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Afonso PV, Cassar O, Gessain A. Molecular epidemiology, genetic variability and evolution of HTLV-1 with special emphasis on African genotypes. Retrovirology 2019; 16:39. [PMID: 31842895 PMCID: PMC6916231 DOI: 10.1186/s12977-019-0504-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2019] [Accepted: 12/07/2019] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Human T cell leukemia virus (HTLV-1) is an oncoretrovirus that infects at least 10 million people worldwide. HTLV-1 exhibits a remarkable genetic stability, however, viral strains have been classified in several genotypes and subgroups, which often mirror the geographic origin of the viral strain. The Cosmopolitan genotype HTLV-1a, can be subdivided into geographically related subgroups, e.g. Transcontinental (a-TC), Japanese (a-Jpn), West-African (a-WA), North-African (a-NA), and Senegalese (a-Sen). Within each subgroup, the genetic diversity is low. Genotype HTLV-1b is found in Central Africa; it is the major genotype in Gabon, Cameroon and Democratic Republic of Congo. While strains from the HTLV-1d genotype represent only a few percent of the strains present in Central African countries, genotypes -e, -f, and -g have been only reported sporadically in particular in Cameroon Gabon, and Central African Republic. HTLV-1c genotype, which is found exclusively in Australo-Melanesia, is the most divergent genotype. This reflects an ancient speciation, with a long period of isolation of the infected populations in the different islands of this region (Australia, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu archipelago). Until now, no viral genotype or subgroup is associated with a specific HTLV-1-associated disease. HTLV-1 originates from a simian reservoir (STLV-1); it derives from interspecies zoonotic transmission from non-human primates to humans (ancient or recent). In this review, we describe the genetic diversity of HTLV-1, and analyze the molecular mechanisms that are at play in HTLV-1 evolution. Similar to other retroviruses, HTLV-1 evolves either through accumulation of point mutations or recombination. Molecular studies point to a fairly low evolution rate of HTLV-1 (between 5.6E−7 and 1.5E−6 substitutions/site/year), supposedly because the virus persists within the host via clonal expansion (instead of new infectious cycles that use reverse transcriptase).
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Affiliation(s)
- Philippe V Afonso
- Unité d'Epidémiologie et Physiopathologie des Virus Oncogènes, CRNS-UMR 3569, Département de Virologie, Institut Pasteur, Bâtiment Lwoff, 28 rue du Dr. Roux, 75724, Paris cedex 15, France.
| | - Olivier Cassar
- Unité d'Epidémiologie et Physiopathologie des Virus Oncogènes, CRNS-UMR 3569, Département de Virologie, Institut Pasteur, Bâtiment Lwoff, 28 rue du Dr. Roux, 75724, Paris cedex 15, France
| | - Antoine Gessain
- Unité d'Epidémiologie et Physiopathologie des Virus Oncogènes, CRNS-UMR 3569, Département de Virologie, Institut Pasteur, Bâtiment Lwoff, 28 rue du Dr. Roux, 75724, Paris cedex 15, France.
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Cassar O, Gessain A. Serological and Molecular Methods to Study Epidemiological Aspects of Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus Type 1 Infection. Methods Mol Biol 2017; 1582:3-24. [PMID: 28357658 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-6872-5_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
We estimated that at least 5-10 million individuals are infected with HTLV-1. Importantly, this number is based on the study of nearly 1.5 billion people living in known human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) endemic areas, for which reliable epidemiological data are available. However, for some highly populated regions including India, the Maghreb, East Africa, and some regions of China, no consistent data are yet available which prevents a more accurate estimation. Thus, the number of HTLV-1 infected people in the world is probably much higher. The prevalence of HTLV-1 prevalence varies depending on age, sex, and economic level in most HTLV-1 endemic areas. HTLV-1 seroprevalence gradually increases with age, especially in women. HTLV-1 has a simian origin and was originally acquired by humans through interspecies transmission from STLV-1 infected monkeys in the Old World. Three main modes of HTLV-1 transmission have been described; (1) from mother-to-child after prolonged breast-feeding lasting more than six months, (2) through sexual intercourse, which mainly, but not exclusively, occurs from male to female and lastly, (3) from contaminated blood products, which contain HTLV-1 infected lymphocytes. In specific areas, such as Central Africa, zoonotic transmission from STLV-1 infected monkeys to humans is still ongoing.The diagnostic methods used to study the epidemiological aspects of HTLV-1 infection mainly consist of serological assays for the detection of antibodies specifically directed against different HTLV-1 antigens. Screening tests are usually based on enzyme-linked immunoabsorbent assay (ELISA), chemiluminescence enzyme-linked immunoassay (CLEIA) or particle agglutination (PA). Confirmatory tests include mostly Western blots (WB)s or innogenetics line immunoassay (INNO-LIA™) and to a lesser extent immunofluorescence assay (IFA). The search for integrated provirus in the DNA from peripheral blood cells can be performed by qualitative and/or quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). qPCR is widely used in most diagnostic laboratories and quantification of proviral DNA is useful for the diagnosis and follow-up of HTLV-1 associated diseases such as adult T-cell leukemia (ATL) and tropical spastic paraparesis/HTLV-1 associated myelopathy (TSP/HAM). PCR also provides amplicons for further sequence analysis to determine the HTLV-1 genotype present in the infected person. The use of new generation sequencing methodologies to molecularly characterize full and/or partial HTLV-1 genomic regions is increasing. HTLV-1 genotyping generates valuable molecular epidemiological data to better understand the evolutionary history of this virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Cassar
- Unité d'Epidémiologie et Physiopathologie des Virus Oncogènes, Département de Virologie, Institut Pasteur, 28 rue du Dr. Roux, F-75015, Paris, France. .,CNRS, UMR 3569, 28 rue du Dr. Roux, F-75015, Paris, France.
