Toward the elimination of hepatitis C in the United States

Hepatitis C Treatment in Kentucky Medicaid Recipients with Concurrent Opioid Use Disorder: A Cross-Sectional Study

BACKGROUND

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections and injection drug use have concurrently increased in the last decade. Evidence supports simultaneously treating chronic HCV and opioid use disorder (OUD) with medication. Kentucky is a hard-hit state for both conditions that has undertaken policy and practice efforts to increase access to both types of medications.

OBJECTIVE

To examine receipt of direct-acting antivirals (DAAs) for patients living with HCV-OUD and received any vs. no medications for opioid use disorder (MOUD).

DESIGN

We conducted a cross-sectional study using a proprietary dataset from HealthVerity of health claims between 1/1/2020 and 12/31/2021.

PATIENTS

Kentucky Medicaid beneficiaries aged ≥ 18 with concurrent chronic HCV-OUD diagnoses.

MAIN MEASURES

Multivariable logistic regression models were used to calculate adjusted proportions of HCV DAA receipt based on receipt of MOUD, adjusting for patient characteristics and region.

KEY RESULTS

Of 2149 patients, 36% (n = 780) received HCV DAAs; 84% (n = 1804) received any MOUD during the study period. Buprenorphine was the most common MOUD type used (n = 1414, 66%). Adjusting for covariates, HCV DAA receipt was lower among people who received any vs. no MOUD (33% vs. 46%, p < 0.0001). Methadone (vs. no MOUD, 29% vs. 46%, p = 0.0002) had the greatest difference in odds of HCV DAA receipt.

CONCLUSIONS

Gaps in HCV treatment among Kentucky Medicaid recipients with OUD were pervasive. Despite evidence supporting HCV-OUD co-treatment, patients receiving MOUD were significantly less likely to receive curative HCV treatment.

Co-occurring conditions during pregnancy and hospitalizations in the first year postpartum among persons with opioid use disorder

INTRODUCTION

Pregnant persons with opioid use disorder (OUD) face a multitude of comorbid conditions that may increase the risk of adverse drug and health outcomes. This study characterizes typologies of comorbidities among pregnant persons with OUD and assesses the associations of these typologies with hospitalizations in the first year postpartum.

METHODS

A cohort of pregnant persons with OUD at delivery in 2018 were identified in a Pennsylvania statewide hospital dataset (n = 2055). Latent class analysis assessed 12 comorbid conditions including substance use disorders (SUDs), mental health conditions, and infections. Multivariable logistic regressions examined the association between comorbidity classes and hospitalizations (all-cause, OUD-specific, SUD-related, mental health-related) during early (0-42 days) and late (43-365 days) postpartum.

RESULTS

A three-class model best fit the data. Classes included low comorbidities (56.9% of sample; low prevalence of co-occurring conditions), moderate polysubstance/depression (18.4%; some SUDs, all with depression), and high polysubstance/bipolar disorder (24.7%; highest probabilities of SUDs and bipolar disorder). Overall, 14% had at least one postpartum hospitalization. From 0 to 42 days postpartum, the moderate polysubstance/depression and high polysubstance/bipolar disorder classes had higher odds of all-cause and mental health-related hospitalization, compared to the low comorbidities class. From 43 to 365 days postpartum, the high polysubstance/bipolar disorder class had higher odds of all-cause hospitalizations, while both the high polysubstance/depression and moderate polysubstance/bipolar disorder classes had higher odds of SUD-related and mental health-related hospitalizations compared to the low comorbidities class.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings highlight the need for long-term, multidisciplinary healthcare delivery interventions to address comorbidities and prevent adverse postpartum outcomes.

Cost effectiveness of hepatitis C direct acting agents

INTRODUCTION

Introduction of direct acting antivirals (DAA) has transformed treatment of chronic hepatitis C (HCV) and made the elimination of HCV an achievable goal set forward by World Health Organization by 2030. Multiple barriers need to be overcome for successful eradication of HCV. Availability of pan-genotypic HCV regimens has decreased the need for genotype testing but maintained high efficacy associated with DAAs.

AREAS COVERED

In this review, we will assess the cost-effectiveness of DAA treatment in patients with chronic HCV disease, with emphasis on general, cirrhosis, and vulnerable populations.

EXPERT OPINION

Multiple barriers exist limiting eradication of HCV, including cost to treatment, access, simplified testing, and implementing policy to foster treatment for all groups of HCV patients. Clinically, DAAs have drastically changed the landscape of HCV, but focused targeting of vulnerable groups is needed. Public policy will continue to play a strong role in eliminating HCV. While we will focus on the cost-effectiveness of DAA, several other factors regarding HCV require on going attention, such as increasing public awareness and decreasing social stigma associated with HCV, offering universal screening followed by linkage to treatment and improving preventive interventions to decrease spread of HCV.

'We've got a present for you': Hepatitis C elimination, compromised healthcare subjects and treatment as a gift

With the advent of highly effective and tolerable direct-acting antiviral treatments for hepatitis C, widespread optimism for and investment in the project of disease elimination now informs the public health response. In Australia, the Commonwealth government has invested heavily in elimination by universally subsidising treatment, promising access for all. Reflecting concerns that commonly accompany ambitious public health projects, cost for governments supporting access to the treatment and cost for individuals consuming it have emerged as central issues. Drawing on 30 interviews with people who have been cured of hepatitis C with direct-acting antivirals, this article examines how cost shapes experiences of hepatitis C treatment and cure in Australia. Drawing on Lauren Berlant's (2011) influential work on 'cruel optimism', we analyse three interconnected ways that notions of cost shape participants' views of treatment as a beneficent gift from the state: (1) understandings of treatment access as a form of 'luck'; (2) conceptions of the cost of treatment; and (3) criticisms of others who are seen to waste state resources by not taking up treatment or by re-acquiring hepatitis C. We argue that, together, these dynamics constitute people affected by hepatitis C not as citizens worthy of public investment and fundamentally entitled to care, but as second-class citizens less deserving of treatment and of the health care to which they might otherwise be considered entitled. It is within this dynamic that the compromised quality of elimination optimism takes shape, binding people affected by hepatitis C to an inequitable relationship to health care, reproduced through the very things that promise to free them of such inequality - investments in access to treatment and cure.

