IMPACT OF FATHERS' ALCOHOLISM AND ASSOCIATED RISK FACTORS ON PARENT-INFANT ATTACHMENT STABILITY FROM 12 TO 18 MONTHS

Early childhood attachment stability to mothers, fathers, and both parents as a network: associations with parents' well-being, marital relationship, and child behavior problems

This study examines the stability of child attachment to mothers and fathers separately, and to both parents as a network between the infancy and preschool periods using a sample of 143 biparental families and their children (73 boys) recruited from the general population. Attachment was assessed at 15 months with the Strange Situation Procedure (SSP) and at 45 months with the Preschool Attachment Classification Coding System (PACS). First, results show no stability in attachment to mothers, to fathers, or to both parents as a network. Second, parents' mental health, life satisfaction, marital satisfaction, and child externalizing behavior are associated with attachment stability. Taken altogether, group comparisons reveal that children with a stable secure attachment to both parents as a network have parents with higher levels of well-being and exhibit less problem behaviors than children with 1) a stable secure attachment to one parent and an unstable attachment to the other parent (from secure to insecure or from insecure to secure), or 2) who never had a stable secure attachment to either parent. This study highlights the significance of attachment to both parents as a network over time as it is associated with developmental outcomes.

Early childhood attachment stability and change: a meta-analysis

Examining degrees of stability in attachment throughout early childhood is important for understanding developmental pathways and for informing intervention. Updating and building upon all prior meta-analyses, this study aimed to determine levels of stability in all forms of attachment classifications across early childhood. Attachment stability was assessed between three developmental epochs within early childhood: infancy, toddlerhood, and preschool/early school. To ensure data homogeneity, only studies that assessed attachment with methods based on the strange situation procedure were included. Results indicate moderate levels of stability at both the four-way (secure, avoidant, resistant, and disorganised; κ = 0.23) and secure/insecure (r = 0.28) levels of assessment. Meta-regression analysis indicated security to be the most stable attachment organisation. This study also found evidence for publication bias, highlighting a preference for the publication of significant findings.

Teen Dating Violence in a High-Risk Sample: The Protective Role of Maternal Acceptance

Exposure to marital conflict has been identified as a risk factor for teen dating violence (TDV). Given the high rates of marital conflict observed in families affected by paternal alcoholism, children of alcoholic fathers may be at increased risk for TDV. Positive parenting behaviors are protective against TDV in general, but whether they can attenuate the effects of exposure to marital conflict is uncertain. According to social learning theory, adolescents exposed to both positive and conflictual parenting may perceive aggression to be part of a normal and loving relationship and hence be at risk for TDV. In contrast, attachment theory would posit that positive parenting would better enable youth to regulate negative emotions and would be protective against TDV. The current study used prospective data to examine whether maternal acceptance buffered the relationship between exposure to marital conflict in early adolescence and TDV in late adolescence among a sample of adolescents at risk for TDV due to parental alcoholism. Adolescents (N = 227, 50% female, 89% European American), half of whom had an alcoholic parent, completed surveys in early (eighth grade) and late adolescence (11th and 12th grades). They reported on exposure to marital conflict, perceptions of maternal acceptance, and involvement in TDV. Regression analyses revealed that exposure to marital conflict in early adolescence was predictive of TDV in late adolescence. However, an examination of the interaction between exposure to marital conflict and maternal acceptance indicated that at high levels of marital conflict and maternal acceptance, exposure to marital conflict no longer predicted TDV. Findings suggest that social modeling alone is not sufficient for understanding the intergenerational transmission of violence. A multipronged approach to violence prevention among high-risk families targeting both parental and parent-child relationships is recommended.

Living Fatherhood in Adults Addicted to Substances: A Qualitative Study of Fathers in Psycho-Rehabilitative Drug Addiction Treatment for Heroin and Cocaine

The research aims to investigate the emotional experiences of the individuals who use drugs in terms of their parenting role as father, within a rehabilitative context. The study aims to analyze how dependence affects the exercise of the parental role, specifically paternity, with the aim of offering an overview of the father-son relationship while considering the possible limitations that characterize those who are forced to live parenting in an atypical way. It is necessary to help individuals who use drugs to be able to help them in life with the goal of establish a better parenting awareness and a good relationship with their father and their children. The research work made use of qualitative tools, specifically semi-structured interview, which was administered to a sample of 18 fathers that were treated in a rehabilitation clinic for individuals who use drugs. The used semi-structured interview made it possible to analyze the perception of participants about their paternity, the quality of the relationship with their father and their children, and the influence that the narcotic substance has generated in the relationship with their father and with their children.

