1
|
Al-Ayoubi C, Alonso-Jauregui M, Azqueta A, Vignard J, Mirey G, Rocher O, Puel O, Oswald IP, Vettorazzi A, Soler L. Mutagenicity and genotoxicity assessment of the emerging mycotoxin Versicolorin A, an Aflatoxin B1 precursor. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2023; 335:122276. [PMID: 37517643 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2023.122276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Revised: 07/25/2023] [Accepted: 07/26/2023] [Indexed: 08/01/2023]
Abstract
Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is the most potent natural carcinogen among mycotoxins. Versicolorin A (VerA) is a precursor of AFB1 biosynthesis and is structurally related to the latter. Although VerA has already been identified as a genotoxin, data on the toxicity of VerA are still scarce, especially at low concentrations. The SOS/umu and miniaturised version of the Ames test in Salmonella Typhimurium strains used in the present study shows that VerA induces point mutations. This effect, like AFB1, depends primarily on metabolic activation of VerA. VerA also induced chromosomal damage in metabolically competent intestinal cells (IPEC-1) detected by the micronucleus assay. Furthermore, results from the standard and enzyme-modified comet assay confirmed the VerA-mediated DNA damage, and we observed that DNA repair pathways were activated upon exposure to VerA, as indicated by the phosphorylation and/or relocation of relevant DNA-repair biomarkers (γH2AX and 53BP1/FANCD2, respectively). In conclusion, VerA induces DNA damage without affecting cell viability at concentrations as low as 0.03 μM, highlighting the danger associated with VerA exposure and calling for more research on the carcinogenicity of this emerging food contaminant.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carine Al-Ayoubi
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), University of Toulouse, INRAE, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, 31027, Toulouse, France
| | - Maria Alonso-Jauregui
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Research Group MITOX, School of Pharmacy and Nutrition, Universidad de Navarra, 31008 Pamplona, Spain
| | - Amaya Azqueta
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Research Group MITOX, School of Pharmacy and Nutrition, Universidad de Navarra, 31008 Pamplona, Spain
| | - Julien Vignard
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), University of Toulouse, INRAE, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, 31027, Toulouse, France
| | - Gladys Mirey
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), University of Toulouse, INRAE, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, 31027, Toulouse, France
| | - Ophelie Rocher
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), University of Toulouse, INRAE, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, 31027, Toulouse, France
| | - Olivier Puel
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), University of Toulouse, INRAE, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, 31027, Toulouse, France
| | - Isabelle P Oswald
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), University of Toulouse, INRAE, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, 31027, Toulouse, France
| | - Ariane Vettorazzi
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Research Group MITOX, School of Pharmacy and Nutrition, Universidad de Navarra, 31008 Pamplona, Spain
| | - Laura Soler
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), University of Toulouse, INRAE, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, 31027, Toulouse, France.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Tang X, Luo B, Huang S, Jiang J, Chen Y, Ren W, Shi X, Zhang W, Shi L, Zhong X, Lü M. FANCD2 as a novel prognostic biomarker correlated with immune and drug therapy in Hepatitis B-related hepatocellular carcinoma. Eur J Med Res 2023; 28:419. [PMID: 37821996 PMCID: PMC10566141 DOI: 10.1186/s40001-023-01411-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2023] [Accepted: 09/29/2023] [Indexed: 10/13/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ferroptosis is related to the immunosuppression of tumors and plays a critical role in cancer progression. Fanconi anemia complementation group D2 (FANCD2) is a vital gene that regulates ferroptosis. However, the mechanism of action of FANCD2 in Hepatitis B-related hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains unknown. In this study, we investigated the prognostic significance and mechanism of action of FANCD2 in Hepatitis B-related HCC. METHODS The expression of FANCD2 in Hepatitis B-related HCC was explored using The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and validated using the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. Univariate and multivariate Cox regression analyses and Kaplan-Meier survival curves were used to analyze the relationship between FANCD2 expression and the overall survival of patients with Hepatitis B-related HCC. Protein-protein interaction networks for FANCD2 were built using the STRING website. In addition, correlations between FANCD2 expression and the dryness index, tumor mutational burden, microsatellite instability (MSI), immune pathways, genes involved in iron metabolism, and sorafenib chemotherapeutic response were analyzed. RESULTS Our results indicated that FANCD2 was significantly overexpressed in Hepatitis B-related HCC and demonstrated a strong predictive ability for diagnosis (Area Under Curve, 0.903) and prognosis of the disease. High FANCD2 expression was associated with poor prognosis, high-grade tumors, high expression of PDL-1, high MSI scores, and low sorafenib IC50 in Hepatitis B-related HCC. BRCA1, BRCA2, FAN1, and FANCC were vital proteins interacting with FANCD2. The expression level of FANCD2 significantly correlated with the infiltration levels of Treg cells, B cells, CD8 + T cells, CD4 + T cells, neutrophils, macrophages, myeloid dendritic cells, and NK cells in Hepatitis B-related HCC. FANCD2 was positively correlated with the tumor proliferation signature pathway, DNA repair, and cellular response to hypoxia. CONCLUSION Our study indicated that FANCD2 was a potential novel biomarker and immunotherapeutic target against Hepatitis B-related HCC, which might be related to the chemotherapeutic response to sorafenib.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaowei Tang