The effect of hepatitis C-associated premature deaths on labour productivity losses in Spain: a ten-year analysis

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection causes a substantial economic burden, not only in terms of healthcare costs, but also in labour productivity losses. The main objective of this study is to provide objective and comparable information about the trend in labour productivity losses caused by premature HCV-associated deaths in Spain in recent years (2009-2018). We used nationwide data from several official sources to create a simulation model based on the human capital approach and to estimate the flows in labour productivity losses due to deaths identified in the period considered. Based on a pessimistic scenario, the annual number of deaths due to HCV infections decreased by 19.7% between 2009 and 2018. The years of potential labour productive life lost (YPLPLL) decreased by 38.1%. That reduction led to a decrease in annual labour productivity losses from €236 million in 2009 to €156 million in 2018 (-33.8%). The aggregate HCV-related labour productivity losses between 2009 and 2018 ranged from €1742 million (optimistic scenario) to €1949 million (pessimistic scenario), with an intermediate estimation of €1846 million (moderately optimistic scenario). These results show a substantial reduction in annual deaths, working-age deaths, YPLPLL, and labour productivity losses associated with HCV infection over this period.

Mortality rates among patients successfully treated for hepatitis C in the era of interferon-free antivirals: population based cohort study

OBJECTIVES

To quantify mortality rates for patients successfully treated for hepatitis C in the era of interferon-free, direct acting antivirals and compare these rates with those of the general population.

DESIGN

Population based cohort study.

SETTING

British Columbia, Scotland, and England (England cohort consists of patients with cirrhosis only).

PARTICIPANTS

21 790 people who were successfully treated for hepatitis C in the era of interferon-free antivirals (2014-19). Participants were divided into three liver disease severity groups: people without cirrhosis (pre-cirrhosis), those with compensated cirrhosis, and those with end stage liver disease. Follow-up started 12 weeks after antiviral treatment completion and ended on date of death or 31 December 2019.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Crude and age-sex standardised mortality rates, and standardised mortality ratio comparing the number of deaths with that of the general population, adjusting for age, sex, and year. Poisson regression was used to identify factors associated with all cause mortality rates.

RESULTS

1572 (7%) participants died during follow-up. The leading causes of death were drug related mortality (n=383, 24%), liver failure (n=286, 18%), and liver cancer (n=250, 16%). Crude all cause mortality rates (deaths per 1000 person years) were 31.4 (95% confidence interval 29.3 to 33.7), 22.7 (20.7 to 25.0), and 39.6 (35.4 to 44.3) for cohorts from British Columbia, Scotland, and England, respectively. All cause mortality was considerably higher than the rate for the general population across all disease severity groups and settings; for example, all cause mortality was three times higher among people without cirrhosis in British Columbia (standardised mortality ratio 2.96, 95% confidence interval 2.71 to 3.23; P<0.001) and more than 10 times higher for patients with end stage liver disease in British Columbia (13.61, 11.94 to 15.49; P<0.001). In regression analyses, older age, recent substance misuse, alcohol misuse, and comorbidities were associated with higher mortality rates.

CONCLUSION

Mortality rates among people successfully treated for hepatitis C in the era of interferon-free, direct acting antivirals are high compared with the general population. Drug and liver related causes of death were the main drivers of excess mortality. These findings highlight the need for continued support and follow-up after successful treatment for hepatitis C to maximise the impact of direct acting antivirals.

Factors associated with perceived ease of access to syringes in Appalachian North Carolina

PURPOSE

To examine associations between perceived ease of syringe access, syringe sources, injection behaviors, and law enforcement (LE) interactions among people who inject drugs (PWID) in rural Appalachian North Carolina (NC).

METHODS

Using respondent-driven sampling, a diverse sample of 309 self-reported PWID were recruited from rural Appalachian NC. Data were collected via audio computer-assisted self-interview technology from February 2019 through March 2020. Respondents reported demographics, sources of syringes, LE interactions, and injection behaviors. Univariate, bivariate, and linear regression analyses were performed.

FINDINGS

Respondents most often obtained syringes from pharmacies and syringe service programs (SSPs). Twenty-one percent disagreed that it was easy to obtain sterile syringes, with 28% reporting low or no access to an SSP. PWID who reported longer physical distances to an SSP had greater difficulty accessing syringes (P<.001). PWID who reported greater ease of access to syringes reported engaging in receptive syringe sharing less often (P<.01). PWID who were stopped and searched by LE more often reported injecting drugs somebody else prepared with nonsterile supplies more often (P<.01). Participants shared used injection supplies more than twice as often than they shared used syringes.

CONCLUSIONS

These results underscore the importance of SSPs to mitigate the spread of human immunodeficiency virus and viral hepatitis in rural areas. Supporting mobile SSP services in rural areas could increase access to sterile syringes and injection supplies. SSPs should educate PWID about the importance of not sharing injection supplies. Pharmacies could increase syringe access in areas where SSPs do not operate.

Hepatitis C and HIV Screening, Testing, and Risk Perceptions among South-Central Appalachian County Health Department Staff

OBJECTIVES

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) are significant public health concerns, especially given the risks for disease interactions. Rates of HCV and HIV are increasing, especially in rural areas. Local health departments (LHDs) play an important role in rural health care, offering screening, testing, and treatment for HCV and HIV. Gaps persist in LHD resources for meeting these demands, especially in Appalachia and the US South.

METHODS

To explore HCV/HIV screening, testing, and treatment approaches and perspectives in south-central Appalachian North Carolina, structured telephone questionnaires were administered to communicable disease nurses and other health department staff directly involved in screening and testing. Mixed-methods data analyses were conducted and triangulated with stakeholders.

RESULTS

Eighteen participants representing 19 counties completed the questionnaire, achieving a saturation sample. Participants reported barriers to screening and testing, including housing insecurity, lack of transportation and insurance, unemployment, and the isolation of living in a rural area. Divergence in perceptions of barriers between public health regions emerged, as did perceptions of who is at risk and use of stigmatizing language about people at risk for HCV/HIV.