| | - Antoine Gessain
- Unité d'Epidémiologie et Physiopathologie des Virus Oncogènes, Département de Virologie, Institut Pasteur, 28 rue du Dr. Roux, F-75015, Paris, France.,CNRS, UMR 3569, 28 rue du Dr. Roux, F-75015, Paris, France
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Cellular Immune Responses against Simian T-Lymphotropic Virus Type 1 Target Tax in Infected Baboons. J Virol 2016; 90:5280-5291. [PMID: 26984729 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00281-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2016] [Accepted: 03/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED There are currently 5 million to 10 million human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1)-infected people, and many of them will develop severe complications resulting from this infection. A vaccine is urgently needed in areas where HTLV-1 is endemic. Many vaccines are best tested in nonhuman primate animal models. As a first step in designing an effective HTLV-1 vaccine, we defined the CD8(+) and CD4(+) T cell response against simian T-lymphotropic virus type 1 (STLV-1), a virus closely related to HTLV-1, in olive baboons (Papio anubis). Consistent with persistent antigenic exposure, we observed that STLV-1-specific CD8(+) T cells displayed an effector memory phenotype and usually expressed CD107a, gamma interferon (IFN-γ), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α). To assess the viral targets of the cellular immune response in STLV-1-infected animals, we used intracellular cytokine staining to detect responses against overlapping peptides covering the entire STLV-1 proteome. Our results show that, similarly to humans, the baboon CD8(+) T cell response narrowly targeted the Tax protein. Our findings suggest that the STLV-1-infected baboon model may recapitulate some of the important aspects of the human response against HTLV-1 and could be an important tool for the development of immune-based therapy and prophylaxis. IMPORTANCE HTLV-1 infection can lead to many different and often fatal conditions. A vaccine deployed in areas of high prevalence might reduce the incidence of HTLV-1-induced disease. Unfortunately, there are very few animal models of HTLV-1 infection useful for testing vaccine approaches. Here we describe cellular immune responses in baboons against a closely related virus, STLV-1. We show for the first time that the immune response against STLV-1 in naturally infected baboons is largely directed against the Tax protein. Similar findings in humans and the sequence similarity between the human and baboon viruses suggest that the STLV-1-infected baboon model might be useful for developing a vaccine against HTLV-1.
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Yee JL, Vanderford TH, Didier ES, Gray S, Lewis A, Roberts J, Taylor K, Bohm RP. Specific pathogen free macaque colonies: a review of principles and recent advances for viral testing and colony management. J Med Primatol 2016; 45:55-78. [PMID: 26932456 DOI: 10.1111/jmp.12209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Specific pathogen free (SPF) macaques provide valuable animal models for biomedical research. In 1989, the National Center for Research Resources [now Office of Research Infrastructure Programs (ORIP)] of the National Institutes of Health initiated experimental research contracts to establish and maintain SPF colonies. The derivation and maintenance of SPF macaque colonies is a complex undertaking requiring knowledge of the biology of the agents for exclusion and normal physiology and behavior of macaques, application of the latest diagnostic technology, facilitiy management, and animal husbandry. This review provides information on the biology of the four viral agents targeted for exclusion in ORIP SPF macaque colonies, describes current state-of-the-art viral diagnostic algorithms, presents data from proficiency testing of diagnostic assays between laboratories at institutions participating in the ORIP SPF program, and outlines management strategies for maintaining the integrity of SPF colonies using results of diagnostic testing as a guide to decision making.