- Department of Gastroenterology, the Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Bei Luo
- Department of Gastroenterology, the Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Shu Huang
- Department of Gastroenterology, the People's Hospital of Lianshui, Huaian, China
| | - Jiao Jiang
- Department of Gastroenterology, the Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Yuan Chen
- Department of Gastroenterology, the Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Wensen Ren
- Department of Gastroenterology, the Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Xiaomin Shi
- Department of Gastroenterology, the Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Gastroenterology, the Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Lei Shi
- Department of Gastroenterology, the Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Xiaolin Zhong
- Department of Gastroenterology, the Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Muhan Lü
- Department of Gastroenterology, the Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Sczelecki S, Pitman JL. The Validation of a Precursor Lesion of Epithelial Ovarian Cancer in Fancd2-KO Mice. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:cancers15092595. [PMID: 37174061 PMCID: PMC10177028 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15092595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2023] [Revised: 04/21/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Ovarian cancer (OC) has the highest mortality rate of all gynaecological malignancies. The asymptomatic nature and limited understanding of early disease hamper research into early-stage OC. Therefore, there is an urgent need for models of early-stage OC to be characterised to improve the understanding of early neoplastic transformations. This study sought to validate a unique mouse model for early OC development. The homozygous Fanconi anaemia complementation group D2 knock-out mice (Fancd2-/-) develop multiple ovarian tumour phenotypes in a sequential manner as they age. Using immunohistochemistry, our group previously identified purported initiating precursor cells, termed 'sex cords', that are hypothesised to progress into epithelial OC in this model. To validate this hypothesis, the sex cords, tubulostromal adenomas and equivalent controls were isolated using laser capture microdissection for downstream multiplexed gene expression analyses using the Genome Lab GeXP Genetic Analysis System. Principal component analysis and unbiased hierarchical clustering of the resultant expression data from approximately 90 OC-related genes determined that cells from the sex cords and late-stage tumours clustered together, confirming the identity of the precursor lesion in this model. This study, therefore, provides a novel model for the investigation of initiating neoplastic events that can accelerate progress in understanding early OC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Sczelecki
- The School of Biological Sciences, Te Herenga Waka Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington 6012, New Zealand
| | - Janet L Pitman
- The School of Biological Sciences, Te Herenga Waka Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington 6012, New Zealand
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Zheng C, Ren Z, Chen H, Yuan X, Suye S, Yin H, Zhou Z, Fu C. FANCD2 promotes the malignant behavior of endometrial cancer cells and its prognostic value. Exp Cell Res 2022; 421:113388. [PMID: 36257352 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2022.113388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2022] [Revised: 10/09/2022] [Accepted: 10/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Defective DNA damage repair is a key mechanism affecting tumor susceptibility, treatment response, and survival outcome of endometrial cancer (EC). Fanconi anemia complementation group D2 (FANCD2) is the core component of the Fanconi anemia repair pathway. To explore the function of FANCD2 in EC, we examined the expression of FANCD2 in human specimens and databases, and discussed the possible mechanism of carcinogenesis by in vitro assays. Immunohistochemistry results showed overexpression of FANCD2 was detected in EC tissues compared to normal and atypical hyperplasia endometrium. Higher FANCD2 expression was correlated with deeper myometrial invasion (MI) and proficient mismatch repair status. The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database analysis showed FANCD2 was upregulated in EC compared with normal tissue. The high expression of FANCD2 was associated with poor overall survival in EC. Knockdown of FANCD2 expression in EC cell lines inhibited malignant proliferation and migration ability. We demonstrated that decreased FANCD2 expression results in increased DNA damage and decreased S-phase cells, leading to a decrease in proliferative capacity in EC cells. Down-regulated FANCD2 confers sensitivity of EC cells to interstrand crosslinking agents. This study provides evidence for the malignant progression and prognostic value of FANCD2 in EC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chunying Zheng
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410011, China
| | - Zhen Ren
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410011, China
| | - Hongliang Chen
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410011, China
| | - Xiaorui Yuan
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410011, China
| | - Suye Suye
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410011, China
| | - Huan Yin
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410011, China
| | - Zhixian Zhou
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410011, China
| | - Chun Fu