CONCLUSIONS

This study highlights the impact of LHD behaviors and perceptions on screening and testing, and offers recommendations to improve HCV/HIV screening and testing accessibility in south-central Appalachia, a high-risk region.

A Qualitative Study of Implementing Universal Hepatitis C Screening Among Adults at an Urban Community-Based Health Provider in Delaware

Objectives

We conducted a qualitative study of primary care providers to assess the challenges and opportunities in implementing a universal screening program for Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) at an urban community-based health center serving a largely disadvantaged population.

Methods

Qualitative semi-structured interviews of prescribing providers took place pre- and post-educational intervention, at a single federally qualified health center in Wilmington, Delaware, between September 2018 and July 2019. The intervention included a two-day didactic session and shadowing specialist providers. Data captured provider perspectives on universal screening and treatment. The interviews were transcribed verbatim, then grouped into codes, then finally, themes.

Results

Emergent themes included hesitancy in managing universal screening programs in the primary care environment, positive attitudes surrounding treatment, fewer HCV cases than expected, and concern with both patient-level barriers and practice-level barriers. Pre-intervention and post-intervention themes were similar.

Conclusions

Implementation programs exploring universal HCV screening in the primary care environment should include educational opportunities that are available to all individuals in the practice, sustained organizational support, and available patient literature targeted to patients with varying health literacy and in languages other than English. In short, universal HCV screening and treatment is feasible in the primary medical environment but requires ongoing support and education for providers to ensure success.

Spectrum of Kidney Diseases in Patients With Hepatitis C Virus Infection

OBJECTIVES

To study the pathologic spectrum of kidney diseases in patients with hepatitis C virus infection (HCV+).

METHODS

Native kidney biopsy specimens in HCV+ patients were reviewed.

RESULTS

A total of 9,836 native kidney biopsy specimens were evaluated from January 2007 to December 2016, of which 273 (2.8%) were from HCV+ patients, and of these, 115 (42.1%) had diagnoses consistent with HCV-associated glomerulonephritis (GN). Non-HCV-associated kidney diseases comprised most diagnoses (158 cases, 57.9%) including non-immune complex-mediated kidney diseases (127 cases, 46.5%) and other immune complex-mediated glomerular diseases (31 cases, 11.4%). Forty-one (40.6%) patients had HCV-associated GN among 101 HCV+ patients from 2007 to 2011 vs 74 (43.0%) patients with HCV-associated GN among 172 HCV+ patients from 2012 to 2016. HCV-associated GN showed five morphologic patterns: focal proliferative (5.2%), diffuse mesangial proliferative (50.4%), diffuse membranoproliferative (28.7%), proliferative GN with crescentic lesions (7.8%), and membranous patterns (7.8%).

CONCLUSIONS

We found a spectrum of pathologic changes in renal biopsy specimens of HCV+ patients, with most having diseases unrelated to HCV infection, HCV-associated GN showing five morphologic patterns, and availability of effective HCV antiviral therapy not yet resulting in major changes in the spectrum of kidney diseases in these patients.

Liver and cardiovascular mortality after hepatitis C virus eradication by DAA: Data from RESIST-HCV cohort

Real-world evidence on the course of Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) chronic liver disease after Sustained Virologic Response (SVR) obtained with direct-acting antiviral drugs (DAAs) are still limited, and the effects on mortality remain unclear. We evaluated the post-treatment survival of 4307 patients in the RESIST-HCV cohort (mean age 66.3 ± 11.6 years, 56.9% males, 24.7% chronic hepatitis, 66.9% Child-Pugh A cirrhosis and 8.4% Child-Pugh B cirrhosis) treated with DAAs between March 2015 and December 2016 and followed for a median of 73 weeks (range 16-152). Proportional cause-specific hazard regression for competing risks was used to evaluate the survival and to assess the predictors of liver and cardiovascular death. Overall, 94.7% of patients achieved SVR while 5.3% were HCV RNA-positive at last follow-up. Sixty-three patients (1.4%) died during the observation period. SVR was associated with a decreased risk of liver mortality (hazard ratio,HR0.09, beta -2.37, p < .001). Also, platelet count (HR 0.99, beta-0.01, p = .007) and albumin value (HR 0.26, beta -1.36 p = .001) were associated with liver mortality by competing risk analysis. SVR was associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular mortality regardless of presence of cirrhosis (HR 0.07, beta-2.67, p < .001). Presence of diabetes (HR 3.45, beta 1.24, p = .014) and chronic kidney disease class ≥3 (HR 3.60, beta 1.28, p = 0.016) were two factors independently associated with higher risk of cardiovascular mortality. Patients with SVR to a DAA therapy have a better liver and cardiovascular survival, and the effects of HCV eradication are most evident in patients with compensated liver disease.

The Grandview Medical Center Bioethics Consultation Service Perspective on the Peril of Isolated and Vulnerable Individuals due to COVID-19

We present the perspective of a Bioethics Consultation Service operating in an urban hospital in Dayton, Ohio, USA, as it adapted to treating Sars-CoV-2 patients throughout 2020. Since the first case of COVID-19 was reported in Ohio on 9 March 2020, until 1 January 2021, the Bioethics Consultation Service was consulted 60 times, a 22.5% increase from the same period of 2019. The most common diagnoses requiring consultation included end-stage renal disease requiring dialysis, out-of-hospital cardiac arrest, and sepsis. Only 10% of consultations were for patients hospitalized with COVID-19. This is a qualitative analysis of the cases we saw and a discussion of factors that affected our service while adapting to COVID-19 standards of care.

"I'm not gonna be able to do anything about it, then what's the point?": A broad group of stakeholders identify barriers and facilitators to HCV testing in a Massachusetts jail

BACKGROUND

Despite national guidelines promoting hepatitis C virus (HCV) testing in prisons, there is substantial heterogeneity on the implementation of HCV testing in jails. We sought to better understand barriers and opportunities for HCV testing by interviewing a broad group of stakeholders involved in HCV testing and treatment policies and procedures in Massachusetts jails.

