.

[Sources used to obtain information on COVID-19 and its impact on mental health.]

With the rise of COVID-19, the society has had the need to search for information about the pandemic and the sources used to obtain information have been very diverse, with a greater predominance of social media, traditional media and consultation with loved ones. In addition, an excess of information has been observed in the media that made access and understanding difficult, as well as a constant concern and anxiety about health that caused a need to search excessively or repeatedly for information on health and disease. This information was not always endorsed by the scientific community and during the pandemic there has been the spread of misinformation, fake news and conspiracy theories about COVID-19 disseminated, mainly through social media. In this sense, both the knowledge and the beliefs apprehended have been able to impact the mental health of the population.

Online enquiries and health concerns - a survey of German general practitioners regarding experiences and strategies in patient care

Aim

Increasingly at GP practices, patients appear who are extremely worried as a result of health information researched online and consequently affected by doubts and concerns. The study highlights GP attitudes and experiences with regard to this patient group. Moreover, it identifies strategies adopted by GPs to respond appropriately to worried or scared patients.

Subject and methods

In the German federal states of Baden-Württemberg, Rhineland-Palatinate and Saarland, 2532 GPs were surveyed between June and August 2022. Owing to the explorative nature of the study, a descriptive analysis was conducted.

Results

Of the total respondents, 77% deemed the current problem of internet-related health concerns to be a major challenge in everyday practice. The implications affect patients' mental stability and expectations towards the doctor (esp. demand for further instrumental diagnosis, 83%). One doctor in five (20%) has experienced the termination of patient contact because the relationship with the patient was no longer possible due to the patient's uncontrolled online information behaviour. To respond to worried or scared patients, the respondents generally ask certain patient groups about online research (39%) and take this into account in the doctor-patient discussion (23%). Furthermore, the respondents use a detailed explanation of the diagnosis and/or treatment (65%) and recommend websites that they consider reputable (66%). Some of the doctors prefer a joint examination of the information researched by the patient (55%) as well as to explain the benefits and risks of online research (43%).

Conclusion

Many GPs demonstrate a high level of awareness and sensitivity with regard to extensive online research and potentially worried patients. It seems advisable to actively address the online search for information in the patient consultation to prevent possible negative effects on the doctor-patient relationship and to actively involve the patient. In this respect, it would also be worth considering expanding the medical history to include the dimension of online searching.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10389-023-01909-1.

Predictors of Cyberchondria during the COVID-19 pandemic: A cross-sectional study using supervised machine learning

BACKGROUND

Cyberchondria is characterized by repeated and compulsive online searches for health information, resulting in increased health anxiety and distress. It has been conceptualized as a multi-dimensional construct fueled by both anxiety and compulsivity-related factors and described as a "transdiagnostic compulsive behavioral syndrome" which is associated with health anxiety, problematic internet use and obsessive-compulsive symptoms. Cyberchondria is not included in the ICD-11 or the DSM-5, and its defining features, etiological mechanisms and assessment continue to be debated.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to investigate changes in the severity of cyberchondria during the pandemic and identify predictors of cyberchondria at this time.

METHODS

Data collection started on May 4, 2020 and ended on June 10, 2020, which corresponds to the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in Europe. At the time the present study took place, French-speaking countries in Europe (France, Switzerland, Belgium and Luxembourg) all implemented lockdown or semi-lockdown measures. The survey consisted of a questionnaire collecting demographic information (sex, age, education level and country of residence) and information on socioeconomic circumstances during the first lockdown (e.g., economic situation, housing and employment status), and was followed by several instruments assessing various psychological and health-related constructs. Inclusion criteria for the study were being at least 18 years of age and having a good understanding of French. Self-report data were collected from 725 participants aged 18 to 77 years (mean 33.29, SD 12.88 years), with females constituting the majority (416/725, 57.4%).

RESULTS

The results show that the COVID-19 pandemic affected various facets of cyberchondria: cyberchondria-related distress and interference with functioning increased (distress z=-3.651, P<.001; compulsion z=-5.697, P<.001), whereas the reassurance facet of cyberchondria decreased (z=-6.680, P<.001). Also, COVID-19-related fears and health anxiety emerged as the strongest predictors of cyberchondria-related distress and interference with functioning during the pandemic.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings provide evidence about the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cyberchondria and identify factors that should be considered in efforts to prevent and manage cyberchondria at times of public health crises. Also, they are consistent with the theoretical model of cyberchondria during the COVID-19 pandemic proposed by Starcevic and his colleagues in 2020. In addition, the findings have implications for the conceptualization and future assessment of cyberchondria.

Cyberchondria: a Growing Concern During the COVID-19 Pandemic and a Possible Addictive Disorder?

Purpose of Review

The main purpose of this narrative review is to provide a brief overview of the current empirical evidence regarding the conceptualization, assessment, and treatment of cyberchondria, with a focus on the potential classification of cyberchondria as a behavioral addiction. Although cyberchondria has been widely associated with anxiety, it has also been suggested that it may be linked to obsessive-compulsive features. A less explored proposal is the categorization of cyberchondria as a behavioral addiction. The present review explores the existing literature with respect to the possible classification of cyberchondria as a behavioral addiction by considering cyberchondria with respect to components of the interaction of person, affect, cognition and execution model.