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410011, China.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Feng L, Jin F. Expression and prognostic significance of Fanconi anemia group D2 protein and breast cancer type 1 susceptibility protein in familial and sporadic breast cancer. Oncol Lett 2019; 17:3687-3700. [PMID: 30881493 PMCID: PMC6403512 DOI: 10.3892/ol.2019.10046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2018] [Accepted: 01/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Fanconi anemia group D2 protein (FANCD2) and breast cancer type 1 susceptibility protein (BRCA1), within the FA/BRCA pathway, are involved in the regulation of DNA damage repair, which is associated with breast cancer (BC) progression. The present study aimed to investigate BRCA1 and FANCD2 expression in breast cancer, and to highlight the association with patient clinical characteristics and prognoses. The BRCA1 and FANCD2 proteins were detected by immunohistochemistry in 335 tissue samples obtained from patients with BC, including 141 patients with familial BC (FBC), 147 patients with sporadic breast cancer (SBC) and 47 patients with benign breast tumors. Western blotting was used to detect the FANCD2 ubiquitination level in 56 frozen specimens that were randomly selected from the SBC group. Protein expression of BRCA1 in the FBC group was positively associated with tumor size, lymphatic invasion, Tumor-Node-Metastasis (TNM) stage, estrogen receptor (ER) status and FANCD2 expression. Protein expression of FANCD2 in the SBC group was positively associated with tumor size, TNM stage, ER status and Ki-67 index. Survival analyses revealed that BRCA1 expression was associated with the decreased disease-free survival (DFS) rate of patients with FBC (versus no BRCA1 expression) and that FANCD2 was associated with decreased DFS of patients with SBC (versus no FANCD expression). Univariable and multivariable analyses demonstrated that BRCA1 expression may be an independent prognostic factor in the FBC group. In the SBC group, FANCD2 high expression and low ubiquitination levels were considered as independent prognostic factors. In conclusion, the present study suggested that BRCA1 and FANCD2 expression, and FANCD2 ubiquitination levels, may be considered of novel potential prognostic value in patients with BC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Liang Feng
- Department of Breast Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110001, P.R. China
| | - Feng Jin
- Department of Breast Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110001, P.R. China
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Deniskin R, Sasa GS, Nandiwada SL, Rider NL. Lymphopenia With Clinical and Laboratory Features of Combined Immune Deficiency in an 11-Year-Old Female With FANCD2 Variants and Fanconi Anemia. Front Pediatr 2019; 6:390. [PMID: 30713837 PMCID: PMC6346677 DOI: 10.3389/fped.2018.00390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2018] [Accepted: 11/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Fanconi anemia (FA) is an inherited bone marrow failure and cancer predisposition disorder due to mutations in DNA repair pathways proteins (FANC). The dysfunctional proteins are unable to repair DNA breaks and cause genomic instability. Mutations in many of the 19 FANC genes are well characterized biochemically and clinically. Little is known about the FANCD2 gene which acts downstream of the FA-core proteins. Here we report a 11-year-old female previously diagnosed with FA and bone marrow failure. Gene sequencing demonstrated deletion of exons 2-18 and a pathologic missense mutation (c. 2444G>A, p. Arg815Gln) in FANCD2 (Chr3). Her medical history is significant for an episode of pneumococcal sepsis despite adequate vaccination. Repeated blood samples and immunophenotyping demonstrated severe lymphopenia. There were markedly low CD4+ T-cell counts with a low CD4:CD8 ratio. Changes in the composition of the B-cell population included significantly diminished absolute total B-cells, and decreased mature cells. There was no immunogenic response to vaccination against S. pneumoniae. The NK-cell count was unaffected and demonstrated normal spontaneous and stimulated cytotoxic response. Bone marrow analysis demonstrated hypocellularity without dysplasia. The clinical and laboratory features are suggestive of combined immune deficiency. FANCD2 may be involved in the transition of immature B and T cells to mature cells, a process that requires substantial DNA recombination not observed in NK cells. Additional genetic and biochemical evaluation is needed to further characterize the novel genetic and clinical findings.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Roman Deniskin
- Department of Pediatrics (Pediatrician Scientist Training and Development Program), Houston, TX, United States
| | - Ghadir S. Sasa
- Section of Hematology and Oncology, Baylor College of Medicine and Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Sarada L. Nandiwada
- Clinical and Diagnostic Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine and Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX, United States
- Section of Allergy, Immunology, and Rheumatology, Baylor College of Medicine and Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Nicholas L. Rider
- Section of Allergy, Immunology, and Rheumatology, Baylor College of Medicine and Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX, United States
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
|
8
|
FANCD2 re-expression is associated with glioma grade and chemical inhibition of the Fanconi Anaemia pathway sensitises gliomas to chemotherapeutic agents. Oncotarget 2015; 5:6414-24. [PMID: 25071006 PMCID: PMC4171640 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.2225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Brain tumours kill more children and adults under 40 than any other cancer. Around half of primary brain tumours are glioblastoma multiforme (GBMs) where treatment remains a significant challenge. GBM survival rates have improved little over the last 40 years, thus highlighting an unmet need for the identification/development of novel therapeutic targets and agents to improve GBM treatment. Using archived and fresh glioma tissue, we show that in contrast to normal brain or benign schwannomas GBMs exhibit re-expression of FANCD2, a key protein of the Fanconi Anaemia (FA) DNA repair pathway, and possess an active FA pathway. Importantly, FANCD2 expression levels are strongly associated with tumour grade, revealing a potential exploitable therapeutic window to allow inhibition of the FA pathway in tumour cells, whilst sparing normal brain tissue. Using several small molecule inhibitors of the FA pathway in combination with isogenic FA-proficient/deficient glioma cell lines as well as primary GBM cultures, we demonstrate that inhibition of the FA pathway sensitises gliomas to the chemotherapeutic agents Temozolomide and Carmustine. Our findings therefore provide a strong rationale for the development of novel and potent inhibitors of the FA pathway to improve the treatment of GBMs, which may ultimately impact on patient outcome.