METHODS

We conducted semi-structured interviews with people incarcerated in Middlesex County Jail (North Billerica, MA), clinicians working in jail and community settings, corrections administrators, and representatives from public health, government, and industry between November 2018-April 2019.

RESULTS

51/120 (42%) of people agreed to be interviewed including 21 incarcerated men (mean age 32 [IQR 25, 39], 60% non-White). Themes that emerged from these interviews included gaps in knowledge about HCV testing and treatment opportunities in jail, the impact of captivity and transience, and interest in improving linkage to HCV care after release. Many stakeholders discussed stigma around HCV infection as a factor in reluctance to provide HCV testing or treatment in the jail setting. Some stakeholders expressed that stigma often led decisionmakers to estimate a lower "worth" of incarcerated individuals living with HCV and therefore to decide against paying for HCV testing.".

CONCLUSION

All stakeholders agreed that HCV in the jail setting is a public health issue that needs to be addressed. Exploring stakeholders' many ideas about how HCV testing and treatment can be approached is the first step in developing feasible and acceptable strategies.

Clinical trial of autologous adipose tissue-derived regenerative (stem) cells therapy for exploration of its safety and efficacy

Introduction

Liver cirrhosis is the ultimate condition of chronic liver diseases. Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis and fatty liver diseases are emerging in association with metabolic syndrome largely due to excess nutrition. Stromal cells of adipose tissue are enriched mesenchymal stem cells which are pluripotent and immunomodulatory, which are expected to be applied for repairing/regenerative therapy of the impaired organs.

Methods

We conducted the multi-institutional clinical trial (Japanese UMIN Clinical Trial Registry: UMIN000022601) of cell therapy using freshly isolated autologous adipose tissue-derived regenerative (stem) cells (ADRCs), which are obtained by the investigational trial device, adipose tissue dissociation device, for liver cirrhosis patients due to non-alcoholic steatohepatitis or fatty liver disease, to exploratory assess efficacy as well as safety of this trial. We completed treatment and 24 weeks follow-up for 7 patients.

Results

We observed that 6 out of 7 patients' serum albumin concentration was improved. As for prothrombin activity, 5 out of 7 patients showed improvement. No trial-related adverse events, which were serious or non-serious, was observed. Besides, no malfunction of the investigational trial device was encountered.

Conclusion

Thus, treatment with autologous ADRCs obtained with the investigational trial device in steatohepatitis-related cirrhosis was confirmed to be safely conductible and potentially promising for the retaining or improving the impaired hepatic reserve.

Impact of Behavioral Health Consultation on Hepatitis C Treatment Outcomes at a Federally Qualified Health Center; Philadelphia, PA

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is a public health issue that claims the lives of 350,000 individuals globally every year. Primary care providers are increasingly prescribing HCV medications with more modern, simplified administrations. Individuals with HCV are disproportionately affected by behavioral health challenges and substance use disorders. Integrated behavioral health providers can work in concert with their patients' primary care teams to provide innovative treatment programs to help support the needs of HCV care. We used simple and multivariable logistic regression to determine the association between receipt of behavioral health consultation and two outcomes on the care continuum: insurance approval for treatment and initiated HCV treatment regimen. These models were fitted using theoretically hypothesized variables and multivariable regression models included age, sex, and race/ethnicity as potential confounders. From January 2015 to May 2017, 189 patients at health centers were referred for onsite HCV primary care treatment. Of these, 142 were approved for participation, and 132 started treatment. Simple regression revealed a significant association between behavioral health consultation and treatment approval; however, behavioral health consultation was non-significant in the multivariable model for treatment approval. For initiating HCV treatment, onsite behavioral health consultation was significantly associated in both the unadjusted and adjusted regression models. Integrating behavioral health services for patients seeking HCV treatment may improve movement across the care continuum, optimizing patient's HCV health outcomes. Behavioral health consultation in primary care settings should be studied further to improve HCV treatment outcomes for patients with behavioral health and substance use disorders.

Innovations in Hepatitis C Screening and Treatment

New therapies offer hope for a cure to millions of persons living with hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. HCV elimination is a global goal that will be difficult to achieve using the traditional paradigms of diagnosis and care. The current standard has evolved toward universal HCV screening and treatment, to achieve elimination goals. There are several steps between HCV diagnosis and cure with major barriers along the way. Innovative models of care can address barriers to better serve hardly reached populations and scale national efforts in the United States and abroad. Herein, we highlight innovative models of HCV care that aid in our progress toward HCV elimination.

Estimating the Year Each State in the United States Will Achieve the World Health Organization's Elimination Targets for Hepatitis C

Introduction

Although hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection remains a major clinical, economic, and societal burden, the development of curative antiviral therapy may accelerate the path toward elimination. This analysis assessed the progress of United States (US) states towards achieving the World Health Organization’s (WHO) 2030 HCV elimination targets for incidence, mortality, diagnosis, and treatment.

Methods

A previously published Markov model was used to simulate HCV progression over time to estimate the path to HCV elimination in each state based on prevalence, annual treatment, and diagnosis inputs from two large US laboratory datasets from January 2013 to December 2017. State-specific fibrosis stage restrictions on treatment in 2017 were included. The model estimated the year individual states would meet the WHO targets for diagnosing 90% of the HCV-infected population, treating 80% of the eligible population, reducing new HCV infections by 80%, and reducing HCV-related deaths by 65%. The minimum number of annual treatments needed between 2020 and 2030 to achieve the WHO treatment target was also calculated.

Results

Overall, the USA is projected to achieve HCV elimination by 2037, with individual targets related to mortality, diagnosis, treatment, and incidence being achieved by 2020, 2027, 2033, and 2037, respectively. Three states (Connecticut, South Carolina, and Washington) are on track to meet all four elimination targets by 2030, and 18 states are not expected to meet these targets before 2040. The estimated annual number of treatments required during 2020–2030 nationally to reach the WHO treatment target is 173,514.