Recent Findings

There is a lack of consensus regarding the definition and conceptualization of cyberchondria. The empirical evidence available to date suggests that cyberchondria is a multifactorial construct that operates transdiagnostically, particularly with respect to obsessive-compulsive-related disorders and health-related anxiety. The extent to which the condition may reflect a behavioral addiction as a form of problematic use of the internet also warrants consideration. Cyberchondria may have become more prevalent during the COVID-19 pandemic, with particular populations prone to health-related anxiety likely having greater vulnerability. Existing data in part support the potential classification of cyberchondria as a behavioral addiction, although many gaps in understanding currently exist.

Summary

Cyberchondria appears to be a growing concern. However, there is not yet enough empirical evidence to determine whether this clinical condition has enough similarities with behavioral addictions to be considered as one. Likewise, psychometric instruments that exist to date have not been designed from the theoretical framework of behavioral addictions, so most of the factors that they evaluate may be preferentially related to anxiety. Finally, there is still no consensus on whether cyberchondria should be addressed in the context of health anxiety interventions, OCRD, or behavioral addictions; thus, more empirical evidence is needed.

Cyberchondria and COVID-19 anxiety and internet addiction among nursing students

This study was conducted to determine the relationship between cyberchondria and COVID-19 anxiety and internet addiction in nursing students. This cross-sectional study was conducted with 843 students studying in the nursing department of Adnan Menderes University. The mean age of the students was 20.8 ± 1.72 years and 61.2% were female. The Cyberchondria Severity Scale-Short Form, Coronavirus Anxiety Scale, and the Young Internet Addiction Test-Short Form were used to collect data. The study found a positive association between internet addiction, cyberchondria severity, and anxiety about COVID-19. It was found that the anxiety of COVID-19 had a mediating role in the association between internet addiction and cyberchondria severity. It was found that the use of the internet as a source of information on health problems and trusting the health information found had a significant effect on high cyberchondria levels (p < 0.05). Taken together, the findings of previous studies and this study on the role of the association between internet addiction and cyberchondria exacerbating anxiety due to the pandemic provide further evidence for healthcare professionals that greater focus is needed on the problems of the new era related to people-internet interaction. To reduce the negative effects of the current health crisis and future health crises, interventions for nursing students to control their internet use and cyberchondria behaviors should be prioritized.

Social media use for coping with stress and psychological adjustment: A transactional model of stress and coping perspective

Introduction

The psychological well-being of individuals has become an essential issue during the global pandemic. As a pervasive activity for individuals to pull through COVID-19, social media use may play a role in psychological well-being. Drawing on the transactional model of stress and coping, the current study investigated the relationships between COVID-19-related stressors and the use of social media to facilitate specific coping strategies. We further investigated how social media coping strategies impact users' psychological adjustment.

Methods

We collected the data from 641 quarantined residents through a two-wave survey that was conducted in two cities in China during government-mandated lockdowns.

Results

The results showed that perceived COVID-19 stress was related to the intensity of social media use for problem-focused coping, socioemotional coping, and mental disengagement. In addition, individuals' psychological adjustment was positively associated with social media use for socioemotional coping and mental disengagement while negatively related to problem-focused coping. Age was also found to be a moderator of the relationship between socioemotional coping and psychological adjustment.

Discussion

To relieve pandemic-related stress, individuals can actively utilize social media to implement various coping strategies. However, coping activities with social media may not always induce psychological benefits. By revealing the different levels of psychological adjustment among social media users with specific coping strategies, the current research enriched the literature on the effects of social media use on mental health. Findings from this study suggest the need for the prudent use of social media to cope with public health crises.

How cyberchondria and decision self-efficacy shapes the acceptability of COVID-19 vaccine: A gender-based comparison

Objective

Alarmingly, the individuals' reach and coverage to get vaccinated in developing regions during the pandemic is a massive challenge for concerned authorities. This study aimed to demonstrate how cyberchondria play a significant role in a classical health belief model. Cyberchondria may influence cognitive factors (e.g. self-efficacy), which may contribute to an increase in attitude-behavior gap. Especially in the context of a health-centric scenario, it may discourage individuals to take protective measures.

Method

By using the cross-sectional research design, the authors conducted a quantitative survey in Pakistan and collected 563 responses from 303 male respondents (rural = 91; urban = 212) with (Urban M:35.5, standard deviation (SD):13.4) and rural M:37.5, SD:8.4).

Result

The findings indicate that decision self-efficacy among males is stronger than that in females. It dominates other determinants, which can dampen the individuals' intentions to get vaccinated. For instance, the effect of conspiracies and perceived seriousness was noted nonsignificant and weak. In females, perceived seriousness was stronger determinant than in males. In addition, the negative effect of decision self-efficacy was noted in the case of females, and conspiracy and cyberchondria had a negative role.

Conclusion

This study highlights valuable implications for future research in infodemic, health communication and health literacy, and practical implications for regulatory bodies and public administration.