Collapse
|
9
|
Nguyen TV, Riou L, Aoufouchi S, Rosselli F. Fanca deficiency reduces A/T transitions in somatic hypermutation and alters class switch recombination junctions in mouse B cells. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 211:1011-8. [PMID: 24799500 PMCID: PMC4042646 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20131637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Fanca contributes to both somatic hypermutation and class switch recombination events in splenic B cells. Fanconi anemia is a rare genetic disorder that can lead to bone marrow failure, congenital abnormalities, and increased risk for leukemia and cancer. Cells with loss-of-function mutations in the FANC pathway are characterized by chromosome fragility, altered mutability, and abnormal regulation of the nonhomologous end-joining (NHEJ) pathway. Somatic hypermutation (SHM) and immunoglobulin (Ig) class switch recombination (CSR) enable B cells to produce high-affinity antibodies of various isotypes. Both processes are initiated after the generation of dG:dU mismatches by activation-induced cytidine deaminase. Whereas SHM involves an error-prone repair process that introduces novel point mutations into the Ig gene, the mismatches generated during CSR are processed to create double-stranded breaks (DSBs) in DNA, which are then repaired by the NHEJ pathway. As several lines of evidence suggest a possible role for the FANC pathway in SHM and CSR, we analyzed both processes in B cells derived from Fanca−/− mice. Here we show that Fanca is required for the induction of transition mutations at A/T residues during SHM and that despite globally normal CSR function in splenic B cells, Fanca is required during CSR to stabilize duplexes between pairs of short microhomology regions, thereby impeding short-range recombination downstream of DSB formation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thuy Vy Nguyen
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR 8200, Institut Gustave Roussy, 94805 Villejuif, France Université Paris Sud, 91400 Orsay, France Programme Equipe Labellisées, Ligue Contre le Cancer, 75013 Paris, France
| | - Lydia Riou
- Université Paris Sud, 91400 Orsay, France Laboratoire de Radiopathologie, Service Cellules Souches et Radiation, Institut de Radiobiologie Cellulaire et Moléculaire, Direction des Sciences du Vivant, Commissariat à L'énergie Atomique et aux Énergies Alternatives, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U967, 92265 Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Saïd Aoufouchi
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR 8200, Institut Gustave Roussy, 94805 Villejuif, France Université Paris Sud, 91400 Orsay, France
| | - Filippo Rosselli
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR 8200, Institut Gustave Roussy, 94805 Villejuif, France Université Paris Sud, 91400 Orsay, France Programme Equipe Labellisées, Ligue Contre le Cancer, 75013 Paris, France
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Fagerholm R, Sprott K, Heikkinen T, Bartkova J, Heikkilä P, Aittomäki K, Bartek J, Weaver D, Blomqvist C, Nevanlinna H. Overabundant FANCD2, alone and combined with NQO1, is a sensitive marker of adverse prognosis in breast cancer. Ann Oncol 2013; 24:2780-5. [DOI: 10.1093/annonc/mdt290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
|
11
|
FANCD2 activates transcription of TAp63 and suppresses tumorigenesis. Mol Cell 2013; 50:908-18. [PMID: 23806336 DOI: 10.1016/j.molcel.2013.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2013] [Revised: 03/21/2013] [Accepted: 05/15/2013] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Fanconi anemia (FA) is a rare genetic disorder characterized by an increased susceptibility to squamous cell cancers. Fifteen FA genes are known, and the encoded proteins cooperate in a common DNA repair pathway. A critical step is the monoubiquitination of the FANCD2 protein, and cells from most FA patients are deficient in this step. How monoubiquitinated FANCD2 suppresses squamous cell cancers is unknown. Here we show that Fancd2-deficient mice are prone to Ras-oncogene-driven skin carcinogenesis, while Usp1-deficient mice, expressing elevated cellular levels of Fancd2-Ub, are resistant to skin tumors. Moreover, Fancd2-Ub activates the transcription of the tumor suppressor TAp63, thereby promoting cellular senescence and blocking skin tumorigenesis. For FA patients, the reduction of FANCD2-Ub and TAp63 protein levels may account for their susceptibility to squamous cell neoplasia. Taken together, Usp1 inhibition may be a useful strategy for upregulating TAp63 and preventing or treating squamous cell cancers in the general non-FA population.