Conclusion

With the exception of three states, the USA is not on target to meet the WHO 2030 elimination targets and 35% are off track by 10 years or more. Strategies must be implemented to reduce overall prevalence by preventing new infections, increasing rates of screening, improving linkage to care, and implementing unfettered access to curative therapy.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1007/s12325-020-01535-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Accurate spatiotemporal mapping of drug overdose deaths by machine learning of drug-related web-searches

Persons who inject drugs (PWID) are at increased risk for overdose death (ODD), infections with HIV, hepatitis B (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV), and noninfectious health conditions. Spatiotemporal identification of PWID communities is essential for developing efficient and cost-effective public health interventions for reducing morbidity and mortality associated with injection-drug use (IDU). Reported ODDs are a strong indicator of the extent of IDU in different geographic regions. However, ODD quantification can take time, with delays in ODD reporting occurring due to a range of factors including death investigation and drug testing. This delayed ODD reporting may affect efficient early interventions for infectious diseases. We present a novel model, Dynamic Overdose Vulnerability Estimator (DOVE), for assessment and spatiotemporal mapping of ODDs in different U.S. jurisdictions. Using Google^® Web-search volumes (i.e., the fraction of all searches that include certain words), we identified a strong association between the reported ODD rates and drug-related search terms for 2004–2017. A machine learning model (Extremely Random Forest) was developed to produce yearly ODD estimates at state and county levels, as well as monthly estimates at state level. Regarding the total number of ODDs per year, DOVE’s error was only 3.52% (Median Absolute Error, MAE) in the United States for 2005–2017. DOVE estimated 66,463 ODDs out of the reported 70,237 (94.48%) during 2017. For that year, the MAE of the individual ODD rates was 4.43%, 7.34%, and 12.75% among yearly estimates for states, yearly estimates for counties, and monthly estimates for states, respectively. These results indicate suitability of the DOVE ODD estimates for dynamic IDU assessment in most states, which may alert for possible increased morbidity and mortality associated with IDU. ODD estimates produced by DOVE offer an opportunity for a spatiotemporal ODD mapping. Timely identification of potential mortality trends among PWID might assist in developing efficient ODD prevention and HBV, HCV, and HIV infection elimination programs by targeting public health interventions to the most vulnerable PWID communities.

How to Survive COVID-19 Even If the Vaccine Fails

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has created an emergency of epic proportions. While a vaccine may be forthcoming, this is not guaranteed, as discussed herein. The potential problems and ominous signs include (1) lung injury that developed in animals given an experimental vaccine for the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV)-1; (2) a perversion of adaptive immune responses called antibody-dependent enhancement of infection that occurs in SARS-CoV-1 and that may occur in people vaccinated for COVID-19; (3) the frequent and recurrent infections that are caused by respiratory coronaviruses; and (4) the appearance of mutations in SARS-CoV-2 proteins, which raise the specter of vaccine escape mutants. Because success is uncertain, alternatives to vaccines need to be vigorously pursued during this critical moment in the pandemic. Alternatives include (1) engineered monoclonal antibodies that do not cause antibody-dependent enhancement; (2) cocktails of antiviral drugs and inhibitors of the cellular proteins required for SARS-CoV-2 replication; (3) interferons; and (4) anticoagulants, antioxidants, and immune modulators. To organize and coordinate the systematic investigation of existing therapies and new therapies (as they emerge), a Covid-19 clinical trials network is needed to provide (1) robust funding (on a par with vaccine funding) and administration; (2) an adaptive trial design committee to prioritize interventions and review results in real time; (3) a computer interface to facilitate patient enrollment, make data available to investigators, and present findings; (4) a practice guidelines study group; and (5) a mobile corps of COVID-19 experts available for rapid deployment, to assist local health care providers and enroll patients in trials as outbreaks occur. To combat the COVID-19 pandemic and future mass contagions, the network would be a cornerstone of a comprehensive infectious diseases research program.

Evolution of ferritin levels in hepatitis C patients treated with antivirals

The evolution of ferritin levels in hepatitis C virus (HCV)-infected patients with sustained virological responses (SVRs) following various therapy regimens remains elusive. An 8-year prospective cohort study of 1194 HCV-infected patients [interferon-based therapy (n = 620), direct-acting antiviral agent (DAA) therapy (n = 355)] was conducted. At baseline, sex, alanine aminotransferase (ALT), triglycerides, homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), hemoglobin, iron/total iron-binding capacity (Fe/TIBC) and IFNL3-rs12979860 genotypes were associated with ferritin levels. At 24 weeks posttherapy, ALT, triglycerides, total cholesterol, eGFR, Fe/TIBC and the therapy regimen were associated with ferritin levels in SVR patients. Among interferon-treated patients, ferritin levels increased at 24 weeks posttherapy, regardless of SVR, and 24-week posttherapy ferritin levels were higher in non-SVR patients (n = 111) than in SVR patients (n = 509); ferritin levels began decreasing at 3 years posttherapy and were lower than pretherapy levels since 4 years posttherapy in SVR patients. Among DAA-treated SVR patients (n = 350), ferritin levels decreased and remained stable since 24 weeks posttherapy. ALT, triglycerides, eGFR, and Fe/TIBC were HCV-unrelated factors associated with ferritin levels; sex, HOMA-IR, total cholesterol, hemoglobin and IFNL3-rs12979860 genotype were HCV-related factors associated with ferritin levels. In interferon-treated SVR patients, the increased trend of posttherapy ferritin levels was not reversed until 4 years posttherapy. In DAA-treated SVR patients, ferritin levels decreased since 24 weeks posttherapy.

Challenges of transferring rural adults with chronic HCV infection for further HCV RNA confirmation and free DAAs treatment: a success story of the interdisciplinary collaboration approach

Background

Chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV), which is a concern in many countries, is the leading cause of liver cancer around the world. Since Taiwan launched its national health insurance system in 1995, it has managed to extend health coverage to 99% of the Taiwanese population, providing free but limited antiviral treatment each year since 2017. However, many people in rural areas are unaware that they have chronic HCV; nor do they realize that new drugs with high cure rates could drastically reduce their health burden. The aim of this study is to explore the implementation facilitators of and barriers to inviting potentially infected patients in rural areas to be transferred for HCV ribonucleic acid (RNA) confirmation and new drug treatment.