The association between fear of Covid-19 and smartphone addiction among individuals: the mediating and moderating role of cyberchondria severity

The coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) has quickly spread all over the world and has contributed to psychological consequences including fear of the virus. Depending upon the severity of their problems, individuals often search the internet via their mobile devices to understand whether the symptoms they perceive are symptoms of the disease. This condition has been termed 'cyberchondria'. In this context, the aim of this study is examine the mediating and moderating role of cyberchondria severity in the association between smartphone addiction and the fear of COVID-19. The sample comprised 520 participants (335 females [64.4%], 185 males [35.6%] aged 17 to 65 years [Mean = 28.61 years, SD = 10.60]). A survey included the Cyberchondria Severity Scale Short-Form, The Smartphone Addiction Scale-Short Version, and The Fear of COVID-19 Scale. Structural equation modeling and SPSS Process Macro moderator variable analysis were used to test the research model. The study found a positive association between smartphone addiction, fear of COVID-19, and cyberchondria severity. Cyberchondria severity had both moderating and mediating role in the association between smartphone addiction and the fear of COVID-19. In conclusion, it has been determined that during the COVID-19 pandemic, cyberchondria severity has negative effects on individuals' fear of COVID-19.

Public interest and awareness regarding general health, sleep quality and mental wellbeing during the early COVID-19 pandemic period: An exploration using Google trends

The internet network continues to be a major source of health-related information. Our research provides insights into the online health-seeking behaviors of the general population, and evaluates the potential relationship between the COVID-19 pandemic and public interest and awareness of general sleep health, mental health and wellbeing. Google Trends' weekly relative search volumes (RSVs) were examined during 2020 for searches specifically related to COVID-19 symptoms, and for searches related to general health, sleep and wellbeing, in the United Kingdom, the United States of America, France, Italy and Japan. To obtain insight into the association between the initiation of public restrictions and online search trends, we assessed a six-week period; the 'early pandemic period' (EPP) (01 March 2020 - 11 April 2020). To provide a meaningful pre-pandemic comparison, a similar period during 2019 (03 March - 13 April 2019) was compared for RSV and median difference analysis. The EPP was associated with increased online searches related to COVID-19 symptoms, as compared with those related to more general sleep health, mental health and wellbeing. The latter search terms frequently showed a decrease or minimal change in RSV during the EPP compared with the equivalent period in 2019. This finding illustrates the potential link between the COVID-19 pandemic and online search behavior and corroborates existing findings regarding internet searches during this period. Proactive communication by healthcare professionals during future pandemics and as an ongoing measure could help prevent public neglect of general health and wellbeing symptoms, and encourage reporting and early intervention.

Global Online Interest in HIV/AIDS care Services in the time of COVID-19: A Google Trends Analysis

The Covid-19 pandemic has compounded the challenge of HIV/AIDS elimination, creating difficulties in accessing HIV care services such as early testing and treatment. This paper characterized the global online interest in HIV care services-related search terms before and during the pandemic. Global online search interest for HIV was measured using the Google Trends™ database. Spearman's rank-order correlation correlated country-specific characteristics and HIV prevalence data with the search volume index (SVI). We found a significant decrease in the global online search interest for HIV/AIDS care services-related search terms during the Covid-19 pandemic. The top countries with the highest online interest for "HIV/AIDS" search terms were Zambia, Eswatini, Malawi, Lesotho, and Zimbabwe. In addition, search volume indices for HIV correlated positively with HIV prevalence and negatively with GDP, GDP per capita, and the number of physicians. This result highlights that resource-poor countries with a high prevalence of HIV have a high online interest in HIV/AIDS. Therefore, there is a need to improve internet access, the quality of HIV-related health information, and online health literacy to improve health-seeking behavior, especially in areas with a high disease burden. Overall, our study shows that the infodemiologic approach through Google Trends™ can be used to assess the online interest of the public toward HIV infection and related healthcare services.

Cyberchondria, Anxiety Sensitivity, Hypochondria, and Internet Addiction: Implications for Mental Health Professionals

Repetitive online searches for health information increase anxieties and result in Internet addiction. Internet addiction, cyberchondria, anxiety sensitivity, and hypochondria have been studied separately, but how these concepts are reciprocally linked has not been investigated. This study aimed to determine the levels, correlations, and predictors of Internet addiction, cyberchondria, anxiety sensitivity, and hypochondria among students based on the sample's characteristics. A sample of 143 university students participated in this cross-sectional online survey. A self-reported questionnaire was employed to collect data from students. The studied concepts had moderate to high correlations with each other and with the students' characteristics. Not getting infected with the coronavirus was among the demographic factors inserted into the regression model that only predicted cyberchondria. The model of cyberchondria was significant and explained 11.5% of the variance in the score of concepts. The results of the standard regression analysis indicated that the model predicting Internet addiction accounted for 41.2% of the variability. Our unique findings indicate that cyberchondria can contribute to developing Internet addiction compared to earlier studies. The findings suggest the importance of empowering students to overcome their anxieties by managing cyberchondria and Internet addiction. Mental health professionals, namely psychiatric nurses, are at the forefront of taking preventive mental health measures on campus, such as screening and referring students who exhibit these problems to psychological support and counseling to cope with their anxieties.