Collapse
|
12
|
Smetsers S, Muter J, Bristow C, Patel L, Chandler K, Bonney D, Wynn RF, Whetton AD, Will AM, Rockx D, Joenje H, Strathdee G, Shanks J, Klopocki E, Gille JJP, Dorsman J, Meyer S. Heterozygote FANCD2 mutations associated with childhood T Cell ALL and testicular seminoma. Fam Cancer 2012; 11:661-5. [DOI: 10.1007/s10689-012-9553-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
|
13
|
Rudland PS, Platt-Higgins AM, Davies LM, de Silva Rudland S, Wilson JB, Aladwani A, Winstanley JHR, Barraclough DL, Barraclough R, West CR, Jones NJ. Significance of the Fanconi anemia FANCD2 protein in sporadic and metastatic human breast cancer. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2010; 176:2935-47. [PMID: 20363922 DOI: 10.2353/ajpath.2010.090779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
FANCD2, a pivotal protein in the Fanconi anemia and BRCA pathway/network, is monoubiquitylated in the nucleus in response to DNA damage. This study examines the subcellular location and relationship with prognostic factors and patient survival of FANCD2 in breast cancer. Antibodies to FANCD2 were used to immunocytochemically stain 16 benign and 20 malignant breast specimens as well as 314 primary breast carcinomas to assess its association with subcellular compartment and prognostic factors using Fisher's Exact test or with patient survival over 20 years using Wilcoxon-Gehan statistics. Immunoreactive FANCD2 was found in the nucleus and cytoplasm of all 16 benign tissues, but nuclear staining was lost from a significant 19/20 malignant carcinomas (P < 0.0001). Antibodies to FANCD2 stained the cytoplasm of 196 primary carcinomas, leaving 118 as negatively stained. Negative cytoplasmic staining was significantly associated with positive staining for the metastasis-inducing proteins S100A4, S100P, osteopontin, and AGR2 (P < or = 0.002). Survival of patients with FANCD2-negative carcinomas was significantly worse (P < 0.0001) than those with positively stained carcinomas, and only 4% were alive at the census date. Multivariate regression analysis identified negative staining for cytoplasmic FANCD2 as the most significant indicator of patient death (P = 0.001). Thus FANCD2's cytoplasmic loss in the primary carcinomas may allow the selection of cells overexpressing proteins that can induce metastases before surgery.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Philip S Rudland
- Cancer and Polio Research Fund Laboratories, School of Biological Sciences, Biosciences Building, Crown Street, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 3BX, United Kingdom.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Ozawa H, Iwatsuki M, Mimori K, Sato T, Johansson F, Toh H, Watanabe M, Mori M. FANCD2 mRNA overexpression is a bona fide indicator of lymph node metastasis in human colorectal cancer. Ann Surg Oncol 2010; 17:2341-8. [PMID: 20339950 DOI: 10.1245/s10434-010-1002-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2009] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Lymph node metastasis is widely accepted as one of the most important determinants of prognosis in colorectal cancer (CRC) patients. Therefore, there is an urgent need to identify molecular markers that can be used to predict lymph node metastasis. MATERIALS AND METHODS Candidate genes were found using LMD and cDNA microarrays in a large-scale study of CRC, followed by Penalized Canonical Correlation Analysis (PCCA). We focused on the Fanconi anemia, complementation group D2 (FANCD2) gene and evaluated FANCD2 mRNA expression in 133 CRC cases to determine the clinicopathological significance of FANCD2 expression. RESULTS The mean level of FANCD2 mRNA expression in tumor tissue specimens was significantly higher than in nontumor tissue. FANCD2 expression was found to be a significant factor affecting lymph node metastasis: the high FANCD2 expression group had a significantly poorer prognosis than the low expression group. CONCLUSIONS This study suggests that PCCA can be used to identify genes related to clinicopathological features. Furthermore, high FANCD2 expression was a significant independent factor for lymph node metastasis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Heita Ozawa
- Department of Surgery, Kitasato University School of Medicine, Sagamihara, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Titus TA, Yan YL, Wilson C, Starks AM, Frohnmayer JD, Bremiller RA, Cañestro C, Rodriguez-Mari A, He X, Postlethwait JH. The Fanconi anemia/BRCA gene network in zebrafish: embryonic expression and comparative genomics. Mutat Res 2008; 668:117-32. [PMID: 19101574 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2008.11.