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Affiliation(s)
- JoAnn L Yee
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | | | - Elizabeth S Didier
- Tulane National Primate Research Center, Tulane University, Covington, LA, USA
| | - Stanton Gray
- Michael E. Keeling Center for Comparative Medicine and Research, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Bastrop, TX, USA
| | - Anne Lewis
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA
| | - Jeffrey Roberts
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Kerry Taylor
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA
| | - Rudolf P Bohm
- Tulane National Primate Research Center, Tulane University, Covington, LA, USA
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Miura M, Yasunaga JI, Tanabe J, Sugata K, Zhao T, Ma G, Miyazato P, Ohshima K, Kaneko A, Watanabe A, Saito A, Akari H, Matsuoka M. Characterization of simian T-cell leukemia virus type 1 in naturally infected Japanese macaques as a model of HTLV-1 infection. Retrovirology 2013; 10:118. [PMID: 24156738 PMCID: PMC4016002 DOI: 10.1186/1742-4690-10-118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2013] [Accepted: 10/15/2013] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) causes chronic infection leading to development of adult T-cell leukemia (ATL) and inflammatory diseases. Non-human primates infected with simian T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (STLV-1) are considered to constitute a suitable animal model for HTLV-1 research. However, the function of the regulatory and accessory genes of STLV-1 has not been analyzed in detail. In this study, STLV-1 in naturally infected Japanese macaques was analyzed. Results We identified spliced transcripts of STLV-1 corresponding to HTLV-1 tax and HTLV-1 bZIP factor (HBZ). STLV-1 Tax activated the NFAT, AP-1 and NF-κB signaling pathways, whereas STLV-1 bZIP factor (SBZ) suppressed them. Conversely, SBZ enhanced TGF-β signaling and induced Foxp3 expression. Furthermore, STLV-1 Tax activated the canonical Wnt pathway while SBZ suppressed it. STLV-1 Tax enhanced the viral promoter activity while SBZ suppressed its activation. Then we addressed the clonal proliferation of STLV-1+ cells by massively sequencing the provirus integration sites. Some clones proliferated distinctively in monkeys with higher STLV-1 proviral loads. Notably, one of the monkeys surveyed in this study developed T-cell lymphoma in the brain; STLV-1 provirus was integrated in the lymphoma cell genome. When anti-CCR4 antibody, mogamulizumab, was administered into STLV-1-infected monkeys, the proviral load decreased dramatically within 2 weeks. We observed that some abundant clones recovered after discontinuation of mogamulizumab administration. Conclusions STLV-1 Tax and SBZ have functions similar to those of their counterparts in HTLV-1. This study demonstrates that Japanese macaques naturally infected with STLV-1 resemble HTLV-1 carriers and are a suitable model for the investigation of persistent HTLV-1 infection and asymptomatic HTLV-1 carrier state. Using these animals, we verified that mogamulizumab, which is currently used as a drug for relapsed ATL, is also effective in reducing the proviral load in asymptomatic individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Masao Matsuoka
- Laboratory of Virus Control, Institute for Virus Research, Kyoto University, Shogoin Kawahara-cho 53, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan.
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Massive depletion of bovine leukemia virus proviral clones located in genomic transcriptionally active sites during primary infection. PLoS Pathog 2013; 9:e1003687. [PMID: 24098130 PMCID: PMC3789779 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2013] [Accepted: 08/22/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Deltaretroviruses such as human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) and bovine leukemia virus (BLV) induce a persistent infection that remains generally asymptomatic but can also lead to leukemia or lymphoma. These viruses replicate by infecting new lymphocytes (i.e. the infectious cycle) or via clonal expansion of the infected cells (mitotic cycle). The relative importance of these two cycles in viral replication varies during infection. The majority of infected clones are created early before the onset of an efficient immune response. Later on, the main replication route is mitotic expansion of pre-existing infected clones. Due to the paucity of available samples and for ethical reasons, only scarce data is available on early infection by HTLV-1. Therefore, we addressed this question in a comparative BLV model. We used high-throughput sequencing to map and quantify the insertion sites of the provirus in order to monitor the clonality of the BLV-infected cells population (i.e. the number of distinct clones and abundance of each clone). We found that BLV propagation shifts from cell neoinfection to clonal proliferation in about 2 months from inoculation. Initially, BLV proviral integration significantly favors transcribed regions of the genome. Negative selection then eliminates 97% of the clones detected at seroconversion and disfavors BLV-infected cells carrying a provirus located close to a promoter or a gene. Nevertheless, among the surviving proviruses, clone abundance positively correlates with proximity of the provirus to a transcribed region. Two opposite forces thus operate during primary infection and dictate the fate of long term clonal composition: (1) initial integration inside genes or promoters and (2) host negative selection disfavoring proviruses located next to transcribed regions. The result of this initial response will contribute to the proviral load set point value as clonal abundance will benefit from carrying a provirus in transcribed regions. Human T-lymphotropic Virus 1 (HTLV-1) induces a persistent infection that remains generally asymptomatic. Nevertheless, in a small proportion of individuals and after a long latency, HTLV-1 infection leads to leukemia or lymphoma. Onset of clinical manifestations correlates with a persistently elevated number of infected cells. Because the vast majority of cells are infected at early stages, primary infection is a crucial period for HTLV-1 persistence and pathogenesis. Since HTLV-1 is transmitted through breast feeding and because systematic population screenings are rare, there is a lack of available samples at early infection. Therefore, we addressed this question in a closely related animal model by inoculating cows with Bovine Leukemia Virus (BLV). We show that the vast majority of cells becoming infected during the first weeks of infection and do not survive later on. We also demonstrate that the initial host selection occurring during primary infection will specifically target cells that carry a provirus inserted in genomic transcribed regions. This conclusion thus highlights a key role exerted by the host immune system during primary infection and indicates that antiviral treatments would be optimal when introduced straight after infection.
