Calcium phosphate mineralization beneath a polycationic monolayer at the air-water interface

EDTA and NTA Effectively Tune the Mineralization of Calcium Phosphate from Bulk Aqueous Solution

This study describes the effects of nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA) and ethylenediaminotetraacetic acid (EDTA) on the mineralization of calcium phosphate from bulk aqueous solution. Mineralization was performed between pH 6 and 9 and with NTA or EDTA concentrations of 0, 5, 10, and 15 mM. X-ray diffraction and infrared spectroscopy show that at low pH, mainly brushite precipitates and at higher pH, mostly hydroxyapatite forms. Both additives alter the morphology of the precipitates. Without additive, brushite precipitates as large plates. With NTA, the morphology changes to an unusual rod-like shape. With EDTA, the edges of the particles are rounded and disk-like particles form. Conductivity and pH measurements suggest that the final products form through several intermediate steps.

A Dendritic Amphiphile for Efficient Control of Biomimetic Calcium Phosphate Mineralization

The phase behavior of a dendritic amphiphile containing a Newkome-type dendron as the hydrophilic moiety and a cholesterol unit as the hydrophobic segment is investigated at the air-liquid interface. The amphiphile forms stable monomolecular films at the air-liquid interface on different subphases. Furthermore, the mineralization of calcium phosphate beneath the monolayer at different calcium and phosphate concentrations versus mineralization time shows that at low calcium and phosphate concentrations needles form, whereas flakes and spheres dominate at higher concentrations. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and electron diffraction confirm the formation of calcium phosphate. High-resolution transmission electron microscopy and electron diffraction confirm the predominant formation of octacalcium phosphate and hydroxyapatite. The data also indicate that the final products form via a complex multistep reaction, including an association step, where nano-needles aggregate into larger flake-like objects.

From molecules to macrostructures: recent development of bioinspired hard tissue repair

This review summarizes the bioinspired strategies for hard tissue repair, ranging from molecule-induced mineralization, to microscale assembly to macroscaffold fabrication.

Biomimetic Mineralization of Recombinamer-Based Hydrogels toward Controlled Morphologies and High Mineral Density

The use of insoluble organic matrices as a structural template for the bottom-up fabrication of organic-inorganic nanocomposites is a powerful way to build a variety of advanced materials with defined and controlled morphologies and superior mechanical properties. Calcium phosphate mineralization in polymeric hydrogels is receiving significant attention in terms of obtaining biomimetic hierarchical structures with unique mechanical properties and understanding the mechanisms of the biomineralization process. However, integration of organic matrices with hydroxyapatite nanocrystals, different in morphology and composition, has not been well-achieved yet at nanoscale. In this study, we synthesized thermoresponsive hydrogels, composed of elastin-like recombinamers (ELRs), to template mineralization of hydroxyapatite nanocrystals using a biomimetic polymer-induced liquid-precursor (PILP) mineralization process. Different from conventional mineralization where minerals were deposited on the surface of organic matrices, they were infiltrated into the frameworks of ELR matrices, preserving their microporous structure. After 14 days of mineralization, an average of 78 μm mineralization depth was achieved. Mineral density up to 1.9 g/cm(3) was found after 28 days of mineralization, which is comparable to natural bone and dentin. In the dry state, the elastic modulus and hardness of the mineralized hydrogels were 20.3 ± 1.7 and 0.93 ± 0.07 GPa, respectively. After hydration, they were reduced to 4.50 ± 0.55 and 0.10 ± 0.03 GPa, respectively. These values were lower but still on the same order of magnitude as those of natural hard tissues. The results indicated that inorganic-organic hybrid biomaterials with controlled morphologies can be achieved using organic templates of ELRs. Notably, the chemical and physical properties of ELRs can be tuned, which might help elucidate the mechanisms by which living organisms regulate the mineralization process.