Methods

A descriptive and prospective study design with an interdisciplinary collaboration approach was implemented. After five elements of referral were developed, telephone counseling was conducted between August 2018 and May 2019 in Yunlin, Taiwan. The elements of referral developed by the research team were: (1) forming and coordinating physicians’ schedules, (2) recruiting and training volunteers, (3) training the nursing staff, (4) raising funds or resources, and (5) connecting with village leaders. Thereafter, we collaborated with two district health centers, a private local hospital, and health clinics. Based on the medical records provided by these agencies, community adults that were HCV antibody (anti-HCV) positive were invited to join the program.

Results

Of the 1795 adults who were serum anti-HCV positive, 1149 (64%) accepted transfer to a qualified hospital; of these, 623 (54.2%) had an HCV infection. 552 (88.6%) of those infected started receiving direct-acting antivirals (DAAs) treatment. The top four barriers to accepting transfer were: (1) they perceived themselves to be healthy (n = 98, 32.3%); (2) mistrust of treatment/healthcare (n = 60, 20.2%); (3) limited transportation to the hospital (n = 52, 17.5%); and (4) work conflict (n = 30, 10.1%).

Conclusion

An interdisciplinary collaboration approach significantly contributed to the invitation of CHC patients, as well as their acceptance of HCV RNA confirmation and free DAAs treatment. Using anti-HCV data from previous medical records for case-finding and collaborating with a hospital and health clinics proved to be an efficient strategy.

Development of a long-acting direct-acting antiviral system for hepatitis C virus treatment in swine

Chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is a leading cause of cirrhosis worldwide and kills more Americans than 59 other infections, including HIV and tuberculosis, combined. While direct-acting antiviral (DAA) treatments are effective, limited uptake of therapy, particularly in high-risk groups, remains a substantial barrier to eliminating HCV. We developed a long-acting DAA system (LA-DAAS) capable of prolonged dosing and explored its cost-effectiveness. We designed a retrievable coil-shaped LA-DAAS compatible with nasogastric tube administration and the capacity to encapsulate and release gram levels of drugs while resident in the stomach. We formulated DAAs in drug-polymer pills and studied the release kinetics for 1 mo in vitro and in vivo in a swine model. The LA-DAAS was equipped with ethanol and temperature sensors linked via Bluetooth to a phone application to provide patient engagement. We then performed a cost-effectiveness analysis comparing LA-DAAS to DAA alone in various patient groups, including people who inject drugs. Tunable release kinetics of DAAs was enabled for 1 mo with drug-polymer pills in vitro, and the LA-DAAS safely and successfully provided at least month-long release of sofosbuvir in vivo. Temperature and alcohol sensors could interface with external sources for at least 1 mo. The LA-DAAS was cost-effective compared to DAA therapy alone in all groups considered (base case incremental cost-effectiveness ratio $39,800). We believe that the LA-DAA system can provide a cost-effective and patient-centric method for HCV treatment, including in high-risk populations who are currently undertreated.

Perspectives of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease research: a personal point of view

Rational government of patient fluxes from primary care to hepatology clinic is a priority of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) research. Estimating pre-test probability of disease, risk of fibrosis progression, and exclusion of competing causes of liver disease must be addressed. Here we propose a novel taxonomic classification of NAFLD based on hepatic, pathogenic and systemic features of disease in the individual patient. The variable course of disease in any given patient remains a clinical enigma. Therefore, future studies will have to better characterize the role of genetic polymorphisms, family and personal history, diet, alcohol, physical activity and drugs as modifiers of the course of disease and clues to the early diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma. A better understanding of these, together with a taxonomic diagnosis, may prompt a more accurate personalization of care. For example, understanding the putative role of psycho-depression in NAFLD promises to revolutionize disease management in a proportion of cases. Similarly, sex differences in outcome and response to treatment are insufficiently characterized. More studies are awaited regarding those forms of NAFLD which occur secondary to endocrine derangements. The intersections between NAFLD and the lung must better be defined. These include the bi-directional associations of NAFLD and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and sleep apnoea syndrome, as well as the totally unexplored chapter of NAFLD and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Finally, the therapeutic roles of intermittent fasting and anticoagulation must be assessed. In conclusion, over the last 20 years, NAFLD has taught us a lot regarding the pathogenic importance of insulin resistance, the limitations of correcting this in the treatment of NAFLD, the root causes of diabetes and the metabolic syndrome, sex differences in disease and the role of nuclear receptors. However, the overwhelming COVID-19 pandemic is now expected to reset the priorities of public health.

Regenerative Therapy for Liver Cirrhosis Based on Intrahepatic Arterial Infusion of Autologous Subcutaneous Adipose Tissue-Derived Regenerative (Stem) Cells: Protocol for a Confirmatory Multicenter Uncontrolled Clinical Trial

BACKGROUND

Liver cirrhosis results from chronic hepatitis, and is characterized by advanced fibrosis due to long-term hepatic inflammation. Cirrhosis ultimately leads to manifestations of jaundice, ascites, and encephalopathy, and increases the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma. Once cirrhosis is established, resulting in hepatic failure, no effective treatment is available. Therefore, novel therapies to inhibit disease progression of cirrhosis are needed.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this investigator-initiated clinical trial is to assess the safety and efficacy of autologous adipose tissue-derived regenerative (stem) cell therapy delivered to the liver via the hepatic artery in patients with liver cirrhosis.

METHODS

Through consultation with the Japan Pharmaceuticals and Medical Devices Agency, we designed a clinical trial to assess a therapy for liver cirrhosis based on autologous adipose tissue-derived regenerative (stem) cells, which are extracted using an adipose tissue dissociation device. The primary endpoints of the trial are the serum albumin concentration, prothrombin activity, harmful events, and device malfunction.