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Zhu L, Han JB, Zhang XH, Ma JP, Lv LB, Zhang GH, Zheng YT. [Epidemiological survey of a captive Chinese rhesus macaque breeding colony in Yunnan for SRV, STLV and BV]. DONG WU XUE YAN JIU = ZOOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2012; 33:49-54. [PMID: 22345008 DOI: 10.3724/sp.j.1141.2012.01049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Nonhuman primates are critical resources for biomedical research. Rhesus macaque is a popularly used laboratory nonhuman primate that share many characteristics with humans. However, rhesus macaques are the natural host of two exogenous retroviruses, SRV (simian type D retrovirus) and STLV (simian T lymphotropic virus). SRV and STLV may introduce potentially significant confounding factors into the study of AIDS model. Moreover, B virus (ceropithecine herpesvirus 1) is likely to harm not only rhesus macaque but also humans in experiments involving rhesus macaque. Yunnan province has large-scale breeding colonies of Chinese rhesus macaque. Therefore there is an urgent need for SPF Chinese rhesus macaque colonies. Here we investigated SRV, STLV and BV infections in 411 Chinese rhesus macaque by PCR technique. The results showed that the prevalence of SRV, STLV and BV among Chinese rhesus macaque breeding colony was 19.71% (81/411), 13.38% (55/411) and 23.11% (95/411), respectively. Comparison of viruses infection in different age-groups and male/female of Chinese rhesus macaque was also analyzed. This study will contribute to establishment of SPF Chinese rhesus macaque breeding colony.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Zhu
- Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China
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Lairmore MD, Anupam R, Bowden N, Haines R, Haynes RAH, Ratner L, Green PL. Molecular determinants of human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 transmission and spread. Viruses 2011; 3:1131-65. [PMID: 21994774 PMCID: PMC3185783 DOI: 10.3390/v3071131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2011] [Revised: 07/01/2011] [Accepted: 07/02/2011] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Human T-lymphotrophic virus type-1 (HTLV-1) infects approximately 15 to 20 million people worldwide, with endemic areas in Japan, the Caribbean, and Africa. The virus is spread through contact with bodily fluids containing infected cells, most often from mother to child through breast milk or via blood transfusion. After prolonged latency periods, approximately 3 to 5% of HTLV-1 infected individuals will develop either adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATL), or other lymphocyte-mediated disorders such as HTLV-1-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP). The genome of this complex retrovirus contains typical gag, pol, and env genes, but also unique nonstructural proteins encoded from the pX region. These nonstructural genes encode the Tax and Rex regulatory proteins, as well as novel proteins essential for viral spread in vivo such as, p30, p12, p13 and the antisense encoded HBZ. While progress has been made in the understanding of viral determinants of cell transformation and host immune responses, host and viral determinants of HTLV-1 transmission and spread during the early phases of infection are unclear. Improvements in the molecular tools to test these viral determinants in cellular and animal models have provided new insights into the early events of HTLV-1 infection. This review will focus on studies that test HTLV-1 determinants in context to full length infectious clones of the virus providing insights into the mechanisms of transmission and spread of HTLV-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael D. Lairmore
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; E-Mails: (R.A.); (N.B.); (R.H.); (R.A.H.H.); (P.L.G.)
- Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Arthur G. James Cancer Hospital and Solove Research Institute, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +1-614-292-9203; Fax: +1-614-292-6473
| | - Rajaneesh Anupam
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; E-Mails: (R.A.); (N.B.); (R.H.); (R.A.H.H.); (P.L.G.)
| | - Nadine Bowden
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; E-Mails: (R.A.); (N.B.); (R.H.); (R.A.H.H.); (P.L.G.)
| | - Robyn Haines
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; E-Mails: (R.A.); (N.B.); (R.H.); (R.A.H.H.); (P.L.G.)
| | - Rashade A. H. Haynes
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; E-Mails: (R.A.); (N.B.); (R.H.); (R.A.H.H.); (P.L.G.)
| | - Lee Ratner
- Department of Medicine, Pathology, and Molecular Microbiology, Division of Biology and Biological Sciences, Washington University School of Medicine, Campus Box 8069, 660 S. Euclid Ave., St. Louis, MO 63110, USA; E-Mail: (L.R.)
| | - Patrick L. Green
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; E-Mails: (R.A.); (N.B.); (R.H.); (R.A.H.H.); (P.L.G.)
- Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Arthur G. James Cancer Hospital and Solove Research Institute, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
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Souquière S, Mouinga-Ondeme A, Makuwa M, Beggio P, Radaelli A, De Giuli Morghen C, Mortreux F, Kazanji M. T-Cell tropism of simian T-cell leukaemia virus type 1 and cytokine profiles in relation to proviral load and immunological changes during chronic infection of naturally infected mandrills (Mandrillus sphinx). J Med Primatol 2009; 38:279-89. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0684.2009.00356.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Dynamic interaction between STLV-1 proviral load and T-cell response during chronic infection and after immunosuppression in non-human primates. PLoS One 2009; 4:e6050. [PMID: 19557183 PMCID: PMC2698465 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0006050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2009] [Accepted: 05/25/2009] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
We used mandrills (Mandrillus sphinx) naturally infected with simian T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (STLV-1) as a model for evaluating the influence of natural STLV-1 infection on the dynamics and evolution of the immune system during chronic infection. Furthermore, in order to evaluate the role of the immune system in controlling the infection during latency, we induced immunosuppression in the infected monkeys. We first showed that the STLV-1 proviral load was higher in males than in females and increased significantly with the duration of infection: mandrills infected for 10–6 years had a significantly higher proviral load than those infected for 2–4 years. Curiously, this observation was associated with a clear reduction in CD4+ T-cell number with age. We also found that the percentage of CD4+ T cells co-expressing the activation marker HLA-DR and the mean percentage of CD25+ in CD4+ and CD8+ T cells were significantly higher in infected than in uninfected animals. Furthermore, the STLV-1 proviral load correlated positively with T-cell activation but not with the frequency of T cells secreting interferon γ in response to Tax peptides. Lastly, we showed that, during immunosuppression in infected monkeys, the percentages of CD8+ T cells expressing HLA-DR+ and of CD4+ T cells expressing the proliferation marker Ki67 decreased significantly, although the percentage of CD8+ T cells expressing HLA-DR+ and Ki67 increased significantly by the end of treatment. Interestingly, the proviral load increased significantly after immunosuppression in the monkey with the highest load. Our study demonstrates that mandrills naturally infected with STLV-1 could be a suitable model for studying the relations between host and virus. Further studies are needed to determine whether the different compartments of the immune response during infection induce the long latency by controlling viral replication over time. Such studies would provide important information for the development of immune-based therapeutic strategies.
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Kim FJ, Lavanya M, Gessain A, Gallego S, Battini JL, Sitbon M, Courgnaud V. Intrahost variations in the envelope receptor-binding domain (RBD) of HTLV-1 and STLV-1 primary isolates. Retrovirology 2006; 3:29. [PMID: 16725042 PMCID: PMC1481548 DOI: 10.1186/1742-4690-3-29] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2006] [Accepted: 05/25/2006] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Four primate (PTLV), human (HTLV) and simian (STLV) T-cell leukemia virus types, have been characterized thus far, with evidence of a simian zoonotic origin for HTLV-1, HTLV-2 and HTLV-3 in Africa. The PTLV envelope glycoprotein surface component (SUgp46) comprises a receptor-binding domain (RBD) that alternates hypervariable and highly conserved sequences. To further delineate highly conserved motifs in PTLV RBDs, we investigated the intrahost variability of HTLV-1 and STLV-1 by generating and sequencing libraries of DNA fragments amplified within the RBD of the SUgp46 env gene. Using new and highly cross-reactive env primer pairs, we observed the presence of Env quasispecies in HTLV-1 infected individuals and STLV-1 naturally infected macaques, irrespective of the clinical status. These intrahost variants helped us to define highly conserved residues and motifs in the RBD. The new highly sensitive env PCR described here appears suitable for the screening of all known variants of the different PTLV types and should, therefore, be useful for the analysis of seroindeterminate samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix J Kim
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier (IGMM), 1919 Rte de Mende, F-34293 Montpellier Cedex 5, France; CNRS, UMR5535, Montpellier, France; Université Montpellier 2, IFR122, Montpellier, France
- Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center 1275 York Ave, New York, NY, 10021, USA
| | - Madakasira Lavanya
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier (IGMM), 1919 Rte de Mende, F-34293 Montpellier Cedex 5, France; CNRS, UMR5535, Montpellier, France; Université Montpellier 2, IFR122, Montpellier, France
| | - Antoine Gessain
- Institut Pasteur, Département de Virologie, 28 rue du Dr Roux, 75015 Paris, France; Unité d'Epidémiologie et Physiopathologie des Virus Oncogènes, Paris, France; CNRS, URA 1930, Paris, France
| | - Sandra Gallego
- Laboratory of Human Lymphotropic Viruses, Cordoba, Argentina; Virology Institute, School of Medicine, Cordoba, Argentina; National University of Cordoba, Cordoba, Argentina
| | - Jean-Luc Battini
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier (IGMM), 1919 Rte de Mende, F-34293 Montpellier Cedex 5, France; CNRS, UMR5535, Montpellier, France; Université Montpellier 2, IFR122, Montpellier, France
| | - Marc Sitbon
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier (IGMM), 1919 Rte de Mende, F-34293 Montpellier Cedex 5, France; CNRS, UMR5535, Montpellier, France; Université Montpellier 2, IFR122, Montpellier, France
| | - Valérie Courgnaud