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2008] [Accepted: 11/23/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Fanconi anemia (FA) is a genetic disease resulting in bone marrow failure, high cancer risks, and infertility, and developmental anomalies including microphthalmia, microcephaly, hypoplastic radius and thumb. Here we present cDNA sequences, genetic mapping, and genomic analyses for the four previously undescribed zebrafish FA genes (fanci, fancj, fancm, and fancn), and show that they reverted to single copy after the teleost genome duplication. We tested the hypothesis that FA genes are expressed during embryonic development in tissues that are disrupted in human patients by investigating fanc gene expression patterns. We found fanc gene maternal message, which can provide Fanc proteins to repair DNA damage encountered in rapid cleavage divisions. Zygotic expression was broad but especially strong in eyes, central nervous system and hematopoietic tissues. In the pectoral fin bud at hatching, fanc genes were expressed specifically in the apical ectodermal ridge, a signaling center for fin/limb development that may be relevant to the radius/thumb anomaly of FA patients. Hatching embryos expressed fanc genes strongly in the oral epithelium, a site of squamous cell carcinomas in FA patients. Larval and adult zebrafish expressed fanc genes in proliferative regions of the brain, which may be related to microcephaly in FA. Mature ovaries and testes expressed fanc genes in specific stages of oocyte and spermatocyte development, which may be related to DNA repair during homologous recombination in meiosis and to infertility in human patients. The intestine strongly expressed some fanc genes specifically in proliferative zones. Our results show that zebrafish has a complete complement of fanc genes in single copy and that these genes are expressed in zebrafish embryos and adults in proliferative tissues that are often affected in FA patients. These results support the notion that zebrafish offers an attractive experimental system to help unravel mechanisms relevant not only to FA, but also to breast cancer, given the involvement of fancj (brip1), fancn (palb2) and fancd1 (brca2) in both conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tom A Titus
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Oregon, 1425 E. 13th Avenue, Eugene, OR 97403, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Kalb R, Neveling K, Hoehn H, Schneider H, Linka Y, Batish SD, Hunt C, Berwick M, Callen E, Surralles J, Casado JA, Bueren J, Dasi A, Soulier J, Gluckman E, Zwaan CM, van Spaendonk R, Pals G, de Winter JP, Joenje H, Grompe M, Auerbach AD, Hanenberg H, Schindler D. Hypomorphic mutations in the gene encoding a key Fanconi anemia protein, FANCD2, sustain a significant group of FA-D2 patients with severe phenotype. Am J Hum Genet 2007; 80:895-910. [PMID: 17436244 PMCID: PMC1852747 DOI: 10.1086/517616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2006] [Accepted: 02/26/2007] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
FANCD2 is an evolutionarily conserved Fanconi anemia (FA) gene that plays a key role in DNA double-strand-type damage responses. Using complementation assays and immunoblotting, a consortium of American and European groups assigned 29 patients with FA from 23 families and 4 additional unrelated patients to complementation group FA-D2. This amounts to 3%-6% of FA-affected patients registered in various data sets. Malformations are frequent in FA-D2 patients, and hematological manifestations appear earlier and progress more rapidly when compared with all other patients combined (FA-non-D2) in the International Fanconi Anemia Registry. FANCD2 is flanked by two pseudogenes. Mutation analysis revealed the expected total of 66 mutated alleles, 34 of which result in aberrant splicing patterns. Many mutations are recurrent and have ethnic associations and shared allelic haplotypes. There were no biallelic null mutations; residual FANCD2 protein of both isotypes was observed in all available patient cell lines. These analyses suggest that, unlike the knockout mouse model, total absence of FANCD2 does not exist in FA-D2 patients, because of constraints on viable combinations of FANCD2 mutations. Although hypomorphic mutations arie involved, clinically, these patients have a relatively severe form of FA.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Reinhard Kalb
- Department of Human Genetics, University of Wurzburg, Wurzburg, Germany
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
van der Groep P, Hoelzel M, Buerger H, Joenje H, de Winter JP, van Diest PJ. Loss of expression of FANCD2 protein in sporadic and hereditary breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2007; 107:41-7. [PMID: 17333336 PMCID: PMC2096638 DOI: 10.1007/s10549-007-9534-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2006] [Accepted: 01/30/2007] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Fanconi anemia (FA) is a recessive disorder associated with progressive pancytopenia, multiple developmental defects, and marked predisposition to malignancies. FA is genetically heterogeneous, comprising at least 12 complementation groups (A–M). Activation of one of the FA proteins (FANCD2) by mono-ubiquitination is an essential step in DNA damage response. As FANCD2 interacts with BRCA1, is expressed in proliferating normal breast cells, and FANCD2 knockout mice develop breast tumors, we investigated the expression of FANCD2 in sporadic and hereditary invasive breast cancer patients to evaluate its possible role in breast carcinogenesis. Two tissue microarrays of 129 and 220 sporadic breast cancers and a tissue microarray containing 25 BRCA1 germline mutation-related invasive breast cancers were stained for FANCD2. Expression results were compared with several clinicopathological variables and tested for prognostic value. Eighteen of 96 (19%) sporadic breast cancers and two of 21 (10%) BRCA1-related breast cancers were completely FANCD2-negative, which, however, still showed proliferation. In the remaining cases, the percentage of FANCD2-expressing cells correlated strongly with mitotic index and percentage of cells positive for the proliferation markers Ki-67 and Cyclin A. In immunofluorescence double staining, coexpression of FANCD2 and Ki-67 was apparent. In survival analysis, high FANCD2 expression appeared to be prognostically unfavorable for overall survival (p = 0.03), independent from other major prognosticators (p = 0.026). In conclusion, FANCD2 expression is absent in 10–20% of sporadic and BRCA1-related breast cancers, indicating that somatic inactivating (epi)genetic events in FANCD2 may be important in both sporadic and hereditary breast carcinogenesis. FANCD2 is of independent prognostic value in sporadic breast cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Petra van der Groep