Advances in problematic usage of the internet research - A narrative review by experts from the European network for problematic usage of the internet

Global concern about problematic usage of the internet (PUI), and its public health and societal costs, continues to grow, sharpened in focus under the privations of the COVID-19 pandemic. This narrative review reports the expert opinions of members of the largest international network of researchers on PUI in the framework of the European Cooperation in Science and Technology (COST) Action (CA 16207), on the scientific progress made and the critical knowledge gaps remaining to be filled as the term of the Action reaches its conclusion. A key advance has been achieving consensus on the clinical definition of various forms of PUI. Based on the overarching public health principles of protecting individuals and the public from harm and promoting the highest attainable standard of health, the World Health Organisation has introduced several new structured diagnoses into the ICD-11, including gambling disorder, gaming disorder, compulsive sexual behaviour disorder, and other unspecified or specified disorders due to addictive behaviours, alongside naming online activity as a diagnostic specifier. These definitions provide for the first time a sound platform for developing systematic networked research into various forms of PUI at global scale. Progress has also been made in areas such as refining and simplifying some of the available assessment instruments, clarifying the underpinning brain-based and social determinants, and building more empirically based etiological models, as a basis for therapeutic intervention, alongside public engagement initiatives. However, important gaps in our knowledge remain to be tackled. Principal among these include a better understanding of the course and evolution of the PUI-related problems, across different age groups, genders and other specific vulnerable groups, reliable methods for early identification of individuals at risk (before PUI becomes disordered), efficacious preventative and therapeutic interventions and ethical health and social policy changes that adequately safeguard human digital rights. The paper concludes with recommendations for achievable research goals, based on longitudinal analysis of a large multinational cohort co-designed with public stakeholders.

Linking the Pathway from Exposure to Online Vaccine Information to Cyberchondria During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Moderated Mediation Model

Cyberchondria describes excessive health information seeking on the Internet is associated with escalating concerns and anxiety. Drawing upon the stimulus-organism-response model, this study proposes a moderated mediation model to explore how people develop cyberchondria when they search for COVID-19 vaccine-related information on the Internet. To test the proposed model, an online survey was conducted in China. Results showed that there was a direct and positive relationship between exposure to online vaccine information and cyberchondria. This relationship was also partially mediated by perceived information overload. Moreover, e-health literacy negatively moderated the indirect relationship between exposure to online vaccine information and cyberchondria through perceived information overload. The results from this study can advance our knowledge on the development of cyberchondria during public health crises, and inform health professionals and social media operators on developing evidence-based interventions to manage this issue.

The Doctor Is In(ternet): The Mediating Role of Health Anxiety in the Relationship between Somatic Symptoms and Cyberchondria

Cyberchondria is a dysfunctional behavioral pattern characterized by an excessive and anxiety-amplifying engagement in searching for reassuring health information on the Internet. Research demonstrated that somatic symptoms and health anxiety might foster maladaptive health-related behaviors, such as cyberchondria. However, the relationships between somatic symptoms, health anxiety, and cyberchondria have been scarcely examined. Accordingly, this study aimed to test the mediating effect of health anxiety on the association between somatic symptoms and cyberchondria. Four hundred and thirty-one adults from the community (158 males, 36.66%), aged between 18 and 74, were recruited via an online survey. Participants completed self-report measures of somatic symptoms, health anxiety, and cyberchondria. A mediation analysis demonstrated that the severity of somatic symptoms predicted increased levels of cyberchondria and that health anxiety partially mediated this association. Therefore, interventions aimed at decreasing health anxiety may also play a role in decreasing the risk of developing cyberchondria.

COVID-19 Information-Seeking, Health Literacy, and Worry and Anxiety During the Early Stage of the Pandemic in Switzerland: A Cross-Sectional Study

Objectives: To describe COVID-19 information-seeking behavior (CISB) during the first stage of the pandemic in Switzerland and identify its determinants.

Methods: We conducted an online cross-sectional survey (4 May to 6 July 2020). Participants self-reported their CISB (information sources and frequency), personal COVID-19 situation (e.g., perception about having had COVID-19), sociodemographic information, and completed validated measures of health literacy, and worry and anxiety. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and logistic regressions.

Results: We included 1,505 participants (24.7% male; mean age = 43.0 years, SD = 13.9). Most participants reported searching for information daily (n = 1,023, 68.0%) and referring to multiple information sources (mean 3.7, SD = 1.5). Commonly used sources were official websites (n = 1,129, 75.0%) and newspapers (n = 997, 66.2%). Participants with higher health literacy were more likely to seek information daily and use online resources, but less likely to use personal networks than those with lower health literacy. We did not find any association between CISB and worry and anxiety.

Conclusion: More opportunities for personal dialogue and education about reliable online information resources should be encouraged to optimize the CISB of groups with lower health literacy.

Decreased online hepatitis information seeking during the COVID-19 pandemic: an Infodemiology study

Introduction

Viral hepatitis remains a public health concern worldwide, mainly in developing countries. The public's awareness and interest in viral hepatitis information are essential in preventing and controlling this disease. Infodemiology has been used as a surrogate to assess the general understanding of disease and measure public awareness of health topics. However, this analysis has not been applied to viral hepatitis. Thus, this study investigated the online global search interest for viral hepatitis in the last decade, focusing on the period before and during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Methods

Global online search interest for hepatitis was measured using the Google Trends™ database. Spearman's rank-order correlation correlated country-specific characteristics and prevalence data with search volume index.

Results

There was a significant reduction in online search interest for hepatitis during the COVID-19 pandemic (2020). People searching for hepatitis are also interested in hepatitis vaccination. Search volume index is positively correlated with viral hepatitis and HIV prevalence and negatively correlated with GDP. This correlation mirrors the high burden of viral hepatitis in developing countries and their citizens' desire to be informed about this disease.

Conclusions

Our study found decreased global online interest in viral hepatitis during the pandemic. Moreover, higher online interest in hepatitis was observed in countries with a lower gross domestic product and high viral hepatitis and HIV prevalence. We demonstrated that global online interest toward viral hepatitis could be assessed through the infodemiologic approach using Google Trends™.