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier (IGMM), 1919 Rte de Mende, F-34293 Montpellier Cedex 5, France; CNRS, UMR5535, Montpellier, France; Université Montpellier 2, IFR122, Montpellier, France
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Calattini S, Wanert F, Thierry B, Schmitt C, Bassot S, Saib A, Herrenschmidt N, Gessain A. Modes of transmission and genetic diversity of foamy viruses in a Macaca tonkeana colony. Retrovirology 2006; 3:23. [PMID: 16608518 PMCID: PMC1533860 DOI: 10.1186/1742-4690-3-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2006] [Accepted: 04/11/2006] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Foamy viruses are exogenous complex retroviruses that are highly endemic in several animal species, including monkeys and apes, where they cause persistent infection. Simian foamy viral (SFV) infection has been reported in few persons occupationally exposed to non-human primates (NHP) in zoos, primate centers and laboratories, and recently in few hunters from central Africa. Most of the epidemiological works performed among NHP populations concern cross-sectional studies without long-term follow-up. Therefore, the exact timing and the modes of transmission of SFVs remain not well known, although sexual and oral transmissions have been suspected. We have conducted a longitudinal study in a free-breeding colony of Macaca tonkeana in order (1) to determine the prevalence of the infection by foamy viruses, (2) to characterize molecularly the viruses infecting such animals, (3) to study their genetic variability overtime by long-term follow-up of several DNA samples in a series of specific animals, and (4) to get new insights concerning the timing and the modes of SFVs primary infection in these monkeys by combining serology and molecular means, as well as studies of familial structures and long-term behavioral observations. RESULTS/CONCLUSION We first demonstrated that this colony was highly endemic for SFVs, with a clear increase of seroprevalence with age. Only 4.7% of immatures, and 43,7% of sub-adults were found seropositive, while 89.5% of adults exhibited antibodies directed against SFV. We further showed that 6 different strains of foamy viruses (exhibiting a very low intra-strain and overtime genetic variability in the integrase gene) are circulating within this group. This suggests a possible infection by different strains within an animal. Lastly, we provide strong evidence that foamy viruses are mostly acquired through severe bites, mainly in sub-adults or young adults. Most cases of seroconversion occur after 7 years of age; from this age individuals competed for access to sexual partners, thus increasing the likelihood of being wounded. Furthermore, all the serological and molecular data, obtained in this free-breeding colony, argue against a significant transmission of SFVs from mother or father to infants as well as between siblings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Calattini
- Unité d'Epidémiologie et Physiopathologie des Virus Oncogènes, Département de Virologie, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Fanélie Wanert
- Centre de Primatologie, et CNRS UPR 9010, Université Louis Pasteur, Strasbourg, France
| | - Bernard Thierry
- Centre de Primatologie, et CNRS UPR 9010, Université Louis Pasteur, Strasbourg, France
| | - Christine Schmitt
- Platte-forme de Microscopie Electronique, Insitut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Sylviane Bassot
- Unité d'Epidémiologie et Physiopathologie des Virus Oncogènes, Département de Virologie, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Ali Saib
- CNRS UMR7151, Hôpital Saint Louis, Paris, France
| | - Nicolas Herrenschmidt
- Centre de Primatologie, et CNRS UPR 9010, Université Louis Pasteur, Strasbourg, France
| | - Antoine Gessain
- Unité d'Epidémiologie et Physiopathologie des Virus Oncogènes, Département de Virologie, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
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Gabet AS, Moulés V, Sibon D, Nass CC, Mortreux F, Mauclère P, Gessain A, Murphy EL, Wattel E. Endemic versus epidemic viral spreads display distinct patterns of HTLV-2b replication. Virology 2006; 345:13-21. [PMID: 16256162 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2005.08.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2005] [Revised: 03/29/2005] [Accepted: 08/18/2005] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
As the replication pattern of leukemogenic PTLVs possesses a strong pathogenic impact, we investigated HTLV-2 replication in vivo in asymptomatic carriers belonging into 2 distinct populations infected by the same HTLV-2b subtype. They include epidemically infected American blood donors, in whom HTLV-2b has been present for only 30 years, and endemically infected Bakola Pygmies from Cameroon, characterized by a long viral endemicity (at least few generations). In blood donors, both the circulating proviral loads and the degree of infected cell proliferation were largely lower than those characterizing asymptomatic carriers infected with leukemogenic PTLVs (HTLV-1, STLV-1). This might contribute to explain the lack of known link between HTLV-2b infection and the development of malignancies in this population. In contrast, endemically infected individuals displayed high proviral loads resulting from the extensive proliferation of infected cells. The route and/or the duration of infection, viral genetic drift, host immune response, genetic background, co-infections or a combination thereof might have contributed to these differences between endemically and epidemically infected subjects. As the clonality pattern observed in endemically infected individuals is very reminiscent of that of leukemogenic PTLVs at the pre-leukemic stage, our results highlight the possible oncogenic effect of HTLV-2b infection in such population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne-Sophie Gabet
- Oncovirologie et Biothérapies, UMR5537-CNRS-Université Claude Bernard, Centre Léon Bérard, Lyon, France
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16