RESULTS

Enrollment and registration were initiated in November 2017, and the follow-up period ended in November 2019. Data analysis and the clinical study report will be completed by the end of March 2020.

CONCLUSIONS

Completion of this clinical trial, including data analysis, will provide data on the safety and efficacy of this novel liver repair therapy based on autologous adipose tissue-derived regenerative (stem) cells using an adipose tissue dissociation device.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

UMIN Clinical Trials Registry UMIN000022601; https://tinyurl.com/w9uqw3q.

INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID)

DERR1-10.2196/17904.

Assessing the Effectiveness of Strategies in US Birth Cohort Screening for Hepatitis C Infection

Chronic hepatitis C infection in the USA is a highly morbid condition and current guidelines recommend one-time screening among the birth cohort (1945-1965). Understanding strategies to optimize screening can help inform future hepatitis C virus (HCV) screening guidelines. A focused literature search was performed using PubMed and manual abstract review from major hepatology conferences over the past 2 years. The search strategy involved using Medical Subject Headings terms for hepatitis C, screening, birth cohort, baby boomers, and 1945-1965. The review was limited to data from the USA. A total of 327 articles were identified and 36 abstracts were included, with studies published between 2012-2019. Strategies including clinician education, electronic medical record alerts, reflex HCV RNA testing, point-of-care testing, multisite (outpatient, inpatient, emergency department, endoscopy suite) initiatives, direct patient solicitation, and utilization of non-physician providers have increased HCV screening rates. However, broad implementation remains less than optimal. Barriers include lack of patient acceptance to screening and engagement in the HCV care cascade. The Veterans Affairs Healthcare System has achieved higher birth cohort screening rates through an integrated approach requiring high-level engagement by leadership and institutional commitment. Multiple strategies for increasing birth cohort screening have been successful, but overall rates of HCV screening remain low. These strategies can inform public health efforts to implement emerging national recommendations for expansion of HCV screening to all U.S. adults age 18 or older.

Escape from planned obsolescence: Hepatitis C, the cirrhotic liver, and clonal expansions

Eliminating the burden of disease caused by hepatitis C virus infection is proving difficult, despite the availability of curative drug treatments. Progress will require innovations in healthcare delivery and a deeper understanding of how the liver and other vital organs survive damage caused by chronic injury.

Influence of Interferon-free Direct-acting Antiviral Therapy on Primary Hepatocellular Carcinoma Recurrence: A Landmark Time Analysis and Time-dependent Extended Cox Proportional Hazards Model Analysis

Objective The influence of interferon (IFN)-free direct-acting antiviral (DAA) on hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) recurrence remains unclear. Previous retrospective analyses revealed that the time interval between HCC curative treatment and IFN-free DAA induction is the critical factor affecting HCC recurrence. Thus, this study aimed to examine the influence of DAA therapy on HCC recurrence considering this interval. Methods Factors contributing to HCC recurrence were retrospectively analyzed using a landmark time analysis and time-dependent extended Cox proportional hazards model. Patients After screening 620 patients who were diagnosed with primary HCC from January 2001 to December 2016, 76 patients with early-stage (primary and solitary) disease who received curative treatment and were positive for serum hepatitis C virus RNA were included. Results HCC recurrence was observed in 8 of 17 (47.1%) patients who had received IFN-free DAA therapy and 45 of 59 (76.3%) who had not. No significant difference was seen between the IFN-free DAA (-) and IFN-free DAA (+) groups in the landmark time and time-dependent Cox proportional hazards model analyses. However, IFN-free DAA therapy tended to decrease the HCC recurrence rate after curative treatment for primary HCC in patients with chronic hepatitis. In addition, IFN-free DAA therapy tended to decrease the second HCC recurrence rate after treatment for the first HCC recurrence. Conclusion Our results, with a consideration of the time interval between HCC curative treatment and IFN-free DAA induction, showed that IFN-free DAA therapy was not associated with early-stage HCC recurrence after curative treatment.

Improving hepatitis C screening and diagnosis in patients born between 1945 and 1965 in a safety-net primary care clinic

Individuals born between 1945-1965 represent 81% of all persons chronically infected with hepatitis C virus (HCV) in the USA and are largely unaware of their positive status. The baseline HCV screening rate in this population in an academic internal medicine clinic at a US hospital was less than 3.0%. The goal was to increase the rate of HCV screening in patients born between 1945 and 1965 to 20% within 24 months. The quality improvement team used the Plan Do Study Act Model. Outcome measures included HCV antibody screening, HCV RNA positive rate and linkage to hepatology care. Process measures included HCV antibody order and completion rates. The quality improvement team performed a root cause analysis and identified barriers for HCV screening and linkage to care. The key elements of interventions included redesigning nursing workflow, use of health information technology and educating patients, physicians and nursing staff about HCV. The HCV screening rate was 30.3% (391/1291) within 24 months. The HCV antibody positive rate was 43.5% (170/391), and HCV RNA positive rate was 95.3% (162/170). HCV infection was diagnosed in 12.5% (162/1291) of patients or 41.4% (162/391) of the screened population. Of those positive, 70% (114/162) were linked to hepatology care within the 24-month project timeframe. Eighty percent of patients seen by a hepatologist were treated with direct-acting antivirals agents. The HCV screening rate was sustained at 25.4% during the post-project 1-year period. Engagement of a multidisciplinary team and education to patients, physicians and nursing staff were the key drivers for success.

Confronting the opioid epidemic: public opinion toward the expansion of treatment services in Virginia

BACKGROUND

Public opinion polls have consistently shown Americans prefer treatment over arrest policies for opioid users. As the opioid epidemic remains a major health problem in the United States, it is important to determine the type of treatment policies the public would support. Theoretically, government should take into consideration the opinion of its constituents when deciding how to act. As such, the 2018 Virginia Commonwealth Public Policy Poll determined levels of support for the expansion of community-based treatment in one's community.

RESULTS

Overall, the results showed 80% of Virginians (n = 788) supported the expansion of community-based treatment centers in their neighborhood, 69% supported the use of housing in their community, while less than half supported the provision of clean needles to IV drug users so they do not use dirty needles that could spread infection. Multivariate analyses revealed education, sex, and political party affiliation are significant factors in predicting support for the expansion of services.