Coronavirus anxiety and cyberchondria among teachers during the COVID-19 pandemic: an online survey: Coronavirus anxiety and cyberchondria

This study aimed to determine anxiety and cyberchondria and to investigate the links between anxiety and cyberchondria among teachers. This cross-sectional and descriptive study was conducted with 250 teachers. Data were collected using demographic information form, Cyberchondria Severity Scale and Coronavirus Anxiety Scale Short Form. The mean age of the teachers was 40.40 ± 8.83 years. The anxiety mean score was 7.70 ± 3.67, cyberchondria severity mean score was 73.47 ± 20.59. There were significant positive correlations between anxiety about COVID-19 and cyberchondria(r = 0.423, p < 0.001). Researchers must determine whether there is a benefit in further solving these relationships and reducing and preventing intervention in cyberchondria and anxiety; they must focus on results which increase anxiety, and investigate the correlation between cyberchondria, anxiety and behavior.

Investigating the Obsessive and Compulsive Features of Cyberchondria: A Holistic Review

Background

Cyberchondria has been brought into sharp focus during the COVID-19 health emergency; it refers to individuals who obsessively and compulsively search for health information online, resulting in excessive health concerns. Recent scholarship focuses on its obsessive and compulsive aspect, following a biopsychosocial approach as opposed to a pathology of health anxiety. It lacks interpretation of the socio-psychological dynamics between the dimensions.

Objective

This review aims to propose a holistic view toward understanding cyberchondria as an obsessive–compulsive syndrome and considers possible interventions. It specifically seeks to explain cyberchondria from diversified mediator variables and to pinpoint connections between each perspective.

Methodology

Comprehensive searches of databases such as PubMed and Springer were conducted to identify English articles relating to cyberchondria from 2001 to 2022. Based on a systematic filtering process, 27 articles were finally reviewed.

Findings

The authors compare and confirm three forecasts to predict cyberchondria, associating it with individual metacognition, uncertainty of unverified information, and algorithm-driven, biased information environments.

Value

Theoretically, a holistic framework is proposed to explain the obsessive and compulsive features of cyberchondria. Clinically, the research calls for more professional psychoeducation and chain screening of cyberchondria and other psychological disorders. Socially, it promotes support for risk-sensitive, information-deficient groups during pandemics like COVID-19. It also stresses more careful use of algorithm-driven search engine technology for platforms delivering medical information. Future research may explore areas such as the association between cyberchondria and other social-related disorders, as well as correlations among cyberchondria, obsessive and compulsive disorders, medical trust, and algorithm-driven search results.

New challenges in facing Cyberchondria during the COVID-19 pandemic

Cyberchondria (CYB) is characterized by excessive online searching for medical information and is associated with increasing levels of distress, anxiety, and interference with daily activities. As the use of digital devices and the Internet as a source of everyday information has increased, particularly during the current coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, so has CYB, becoming an object of interest to clinicians and researchers. The present review will provide an overview of the latest updates in CYB research. Emerging evidence draws attention to various vulnerability factors for developing CYB, including personal characteristics such as female gender, younger age, or a history of mental disorder, as well as engagement in particular forms of online behavior, such as increased use of social media, increased acceptance of online information, and information overload. Additionally, recent studies suggest that CYB may itself act as a mediating factor for increased COVID-19-related psychological burden. However, the data are still very sparse. Knowledge gaps include a universally accepted definition of CYB, severity thresholds to help differentiate nonpathological online health searches from CYB, as well as robustly evidence-based interventions.

COVID-19 information overload: Intolerance of uncertainty moderates the relationship between frequency of internet searching and fear of COVID-19

The COVID-19 pandemic has led to unprecedented levels of uncertainty for people around the world. Research suggests that internet searching resulting in contradictory information can lead to increased levels of distress, particularly for people who have a high intolerance of uncertainty (IU). In the present correlational study, U.S. undergraduate students (N = 317) indicated their IU, the frequency with which they search for COVID-19 related information online, their overall health anxiety, their fear of COVID-19 (FCV-19), and engagement in prevention behaviors. Consistent with previous research, individual differences in IU moderated the relationship between internet searches and FCV-19 such that for people high in IU, more internet searching was associated with greater fear. In turn, we also found that greater FCV-19 predicted more social-distancing behaviors. These findings are important in both future mental health and public health initiatives.

Health anxiety model of cyberchondria, fears, obsessions, sleep quality, and negative affect during COVID-19

The aim of the study was to explore the relationships among cyberchondria, fear of COVID-19, health anxiety, obsessions, sleep quality, and negative affect in a national community sample of Turkish participants. A sample of 8,276 volunteers, aged between 18 and 65, were recruited via an online platform. The Perceived Vulnerability about Diseases Questionnaire, Fear of COVID-19 Scale, Cyberchondria Severity Scale, Short Health Anxiety Inventory, Depression Stress Anxiety Scale-21, Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory-Revised, and Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index were completed by participants. Data were analyzed using mixture structural equation modelling approach. Results revealed that perceived vulnerability to disease was found to be positively related with cyberchondria, poor sleep quality, health anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive symptoms. Negative affect was positively associated with obsessive-compulsive symptoms, fears of COVID-19, cyberchondria severity, and poor sleep quality. Additionally, fear of COVID-19 was positively related to health anxiety. Also, cyberchondria severity was found to be positively associated with poor sleep quality and obsessive-compulsive symptoms. Mixture analysis classified participants into six latent classes: 1) Risk-Aversive Healthy Group, 2) Incautious Healthy Group, 3) Infection Obsessions Group, 4) Health Anxiety Group, 5) Negative Affect Group, and 6) General Psychopathology Group. The national survey data showed that perceived vulnerability to diseases, negative affect, fear of COVID-19, cyberchondria, health anxiety, obsessive-compulsive symptoms, and sleep quality appeared to be at the center of pandemic health anxiety.