Where's Dad? The Importance of Integrating Fatherhood and Parenting Programming into Substance Use Treatment for Men

Large numbers of men enter substance use disorder treatment each year, yet very little attention is paid to the fatherhood and parenting status of these men. Substance use treatment programs rarely incorporate a parenting component into their treatment planning, despite increased success of women's treatment programs that focus on gender and motherhood. This paper provides: 1) a review of the literature on the fathering of substance using men, what has been learned from substance use disorder treatment for mothers, and the implications for children and families; 2) pilot quantitative and qualitative outcomes on implementation of a fatherhood focused intervention for men in a residential substance use treatment program; and 3) recommendations for the application of these findings for fathers in substance use disorder treatment and the implications of program modifications and increased focus on fathers for child welfare.

Parental Substance Abuse As an Early Traumatic Event. Preliminary Findings on Neuropsychological and Personality Functioning in Young Drug Addicts Exposed to Drugs Early

Parental substance use is a major risk factor for child development, heightening the risk of drug problems in adolescence and young adulthood, and exposing offspring to several types of traumatic events. First, prenatal drug exposure can be considered a form of trauma itself, with subtle but long-lasting sequelae at the neuro-behavioral level. Second, parents' addiction often entails a childrearing environment characterized by poor parenting skills, disadvantaged contexts and adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), leading to dysfunctional outcomes. Young adults born from/raised by parents with drug problems and diagnosed with a Substance Used Disorder (SUD) themselves might display a particularly severe condition in terms of cognitive deficits and impaired personality function. This preliminary study aims to investigate the role of early exposure to drugs as a traumatic event, capable of affecting the psychological status of young drug addicts. In particular, it intends to examine the neuropsychological functioning and personality profile of young adults with severe SUDs who were exposed to drugs early in their family context. The research involved three groups, each consisting of 15 young adults (aged 18–24): a group of inpatients diagnosed with SUDs and exposed to drugs early, a comparison group of non-exposed inpatients and a group of non-exposed youth without SUDs. A neuropsychological battery (Esame Neuropsicologico Breve-2), an assessment procedure for personality disorders (Shedler-Westen Assessment Procedure-200) and the Symptom CheckList-90-Revised were administered. According to present preliminary results, young drug addicts exposed to drugs during their developmental age were characterized by elevated rates of neuropsychological impairments, especially at the expense of attentive and executive functions (EF); personality disorders were also common but did not differentiate them from non-exposed youth with SUDs. Alternative multi-focused prevention and intervention programs are needed for children of drug-misusing parents, addressing EF and adopting a trauma-focused approach.

[Young Foster Children's Attachment and Socio-emotional Functioning - A Norwegian Prospective and Longitudinal Study]

The main aim of the present study was to investigate 60 young foster children's attachment to their foster parents and their socio-emotional functioning at age two and three years compared to 42 low-risk children. At age two, the children were seen in the Strange Situation Procedure (SSP), and a foster parental report was used to investigate socio-emotional functioning. A majority of the foster children was classified as securely attached at both time points, and no significant group difference was detected. Furthermore, among those who were securely attached at age of two, a large majority remained so one year later. Concerning social-emotional functioning, the foster children were reported to show more problem behaviour and less competence at age two and three, although their scores were within age-related norms. The results in the present study are optimistic. However, the question is whether such a positive developmental pathway will last when the foster children will meet new challenges such as school entry and establishing close peer relationships.

Understanding the diverse needs of children whose parents abuse substances

In this review, we consider the potential service needs of children of substance abusing parents based on what we know about the risk outcomes faced by these children and the parenting deficits often present in these families. Importantly, our review does not address the etiological role of parental substance abuse in children's negative outcomes but instead we discuss the complex inter-related risk factors that often co-occur with and exacerbate risk associated with parental alcohol and drug use. We first review studies showing the elevated risk that children of substance abusing parents face in general for poorer academic functioning; emotional, behavioral, and social problems; and an earlier onset of substance use, faster acceleration in substance use patterns, and higher rates of alcohol and drug use disorders. We then review studies showing contextual risk factors for children of substance abusing parents, including parenting deficits (less warmth, responsiveness, and physical and verbal engagement as well as harsher and more over-involved interaction styles), greater risk for child maltreatment, and less secure attachment patterns. We conclude with a discussion of future directions for research and guidelines for professionals working with children and their families where parental substance abuse is present.

Fathers entering substance abuse treatment: An examination of substance abuse, trauma symptoms and parenting behaviors

OBJECTIVE

The relationship between fatherhood and both psychiatric distress and severity of substance abuse (SA) among men entering SA treatment has not been well explored. This study was designed to (a) examine differences in symptoms of men presenting for SA assessment based on fatherhood status and (b) determine how posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms and severity of SA were associated with parenting for men who were fathers.

METHODS

PTSD symptoms, severity of SA, and parenting data reported on structured questionnaires were collected from 126 men presenting for an SA evaluation at a forensic drug diversion clinic.