CONCLUSIONS

Given the lack of progress made by the government in reducing the supply and demand of drugs over the course of the war on drugs, it is time to move away from punitive policies to responsible and pragmatic approaches that include the expansion of community-based treatment.

Rapid Regression of B-Cell Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma after Eradication of Hepatitis C Virus by Direct Antiviral Agents

A 47-year-old woman visited Tokai University Hospital complaining of left cervical lymph node swelling in 2007. The laboratory data were almost normal except for slight anemia (Hgb 10.5 g/dL), elevation of serum soluble interleukin (IL)-2 receptor levels (645 U/mL [normal range 220-530 U/mL]), and positive hepatitis C virus (HCV) antibody. Serum transaminase and lactated dehydrogenase levels were normal. Contrast-enhanced computed tomography (CT) showed lymph node swelling with a diameter of 3 cm at the left supraclavicular fossa and mild splenomegaly, and 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography with CT (FDG-PET/CT) revealed abnormal uptake in the left supraclavicular fossa. The patient was diagnosed as having indolent nodal marginal zone B-cell lymphoma by lymph node biopsy. After 9 years with no progression of lymphoma, the patient received 12-week ledipasvir/sofosbuvir therapy for HCV infection and achieved sustained virologic response without any adverse effects. The left supraclavicular mass disappeared in the FDG-PET/CT performed 5 months after antiviral therapy indicating complete response. The serum soluble IL-2 receptor concentration decreased to 244 U/mL. Thereafter, her lymphoma was in remission for 3 years.

Hepatitis C Screening: Barriers to Linkage to Care

Background and Aims: Hepatitis C (HCV) is a medical and public health concern. Once infected individuals are identified, management includes not only education but also the use of antiviral therapy. Although screening for HCV is readily available, barriers exist which prevent assessment and treatment in individuals potentially infected with HCV.

Methods: This is a retrospective study of patients screened for HCV within the University of California, Los Angeles Health Care System between February 22 and July 9, 2018. We defined linkage to care as: 1) confirmatory HCV RNA test after screening HCV antibody test found a positive result; and 2) follow-up appointment for treatment was established with a specialist. Demographic and baseline laboratory values were collected. Factors potentially associated with prohibiting linkage of care were evaluated.

Results: During the study period, 17,512 individuals were screened for HCV. A total of 238 (1.35%) were found to have detectable HCV antibodies. Of the individuals with detectable HCV antibodies, 48 (20%) did not undergo confirmatory testing with viral levels. Of the 190 individuals who underwent further testing, 70 patients were noted to be viremic. Among them, 17 of the 70 (24%) were not linked to a specialist for further care. Younger patients (p = 0.02) and people who inject drugs (p = 0.02) were less likely to be referred for specialty care.

Conclusions: The results of our study highlight that younger patients and people who inject drugs are less likely to be referred to specialty care for HCV treatment. Efforts are needed to engage these populations.

Late development of hepatocellular carcinoma after viral clearance in patients with chronic hepatitis C: A need for continual surveillance

OBJECTIVE

Eradication of chronic hepatitis C (CHC) infection decreases the incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), but a risk remains. We aimed to investigate HCC development-associated factors in CHC patients with sustained virological response (SVR) after antiviral therapies.

METHODS

We compared CHC patients achieving SVR from 1996-2016 who did and did not develop HCC. Their median follow-up period was 8.01 years.

RESULTS

Compared with 164 non-HCC SVR patients, 22 who developed HCC were older at SVR (P = 0.032), had a higher incidence of diabetes (P = 0.013) and higher pre-antiviral treatment alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) levels (P = 0.016), more had fibrosis stage 3 and cirrhosis (P = 0.0009) and hepatitis B core antibody (anti-HBc) positivity (P = 0.006). Eight and seven of 22 patients, respectively, developed HCC at 4-10 years and 10 years after SVR. The longest duration from SVR to HCC was 18.7 years. Independent factors associated with HCC development were anti-HBc positivity (hazard ratio [HR] 5.57, P = 0.012), age at SVR (HR 1.08, P = 0.014), higher pre-antiviral treatment AFP levels (HR 1.01, P = 0.01) and Hispanic ethnicity (HR 12.9, P = 0.002). HCC risk was significantly less in genotype 2 patients (HR 0.2, P = 0.02) or in those with higher pre-antiviral treatment albumin levels (HR 0.33, P = 0.04).

CONCLUSIONS

The risk for HCC exists in a subset of CHC patients after SVR and may occur up to 18 years after viral clearance. Indefinite HCC surveillance is necessary in SVR patients with other risk factors.

Precision oncology in liver cancer

With the widespread adoption of molecular profiling in clinical oncology practice, many physicians are faced with making therapeutic decisions based upon isolated genomic alterations. For example, epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) are effective in EGFR-mutant non-small cell lung cancers (NSCLC) while anti-EGFR monoclonal antibodies are ineffective in Ras-mutant colorectal cancers. The matching of mutations with drugs aimed at their respective gene products represents the current state of "precision" oncology. Despite the great expectations of this approach, only a fraction of cancers responds to 'targeted' interventions, and many early responders will ultimately develop resistance to these agents. The underwhelming success of mutation-driven therapies across all cancer types is not due to an inability to detect genetic changes in tumors; rather a deficit in functional insight into the genomic alterations that give rise to each cancer. The Achilles heel of precision oncology thus remains the lack of a robust functional understanding of an individual cancer genome that then allows prediction of the best therapy and resultant outcome for that patient. Current practice focuses on one 'actionable' mutation at a time, while solid cancers typically possess many mutations that involve different cellular sub-populations within a tumor. No method or platform currently exists to guide the interpretation of these complex data, nor to accurately predict response to treatment. This problem is particularly germane to primary liver cancers (PLC), for which only a handful of targeted therapies have been introduced. Here, we will review strategies aimed at overcoming some of these challenges in precision oncology, using liver cancer as an example.