Dark side consequences of cyberchondria: an empirical investigation

Purpose

Cyberchondria refers to the repeated and excessive search for health-related information online, associated with increased health anxiety. This paper utilizes the protection motivation theory to investigate the negative behavioral consequences of cyberchondria that pose health risks to users, such as trust in the physician, propensity to self-medicate, and therapy compliance.

Design/methodology/approach

The data for the study were collected from a sample of 317 participants in India using an online survey and form. The analysis was conducted using structural equation modeling.

Findings

Cyberchondria negatively affects the trust in physician and positively affects the propensity to self-medicate. Trust in physician negatively affects the propensity to self-medicate and positively affects therapy compliance. Furthermore, trust in physician partially mediates the relationship between cyberchondria and the propensity to self-medicate and completely mediates the relationship between cyberchondria and therapy compliance. Cyberchondria has no direct significant effect on therapy compliance.

Research limitations/implications

Researchers need to examine other behavioral or psychological factors affected by the reduced trust in physicians due to cyberchondria.

Practical implications

Physicians and health care providers should refocus on patients with cyberchondria and regain their trust through quality interactions and services. Policymakers may consider regulating online health information publication to set the standards of information quality and source. Websites and platforms publishing health information online should distinctly label verified information.

Originality/value

This study investigates the damaging effects of cyberchondria's behavioral consequences that pose health risks to users.

The Active Role of the Internet and Social Media Use in Nonpharmaceutical and Pharmaceutical Preventive Measures against COVID-19

During the COVID-19 pandemic, does more internet and social media use lead to taking more- or less-effective preventive measures against the disease? A two-wave longitudinal survey with the general population in mainland China in mid-2020 found that during the COVID-19 pandemic, internet and social media use intensity promoted the adoption of nonpharmaceutical and pharmaceutical antipandemic measures. The first wave of data (n = 1014) showed that the more intensively people used the internet/social media, the more they perceived the threat of the pandemic, and took more nonpharmaceutical preventive measures (e.g., wearing masks, maintaining social distance, and washing hands) as a result. The second wave (n = 220) showed firstly the predicted relationship between internet/social media use intensity and the perceived threat of the pandemic and the adoption of nonpharmaceutical preventive measures by cross-lagged analysis; secondly, the predictive effect of internet/social media use on the adoption of pharmacological measures (i.e., willingness to vaccinate against COVID-19) and the mediating role of perceived pandemic threat were verified. The article concludes with a discussion of the role of the internet and social media use in the fight against COVID-19 in specific macrosocial contexts.

Does cyberchondria predict Internet addiction among students during the COVID-19 pandemic? A web-based survey study

BACKGROUND

Previous literature has investigated the association of this phenomenon and Internet addiction. Nevertheless, little research has been conducted to elucidate the predictive associations among these concepts among students.

OBJECTIVE

This study reported students' cyberchondria and Internet addiction, and it examined whether cyberchondria predicts Internet addiction.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

During the COVID-19 pandemic, cross-sectional data were collected using a web survey from a convenience snowball sample of 143 students enrolled in e-learning courses at a governmental university.

RESULTS

A moderate level of cyberchondria and a mild level of Internet addiction was evident among students. A moderate level of cyberchondria and a mild level of Internet addiction was evident among students. Moderate to high significant correlations were reported among the studied concepts and with the sample's characteristics. Cyberchondria and unavailability of the Internet at school were predictors of Internet addiction.

IMPLICATIONS

Healthcare providers, including nurses, should provide information that preserves students' mental health during stressful periods such as the COVID-19 pandemic and should offer clear instructions on stress and anxiety management during such times. A longer scale, especially for cyberchondria, is warranted in future research with a random and larger sample.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest that cyberchondria serves as a predictor of Internet addiction, contrary to findings of previous studies. Various psychosocial interventions should always be initiated to help students prevent or address cyberchondria and Internet addiction.

Cyberchondria During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Many factors govern the behavior pertaining to anxiety regarding health – it may be stressors, triggers, adverse situations faced by people. Since the outbreak of the COVID-19 virus, health-related anxiety has been widespread. December 2019 saw the occurrence of a form of pneumonia, not known at that time, from the Wuhan region of China to rapidly proceed into a worldwide pandemic and lockdown. This disrupted normal life across the globe and affected social and economic functioning. Cyberchondria has been one of the coping strategies seen during this time, pertaining to online health-related searches which offer answers and relief as seen at the surface but also bringing a plethora of mental health challenges. The authors in this chapter try to simplify what exactly cyberchondria is and how has it affected the lives of the worldwide population during the COVID-19 crisis, the biggest pandemic of recent times. The origin, development, and prevalence of the concept, along with coping, treatment, and prevention of the condition are discussed.