RESULTS

There were no differences in severity of alcohol or drug use between fathers and nonfathers; however, fathers with more PTSD symptoms reported greater severity of alcohol and drug use. Among the fathers, PTSD symptoms correlated significantly and positively with negative parenting behaviors, whereas SA did not. Fathers with more significant PTSD symptoms were more likely to want help with parenting.

CONCLUSIONS

Further exploration of the impact of trauma-related symptoms on the parenting behaviors of substance-abusing men is warranted.

Caregiver drug use and arrest as correlates of child trauma exposure

This study proposed to determine the prevalence of substance use and drug-related arrests among caregivers of children referred to Child Protective Services (CPS), examine the relationship between substance use and arrests among caregivers, and examine the main effects and interaction of substance use and arrests in predicting child trauma exposure. Secondary data was collected from CPS files for a randomly selected group of 1127 children. Findings indicated that rates of caregiver substance misuse and arrests were higher than the general population, which was expected. When controlling for demographic and other variables, there was a main effect of substance use and arrests on child trauma exposure, but no significant interaction. Implications for caregivers engaged in substance use and/or involvement with the criminal justice system are discussed, as well as clinical and research implications for children exposed to trauma related to caregiver behaviors.

Marital Aggression and Child Peer Competence: A Comparison of Three Conceptual Models

This study examined longitudinal data linking marital aggression with child peer competence in kindergarten. The study compared three conceptual models for understanding the relation between marital aggression and child peer competence. Model 1 examines the direct effects of marital aggression, parental alcoholism, and parenting on child peer competence, model 2 posits that this relation is mediated by child social problem solving abilities (social information processing theory), while model 3 proposes that the relation is mediated by parental warmth/sensitivity (spillover theory). Structural Equation Modeling was most supportive of models 1 and 3 indicating that parenting behavior, but not social problem solving, partially mediates the relation between marital conflict and child peer competence.

Longitudinal relations between parental drinking problems, family functioning, and child adjustment

Relations between maternal and paternal problem drinking symptoms and destructive marital conflict, parenting problems, and children's internalizing and externalizing problems were investigated. Participants were community families with a child in kindergarten who completed questionnaire measures at baseline (N=235), 1 year later (N=227), and 2 years later (N=215). Structural equation modeling revealed that paternal problem drinking at Time 1 was associated with greater destructive marital conflict 1 year later. In turn, destructive marital conflict was related to decreased parental warmth and increased parental psychological control; these parenting problems were associated with greater child internalizing and externalizing problems at the third time point. Further analyses revealed that the indirect effects of paternal drinking on children's adjustment were significant, and that relations remained even after including autoregressive effects. Findings are discussed in terms of family process models for relations between parental drinking and child adjustment problems.

Drug abuse and responsible fathering: a comparative study of men enrolled in methadone maintenance treatment

AIM

Because very little is known about the parenting of drug-abusing men, this study was designed to document ways that drug abuse contributes to compromise of responsible fathering.

DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS

Generalized linear models and data representing different dimensions of responsible fathering were used to clarify ways that the fathering of 106 men receiving methadone maintenance treatment differed from that of 118 men living in the same community with no history of alcohol or drug abuse.

MEASUREMENT

Men who enrolled in the study completed two structured interviews and a battery of five self-report measures selected to document current and historical dimensions of responsible fathering.

FINDINGS

When the opioid-dependent fathers were compared to the other fathers, there were significant differences in: (i) economic resources to support family formation; (ii) patterns of pair-bonding; (iii) patterns of procreation; and (iv) parenting behavior. When fathering of the youngest biological child was examined, the opioid-dependent fathers confirmed few differences in historical dimensions of fathering, but they reported significant differences in current dimensions reflecting: (i) constricted personal definitions of the fathering role; (ii) poorer relationships with biological mothers; (iii) less frequent residence with the child; (iv) less frequent provision of financial support; (v) less involvement in positive parenting; (vi) poorer appraisal of self as a father; and (vii) less satisfaction as a father.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings highlight ways that drug abuse contributes to compromise of responsible fathering, and they raise questions about ways that the drug abuse treatment system might better address parenting as a treatment issue for men.

Behaviour problems in 18- to 36-month old children of alcoholic fathers: secure mother-infant attachment as a protective factor

This study examined the relationship between paternal alcoholism and toddler behavior problems from 18 to 36 months of age, as well as the potential moderating effects of 12-month infant-mother attachment security on this relationship. Children with alcoholic fathers had higher levels of internalizing and externalizing behavior than children of nonalcoholic fathers. Simple effects testing of an interaction effect of child age, group, and attachment security with mothers on externalizing behaviour suggested that at 24 and 36 months of age mother-infant attachment security moderated the relationship between alcohol group status and externalizing behaviour. Namely, within the alcohol group, those children with secure relationships with their mothers had significantly lower externalizing than insecure children of alcoholics. A similar pattern was noted for internalizing behavior at 36 months of age. Implications for intervention are discussed.