Interface-controlled calcium phosphate mineralization: effect of oligo(aspartic acid)-rich interfaces

The phase behavior of an amphiphilic block copolymer based on a poly(aspartic acid) hydrophilic block and a poly(n-butyl acrylate) hydrophobic block was investigated at the air–water and air–buffer interface.

Poly(ethylene oxide)-based block copolymers with very high molecular weights for biomimetic calcium phosphate mineralization

Ampholytic and betaine-type block copolymers are excellent growth modifiers for calcium phosphate in biologically inspired calcium phosphate mineralization.

Langmuir monolayers as models to study processes at membrane surfaces

The use of new sophisticated and highly surface sensitive techniques as synchrotron based X-ray scattering techniques and in-house infrared reflection absorption spectroscopy (IRRAS) has revolutionized the monolayer research. Not only the determination of monolayer structures but also interactions between amphiphilic monolayers at the soft air/liquid interface and molecules dissolved in the subphase are important for many areas in material and life sciences. Monolayers are convenient quasi-two-dimensional model systems. This review focuses on interactions between amphiphilic molecules in binary and ternary mixtures as well as on interfacial interactions with interesting biomolecules dissolved in the subphase. The phase state of monolayers can be easily triggered at constant temperature by increasing the packing density of the lipids by compression. Simultaneously the monolayer structure changes are followed in situ by grazing incidence X-ray diffraction or IRRAS. The interactions can be indirectly determined by the observed structure changes. Additionally, the yield of enzymatic reaction can be quantitatively determined, secondary structures of peptides and proteins can be measured and compared with those observed in bulk. In this way, the influence of a confinement on the structural properties of biomolecules can be determined. The adsorption of DNA can be quantified as well as the competing adsorption of ions at charged interfaces. The influence of modified nanoparticles on model membranes can be clearly determined. In this review, the relevance and utility of Langmuir monolayers as suitable models to study physical and chemical interactions at membrane surfaces are clearly demonstrated.

Assembly of amorphous clusters under floating monolayers: a comparison of in situ and ex situ techniques

We report synchrotron X-ray scattering studies of biomimetic crystallization of hydroxyapatite (the primary constituent of bone), using monolayers of fatty acid molecules floating on simulated body fluid (SBF) as well as aqueous solutions of calcium phosphate. A ∼10 Å thick film of amorphous material is observed to form immediately at the molecular monolayer, consistent with the proposed formation of "Posner clusters". This layer becomes denser but not significantly thicker as the subphase concentration and the temperature approach physiological conditions. The amorphous films do not crystallize within 24 h, in contrast to prior reports of more rapid crystallization using electron microscopy on ex situ samples. However, crystallization occurs almost immediately after our films are transferred onto solid substrates. These results illustrate the importance of in situ measurements for model biomineralization experiments.

New developments in polymer-controlled, bioinspired calcium phosphate mineralization from aqueous solution

The polymer-controlled and bioinspired precipitation of inorganic minerals from aqueous solution at near-ambient or physiological conditions avoiding high temperatures or organic solvents is a key research area in materials science. Polymer-controlled mineralization has been studied as a model for biomineralization and for the synthesis of (bioinspired and biocompatible) hybrid materials for a virtually unlimited number of applications. Calcium phosphate mineralization is of particular interest for bone and dental repair. Numerous studies have therefore addressed the mineralization of calcium phosphate using a wide variety of low- and high-molecular-weight additives. In spite of the growing interest and increasing number of experimental and theoretical data, the mechanisms of polymer-controlled calcium phosphate mineralization are not entirely clear to date, although the field has made significant progress in the last years. A set of elegant experiments and calculations has shed light on some details of mineral formation, but it is currently not possible to preprogram a mineralization reaction to yield a desired product for a specific application. The current article therefore summarizes and discusses the influence of (macro)molecular entities such as polymers, peptides, proteins and gels on biomimetic calcium phosphate mineralization from aqueous solution. It focuses on strategies to tune the kinetics, morphologies, final dimensions and crystal phases of calcium phosphate, as well as on mechanistic considerations.