- Department of Pathology, University Medical Center, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Michael Hoelzel
- Department of Pathology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Horst Buerger
- Institute of Pathology, University of Muenster, Muenster, Germany
| | - Hans Joenje
- Department of Human Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Johan P. de Winter
- Department of Human Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Paul J. van Diest
- Department of Pathology, University Medical Center, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Cohen PE, Pollack SE, Pollard JW. Genetic analysis of chromosome pairing, recombination, and cell cycle control during first meiotic prophase in mammals. Endocr Rev 2006; 27:398-426. [PMID: 16543383 DOI: 10.1210/er.2005-0017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Meiosis is a double-division process that is preceded by only one DNA replication event to produce haploid gametes. The defining event in meiosis is prophase I, during which chromosome pairs locate each other, become physically connected, and exchange genetic information. Although many aspects of this process have been elucidated in lower organisms, there has been scant information available until now about the process in mammals. Recent advances in genetic analysis, especially in mice and humans, have revealed many genes that play essential roles in meiosis in mammals. These include cell cycle-regulatory proteins that couple the exit from the premeiotic DNA synthesis to the progression through prophase I, the chromosome structural proteins involved in synapsis, and the repair and recombination proteins that process the recombination events. Failure to adequately repair the DNA damage caused by recombination triggers meiotic checkpoints that result in ablation of the germ cells by apoptosis. These analyses have revealed surprising sexual dimorphism in the requirements of different gene products and a much less stringent checkpoint regulation in females. This may provide an explanation for the 10-fold increase in meiotic errors in females compared with males. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the use of genetic manipulation, particularly in mice, but also of the analysis of mutations in humans, to elucidate the mechanisms that are required for traverse through prophase I.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- P E Cohen
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Center for the Study of Reproduction and Women's Health, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, New York 10461, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Sobeck A, Stone S, Costanzo V, de Graaf B, Reuter T, de Winter J, Wallisch M, Akkari Y, Olson S, Wang W, Joenje H, Christian JL, Lupardus PJ, Cimprich KA, Gautier J, Hoatlin ME. Fanconi anemia proteins are required to prevent accumulation of replication-associated DNA double-strand breaks. Mol Cell Biol 2006; 26:425-37. [PMID: 16382135 PMCID: PMC1346898 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.26.2.425-437.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2005] [Revised: 07/20/2005] [Accepted: 10/13/2005] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Fanconi anemia (FA) is a multigene cancer susceptibility disorder characterized by cellular hypersensitivity to DNA interstrand cross-linking agents such as mitomycin C (MMC). FA proteins are suspected to function at the interface between cell cycle checkpoints, DNA repair, and DNA replication. Using replicating extracts from Xenopus eggs, we developed cell-free assays for FA proteins (xFA). Recruitment of the xFA core complex and xFANCD2 to chromatin is strictly dependent on replication initiation, even in the presence of MMC indicating specific recruitment to DNA lesions encountered by the replication machinery. The increase in xFA chromatin binding following treatment with MMC is part of a caffeine-sensitive S-phase checkpoint that is controlled by xATR. Recruitment of xFANCD2, but not xFANCA, is dependent on the xATR-xATR-interacting protein (xATRIP) complex. Immunodepletion of either xFANCA or xFANCD2 from egg extracts results in accumulation of chromosomal DNA breaks during replicative synthesis. Our results suggest coordinated chromatin recruitment of xFA proteins in response to replication-associated DNA lesions and indicate that xFA proteins function to prevent the accumulation of DNA breaks that arise during unperturbed replication.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Sobeck