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Silverman LR, Phipps AJ, Montgomery A, Fernandez S, Tsukahara T, Ratner L, Lairmore MD. In vivo analysis of replication and immunogenicity of proviral clones of human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 with selective envelope surface-unit mutations. Blood 2005; 106:3602-8. [PMID: 16046523 PMCID: PMC1895059 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2005-03-1076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2005] [Accepted: 07/20/2005] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) is the causative agent of adult T-cell lymphoma/leukemia (ATL). The HTLV-1 envelope gene exhibits limited variability when examined from infected individuals, but has not been tested using infectious clones of the virus in animal models. In vitro assays indicate that HTLV-1 envelope (Env) Ser75Ile, Asn95Asp, and Asn195Asp surface unit (SU) mutants are able to replicate in and immortalize lymphocytes. Herein, we examined the effects of these Env mutants in rabbits inoculated with HTLV-1 immortalized ACH.75, ACH.95, or ACH.195 cell lines (expressing full-length molecular clones with the SU mutations) or the ACH.1 cell line (expressing wild-type SU). All rabbits became infected, and the fidelity of the mutations was maintained throughout the 8-week study. However, SU point mutations resulted in decreased antibody responses to viral group-associated antigen (Gag) and Env antigens. ACH.195 rabbits had a selective decreased antibody response to SU, and one ACH.195 rabbit had an antibody response to both HTLV-1 and HTLV-2 SUs. Some mutant inoculation groups had altered proviral loads. However, peripheral-blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) proviral loads did not correlate with antibody responses. Our data are the first to demonstrate that mutations in critical determinants of HTLV-1 Env SU altered antibody responses and proviral loads, but do not prevent viral replication in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lee R Silverman
- Center for Retrovirus Research and Department of Veterinary Biosciences, the Center for Biostatistics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, 43210, USA
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Lairmore MD, Silverman L, Ratner L. Animal models for human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) infection and transformation. Oncogene 2005; 24:6005-15. [PMID: 16155607 PMCID: PMC2652704 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1208974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Over the past 25 years, animal models of human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) infection and transformation have provided critical knowledge about viral and host factors in adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATL). The virus consistently infects rabbits, some non-human primates, and to a lesser extent rats. In addition to providing fundamental concepts in viral transmission and immune responses against HTLV-1 infection, these models have provided new information about the role of viral proteins in carcinogenesis. Mice and rats, in particular immunodeficient strains, are useful models to assess immunologic parameters mediating tumor outgrowth and therapeutic invention strategies against lymphoma. Genetically altered mice including both transgenic and knockout mice offer important models to test the role of specific viral and host genes in the development of HTLV-1-associated lymphoma. Novel approaches in genetic manipulation of both HTLV-1 and animal models are available to address the complex questions that remain about viral-mediated mechanisms of cell transformation and disease. Current progress in the understanding of the molecular events of HTLV-1 infection and transformation suggests that answers to these questions are approachable using animal models of HTLV-1-associated lymphoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael D Lairmore
- Center for Retrovirus Research and Department of Veterinary Biosciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210-1093, USA.
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18
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Traina-Dorge VL, Lorino R, Gormus BJ, Metzger M, Telfer P, Richardson D, Robertson DL, Marx PA, Apetrei C. Molecular epidemiology of simian T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 in wild and captive sooty mangabeys. J Virol 2005; 79:2541-8. [PMID: 15681454 PMCID: PMC546543 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.79.4.2541-2548.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A study was conducted to evaluate the prevalence and diversity of simian T-cell lymphotropic virus (STLV) isolates within the long-established Tulane National Primate Research Center (TNPRC) colony of sooty mangabeys (SMs; Cercocebus atys). Serological analysis determined that 22 of 39 animals (56%) were positive for STLV type 1 (STLV-1). A second group of thirteen SM bush meat samples from Sierra Leone in Africa was also included and tested only by PCR. Twenty-two of 39 captive animals (56%) and 3 of 13 bush meat samples (23%) were positive for STLV-1, as shown by testing with PCR. Nucleotide sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of viral strains obtained demonstrated that STLV-1 strains from SMs (STLV-1sm strains) from the TNPRC colony and Sierra Leone formed a single cluster together with the previously reported STLV-1sm strain from the Yerkes National Primate Research Center. These data confirm that Africa is the origin for TNPRC STLV-1sm and suggest that Sierra Leone is the origin for the SM colonies in the United States. The TNPRC STLV-1sm strains further divided into two subclusters, suggesting STLV-1sm infection of two original founder SMs at the time of their importation into the United States. STLV-1sm diversity in the TNPRC colony matches the high diversity of SIVsm in the already reported colony. The lack of correlation between the lineage of the simian immunodeficiency virus from SMs (SIVsm) and the STLV-1sm subcluster distribution of the TNPRC strains suggests that intracolony transmissions of both viruses were independent events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vicki L Traina-Dorge
- Division of Microbiology and Immunology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, 18703 Three Rivers Rd., Covington, LA 70433, USA.