Sulfobetaine as a zwitterionic mediator for 3D hydroxyapatite mineralization

Both positively and negatively charged residues play pivotal roles in recruiting precursor ions or ion clusters, and lowering interfacial energy in natural biomineralization process. Synergistic utilization of opposite charges, however, has rarely been implemented in the design of cytocompatible synthetic scaffolds promoting hydroxyapatite (HA)-mineralization and osteointegration. We report the use of cytocompatible zwitterionic sulfobetaine ligands to enable 3-dimensional in vitro mineralization of HA across covalently crosslinked hydrogels. The overall charge-neutral zwitterionic hydrogel effectively recruited oppositely charged precursor ions while overcame excessive swelling exhibited by anionic and cationic hydrogels under physiological conditions, resulting in denser and structurally well-integrated mineralized composites. Further controls over the size, content, and spatial distribution of the mineral domains within the zwitterionic hydrogel are accomplished by facile adjustments of hydrogel crosslinking densities and the supersaturation rate governing heterogeneous mineral nucleation and growth. These findings should inspire many creative uses of zwitterionic polymers and polymer coatings for skeletal tissue repair and regeneration.

Influence of the type of phospholipid head and of the conformation of the polyelectrolyte on the growth of calcium carbonate thin films on LB/LbL matrices

Calcium carbonate is one of the most important biominerals, and it is the main constituent of pearls, seashells, and teeth. The in vitro crystallization of calcium carbonate using different organic matrices as templates has been reported. In this work, the growth of calcium carbonate thin films on special organic matrices consisting of layer-by-layer (LbL) polyelectrolyte films deposited on a pre-formed phospholipid Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) film has been studied. Two types of randomly coiled polyelectrolytes have been used: lambda-carrageenan and poly(acrylic acid). A precoating comprised of LB films has been prepared by employing a negatively charged phospholipid, the sodium salt of dimyristoilphosphatidyl acid (DMPA), or a zwitterionic phospholipid, namely dimyristoilphosphatidylethanolamine (DMPE). This approach resulted in the formation of particulate calcium carbonate continuous films with different morphologies, particle sizes, and roughness, as revealed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). The crystalline structure of the calcium carbonate particles was analyzed by Raman spectroscopy. The randomly coiled conformation of the polyelectrolytes seems to be the main reason for the formation of continuous films rather than CaCO(3) isolated crystals.

Calcium phosphate growth beneath a polycationic monolayer at the air-water interface: effects of oscillating surface pressure on mineralization

The self-assembly of the amphiphilic block copolymer poly(butadiene)-block-poly[2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate] at the air-water interface and the mineralization of the monolayers with calcium phosphate was investigated at different pH values. As expected for polyelectrolytes, the subphase pH strongly affects the monolayer properties. The focus of the current study, however, is on the effect of an oscillating (instead of a static) polymer monolayer on calcium phosphate mineralization. Monitoring of the surface pressure vs. mineralization time shows that the monolayer is quite stable if the mineralization is performed at pH 8. In contrast, the monolayer at pH 5 shows a measurable decrease of the surface pressure already after ca. 2 h of mineralization. Transmission electron microscopy reveals that mineralization at low pH under constant oscillation leads to small particles, which are arranged in circular features and larger entities with holes of ca. 200 nm. The larger features with the holes disappear as the mineralization is continued in favor of the smaller particles. These grow with time and form necklace-like architectures of spherical particles with a uniform diameter. In contrast, mineralization at pH 8 leads to very uniform particle morphologies already after 2 h. The mineralization products consist of a circular feature with a dark dot in the center. The increasing contrast of the precipitates in the electron micrographs with mineralization time indicates an increasing degree of mineralization vs. reaction time. The study therefore shows that mechanical effects on mineralization at interfaces are quite complex.