The Status and Influencing Factors of Cyberchondria During the COVID-19 Epidemic. A Cross-Sectional Study in Nanyang City of China

Cyberchondria is considered “the anxiety-amplifying effects of online health-related searches.” During the COVID-19 pandemic, people are likely to search health-related information online for reassurance because of fear and related physical symptoms, while cyberchondria may be triggered due to the escalation of health anxiety, different online seeking behavior preference, information overload, and insufficient e-health literacy. This study aimed to investigate the status and influencing factors of cyberchondria in residents in China during the epidemic period of COVID-19. The participants were 674 community residents of Nanyang city surveyed from February 1 to 15, 2020. We administered online measures, including the Chinese Short Form of the Cyberchondria Severity Scale (C-CSS-12), Short Health Anxiety Inventory (SHAI), eHealth Literacy Scale (eHEALS), Patient Health Questionnaire-15 (PHQ-15), and COVID-19-related online information seeking behavior questionnaire. In our study, the average C-CSS-12 total score of residents was 30.65 ± 11.53 during the virus epidemic; 25% of participants scored 22 or below, 50% scored 23 to 38, and 21.9% scored 39 to 60. The SHAI total score (β = 0.598 > 0, P < 0.001), the use of general search engines (β = 1.867 > 0, P = 0.039), and searching for information on how to diagnose COVID-19 (β = 2.280 > 0, P = 0.020) were independent risk factors for cyberchondria, while searching lasting less than 10 min each (β = −2.992 < 0, P = 0.048), the use of traditional media digital platforms (β = −1.650 < 0, P = 0.024) and professional medical communication platforms (β = −4.189 < 0, P = 0.007) were independent protective factors. Our findings showed that nearly a quarter of the participants scored 39 or higher on the C-CSS-12 in Nanyang city during the pandemic, which should be taken seriously. Health anxiety and COVID-19-related online information seeking behavior including online duration, topics and choice on different information channels were important influencing factors of cyberchondria. These findings have implications for further research and clinical practice on cyberchondria in China.

Cyberchondria severity and quality of life among Lebanese adults: the mediating role of fear of COVID-19, depression, anxiety, stress and obsessive-compulsive behavior-a structural equation model approach

BACKGROUND

This study highlights the significant association between cyberchondria and quality of life among the Lebanese population in the time of COVID-19. The aim was to assess the association between cyberchondria and quality of life (QOL) of Lebanese community during the COVID-19 pandemic and assess the mediating effect of fear of COVID-19, depression, anxiety, stress and Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale in this association.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study was carried out between December 2020 and January 2021, during the COVID-19 pandemic. A total of 449 persons participated in this study by filling the online questionnaire. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was performed to examine the structural relationship between cyberchondria severity, the mediator (anxiety, stress, depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and fear of COVID-19) and physical/mental QOL.

RESULTS

Having a university level of education and older age were significantly associated with higher physical QOL scores, whereas higher obsession-compulsion disorder, higher stress and higher anxiety were significantly associated with lower physical QOL scores. Higher anxiety was significantly associated with lower mental QOL scores. The results of the SEM showed that stress, fear of COVID-19 and to a lesser limit OCD, mediated the association between cyberchondria severity and physical QOL, whereas anxiety, stress and fear of COVID-19 mediated the association between cyberchondria severity and mental QOL.

CONCLUSION

This research reported interesting results encouraging more exploration of cyberchondria and its association with quality of life during this unique period of the pandemic. However, this virus has altered the lives of individuals all across the world, and the consequences will last for a long time. Along with all of the steps done to stop the development of COVID-19 and improve physical outcomes, mental health requires immediate care. More research is needed to determine the coping techniques people are employing to deal with the pandemic.

The Effect of Primary and Middle School Teachers' Problematic Internet Use and Fear of COVID-19 on Psychological Need Thwarting of Online Teaching and Psychological Distress

Problematic Internet use (PIU) is a risk factor for psychological distress during COVID-19, as teachers are a psychologically vulnerable population. We explored the role of PIU in terms of primary and middle school teachers' fear of COVID-19 and psychological need thwarting (PNT) of online teaching. We empirically evaluated the relationships among these research variables in explaining teachers' psychological distress during COVID-19. Online survey data were collected from 9030 teachers. A high proportion of participants demonstrated psychological distress: depression (20.4%), anxiety (26.4%), and stress (10.2%). Structural equation modeling was used to test our proposed conceptual model, wherein PIU behaviors served as predictors, mediated by fear of COVID-19 and PNT of online teaching, for teachers' psychological distress. With ideal model fit, the results of the path coefficients indicated that PIU behaviors were associated with fear of COVID-19 (p < 0.001); fear of COVID-19 and PNT of online teaching were associated with psychological distress (p < 0.001); and fear of COVID-19 was also positively associated with PNT of online teaching (p < 0.001). PSU and PSMU had an indirect positive effect on psychological distress through the mediator of fear of COVID-19 and PNT of online teaching. As such, we suggest that school administrators pay greater attention to teachers' psychological needs through efforts to enhance teachers' autonomy and relatedness from interpersonal relationships, alleviating PNT of online teaching. Our PNT of online teaching scale may also serve as a contribution for further research and practice.