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Virology Research. THE LABORATORY PRIMATE 2005. [PMCID: PMC7150044 DOI: 10.1016/b978-012080261-6/50034-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Van Dooren S, Shanmugam V, Bhullar V, Parekh B, Vandamme AM, Heneine W, Switzer WM. Identification in gelada baboons (Theropithecus gelada) of a distinct simian T-cell lymphotropic virus type 3 with a broad range of Western blot reactivity. J Gen Virol 2004; 85:507-519. [PMID: 14769908 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.19630-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Antibodies to simian T-cell lymphotropic virus (STLV) were found in serum or plasma from 12 of 23 (52.2 %) gelada baboons (Theropithecus gelada) captive in US zoos. A variety of Western blot (WB) profiles was seen in the 12 seroreactive samples, including human T-cell lymphotropic virus (HTLV)-1-like (n=5, 41.7 %), HTLV-2-like (n=1, 8.3 %), HTLV-untypable (n=4, 33.3 %) and indeterminate (n=2, 16.6 %) profiles. Phylogenetic analysis of tax or env sequences that had been PCR amplified from peripheral blood lymphocyte DNA available from nine seropositive geladas showed that four were infected with identical STLV-1s; these sequences clustered with STLV-1 from Celebes macaques and probably represent recent cross-species infections. The tax sequences from the five remaining geladas were also identical and clustered with STLV-3. Analysis of the complete STLV-3 genome (8917 bp) from one gelada, TGE-2117, revealed that it is unique, sharing only 62 % similarity with HTLV-1/ATK and HTLV-2/Mo. STLV-3/TGE-2117 was closest genetically to STLV-3 from an Eritrean baboon (STLV-3/PH969, 95.6 %) but more distant from STLV-3s from red-capped mangabeys from Cameroon and Nigeria (STLV-3/CTO-604, 87.7 %, and STLV-3/CTO-NG409, 87.2 %, respectively) and Senegalese baboons (STLV-3/PPA-F3, 88.4 %). The genetic relatedness of STLV-3/TGE-2117 to STLV-3 was confirmed by phylogenetic analysis of a concatenated gag-pol-env-tax sequence (6795 bp). An ancient origin of 73 628-109 809 years ago for STLV-3 was estimated by molecular clock analysis of third-codon positions of gag-pol-env-tax sequences. LTR sequences from five STLV-3-positive geladas were >99 % identical and clustered with that from a Papio anubisxP. hamadryas hybrid Ethiopian baboon, suggesting a common source of STLV-3 in these sympatric animals. LTR sequences obtained 20 years apart from a mother-infant pair were identical, providing evidence of both mother-to-offspring transmission and a high genetic stability of STLV-3. Since STLV-3-infected primates show a range of HTLV-like WB profiles and have an ancient origin, further studies using STLV-3-specific testing are required to determine whether STLV-3 infects humans, especially in regions of Africa where STLV-3 is endemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Van Dooren
- Rega Institute for Medical Research, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Vedapuri Shanmugam
- HIV and Retrovirology Branch, Division of AIDS, STD and TB Laboratory Research, National Center for HIV, STD and TB Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd, MS G-19, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
| | - Vinod Bhullar
- HIV and Retrovirology Branch, Division of AIDS, STD and TB Laboratory Research, National Center for HIV, STD and TB Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd, MS G-19, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
| | - Bharat Parekh
- HIV Immunology and Diagnostics Branch, Division of AIDS, STD and TB Laboratory Research, National Center for HIV, STD and TB Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd, MS G-19, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
| | - Anne-Mieke Vandamme
- Rega Institute for Medical Research, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Walid Heneine
- HIV and Retrovirology Branch, Division of AIDS, STD and TB Laboratory Research, National Center for HIV, STD and TB Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd, MS G-19, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
| | - William M Switzer
- HIV and Retrovirology Branch, Division of AIDS, STD and TB Laboratory Research, National Center for HIV, STD and TB Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd, MS G-19, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
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