Anxious temperament and cyberchondria as mediated by fear of COVID-19 infection: A cross-sectional study

This study's main goal was to evaluate the association between anxious temperament and the fear of COVID-19-related self-infection and infection in loved ones (family members, friends, relatives) and cyberchondria. The sample consisted of 499 men and women aged between 18 and 72 who were gathered from the general population via an online recruitment platform. A numerical rating scale comprising 11 degrees of fear was used to assess participants' COVID-19-related fear, and affective temperaments were evaluated using Akiskal's Temperament Evaluation of the Memphis, Pisa, Paris and San Diego Autoquestionnaire (TEMPS-A) scales. Cyberchondria was assessed using McElroy and Shevlin's Cyberchondria Severity Scale (CSS). Small to medium positive correlations were found between depressive, cyclothymic, irritable and anxious temperaments and cyberchondria and between depressive and anxious temperaments and COVID-19 fears. However, no correlation was observed between the hyperthymic temperament and cyberchondria. Cyberchondria positively correlated with both COVID-19 fears scales, though the correlation coefficients were medium. Based on the results of linear regression analysis, only anxious temperament and COVID-19 fear of self-infection were significant predictors of cyberchondria. The analysis also revealed a significant indirect effect of anxious temperament on cyberchondria through fear of COVID-19 self-infection as a mediator between anxious temperament and cyberchondria.

COVID-19 information fatigue? A case study of a German university website during two waves of the pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in the ubiquity of health-related information, disseminated using digital technology. However, recent research suggests that this accessibility of (often negative) information can induce adverse psychological effects, including anxiety, panic-based hoarding, and other unhealthy behaviors. Some of these consequences have been explained with the idea of an information overload. Considering these current developments, it may become harder to effectively communicate COVID-19-related information in smaller, local contexts, such as universities. By analyzing the page views and searches on the website of a university of education in Germany, we derive recommendations for the delivery of information of local organizations. One conclusion is that the need for information during the pandemic decreases as time passes (at least at the local level of institutions such as universities), and even new emergencies such as the beginning of the second wave of COVID-19 only affect this behavioral pattern to a minor extent. As a result of this COVID-19 information fatigue, strategies to keep members of institutions informed are discussed. In addition, we suggest developing a mobile app for delivering individualized information right on hand using machine learning and natural language processing strategies. In sum, individual organizations interested in keeping their members informed concerning COVID-19 should consider the use of personalized information strategies that avoid inducing negative emotional states. Moreover, potentials for connecting people using digital technology could be harnessed in local organizations.

Cyberchondria Amidst COVID-19 Pandemic: Challenges and Management Strategies

The corona-virus disease 2019 (COVID-19), first found in Wuhan, China in December 2019, has posed an inexplicable threat to the global community. After its inception, the virus proliferated rapidly, which led to the cause of millions of deaths, and having a detrimental effect on physical health, social lives, economic uncertainty, and mental health of people. The World Health Organization has reported that there are 111 million confirmed cases of COVID-19 and 2.45 million deaths due to COVID-19 worldwide. Indisputably, the present pandemic has contributed to the extensive psychological and environmental distress together with clinical depression, anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), domestic violence, and unemployment. Due to the ambiguous nature of the pandemic, educational organizations, and outdoor activities are closed, thus burdening the mental health of younger populations. Children as well as youths are more glued to the Internet for their studies, online gaming, shopping, watching movies, and searching health-related information. Despite the advantages of using the Internet, it has some severe consequences too. Some people are repeatedly searching for physical and mental well-being related information without verifying credible sources, which, in turn, causes distress and anxiety. In such situations, individuals may end up contributing to an illness known as cyberchondria. In this paper, we have tried to highlight the problematic use of Internet for health-related searches and have outlined the management of such illness. We suggest two strategies: firstly, to reduce repeated online searches of health information and, secondly, to manage anxiety-augmenting thoughts that are triggered due to the maladaptive thoughts caused by the abstruse information.

The Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on Searching for Health-Related Information and Cyberchondria on the General Population in Italy

Objectives: The Internet has become one of the most common sources people use to search for health-related information, a behavior rapidly increased during the novel Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). The present study aimed to investigate behavioral patterns in the online health-related searches and Cyberchondria (CYB) during the COVID-19 pandemic time, in order to explore socio-demographic and psychopathological factors related to CYB. Methods: During the third wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy, a cross-sectional online survey collected the main socio-demographic variables and habits related to Internet use of 572 participants. CYB was measured by the Cyberchondria Severity Scale-Short Version and different psychopathological factors were measured by specific questionnaires: the Coronavirus Anxiety Scale, the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, the Short Health Anxiety Inventory, the Meta-Cognitions about Health Questionnaire, the Internet Addiction Test, the Maudsley Obsessional-Compulsive Questionnaire-Short Version, the Rosenberg's Self-Esteem Scale, and the WHO Quality of Life-BREF. Descriptives, non-parametric ANOVAs, and Spearman correlations were performed. Results: In the present sample, the Internet was the main source participants used to search for health-related information and nearly one-third increased this habit during the pandemic. Higher expression of CYB emerged in females, in younger participants, in students, and in those suffering from a physical/psychiatric illness. CYB showed a positive correlation with different phenomenology of anxiety (i.e., anxiety about COVID-19, health anxiety, general anxiety, metacognitive believes about anxiety) and with depression, obsessive-compulsive symptoms, and problematic usage of the Internet. Conversely, quality of life and self-esteem showed a negative correlation with CYB. Conclusion: During the COVID-19 pandemic, the use of the Internet for health-related information and CYB contribute to the psychological stress affecting individuals and society. Delineating subjects more vulnerable to CYB and associated psychopathological factors will help to elaborate operational indications for prevention and psychological support.