- Division of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Rd., Portland, Oregon 97239, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Ferrer M, Span SW, Vischioni B, Oudejans JJ, van Diest PJ, de Winter JP, Giaccone G, Kruyt FAE. FANCD2 expression in advanced non-small-cell lung cancer and response to platinum-based chemotherapy. Clin Lung Cancer 2005; 6:250-4. [PMID: 15694018 DOI: 10.3816/clc.2005.n.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Fanconi's anemia (FA) is a genetically heterogeneous disease characterized by cancer susceptibility and hypersensitivity to cross-linking agents such as cisplatin. Recently, inactivation of the FA pathway has been proposed to contribute to genomic instability and an increased sensitivity to cisplatin-based therapy in a subset of ovarian tumors. Platinum-based chemotherapy constitutes standard systemic therapy for advanced non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC), but resistance to platinum chemotherapy is common. In this study, we evaluated the status of the FA pathway in tumor samples derived from patients with NSCLC in relation to their response to platinum-based chemotherapy. For this purpose, we assessed the expression of FANCD2 protein (a marker for FA pathway functioning) by immunohistochemistry in tumor specimens from 47 patients treated with platinum-based chemotherapy. FANCD2 expression could be detected in 32% of the cases (15 of 47). Expression of FANCD2 was not correlated with any patient or tumor characteristics, and FANCD2 expression was not a predictor of response to chemotherapy or patient survival. In conclusion, the activation status of the FA pathway had no value in predicting sensitivity to platinum-based chemotherapy in patients with advanced NSCLC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Ferrer
- Department of Medical Oncology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Meyer S, Fergusson WD, Oostra AB, Medhurst AL, Waisfisz Q, de Winter JP, Chen F, Carr TF, Clayton-Smith J, Clancy T, Green M, Barber L, Eden OB, Will AM, Joenje H, Taylor GM. A cross-linker-sensitive myeloid leukemia cell line from a 2-year-old boy with severe Fanconi anemia and biallelic FANCD1/BRCA2 mutations. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 2005; 42:404-15. [PMID: 15645491 DOI: 10.1002/gcc.20153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Fanconi anemia (FA) is a rare autosomal recessive disorder characterized by congenital and developmental abnormalities, hypersensitivity to DNA cross-linking agents such as mitomycin C (MMC), and strong predisposition to acute myeloid leukemia (AML). In this article, we describe clinical and molecular findings in a boy with a severe FA phenotype who developed AML by the age of 2. Although he lacked a strong family history of cancer, he was subsequently shown to carry biallelic mutations in the FANCD1/BRCA2 gene. These included an IVS7 splice-site mutation, which is strongly associated with early AML in homozygous or compound heterozygous carrier status in FA-D1 patients. Myeloid leukemia cells from this patient have been maintained in culture for more than 1 year and have been designated as the SB1690CB cell line. Growth of SB1690CB is dependent on granulocyte macrophage colony stimulating factor or interleukin-3. This cell line has retained its MMC sensitivity and has undergone further spontaneous changes in the spectrum of cytogenetic aberrations compared with the primary leukemia. This is the second AML cell line derived from an FA-D1 patient and the first proof that malignant clones arising in FA patients can retain inherited MMC sensitivity. As FA-derived malignancies are normally not very responsive to treatment, this implies there are important mechanisms of acquiring correction of the cellular FA phenotype that would explain the poor chemoresponsiveness observed in FA-associated malignancies and might also play a role in the initiation and progression of cancer in the general population.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Meyer
- Cancer-Immunogenetics Laboratory, University of Manchester, St. Mary's Hospital, Hathersage Road, Manchester M13 0JH, United Kingdom.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Thompson LH, Hinz JM, Yamada NA, Jones NJ. How Fanconi anemia proteins promote the four Rs: replication, recombination, repair, and recovery. ENVIRONMENTAL AND MOLECULAR MUTAGENESIS 2005; 45:128-142. [PMID: 15668941 DOI: 10.1002/em.20109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The genetically complex disease Fanconi anemia (FA) comprises cancer predisposition, developmental defects, and bone marrow failure due to elevated apoptosis. The FA cellular phenotype includes universal sensitivity to DNA crosslinking damage, symptoms of oxidative stress, and reduced mutability at the X-linked HPRT gene. In this review article, we present a new heuristic molecular model that accommodates these varied features of FA cells. In our view, the FANCA, -C, and -G proteins, which are both cytoplasmic and nuclear, have an integrated dual role in which they sense and convey information about cytoplasmic oxidative stress to the nucleus, where they participate in the further assembly and functionality of the nuclear core complex (NCCFA= FANCA/B/C/E/F/G/L). In turn, NCCFA facilitates DNA replication at sites of base damage and strand breaks by performing the critical monoubiquitination of FANCD2, an event that somehow helps stabilize blocked and broken replication forks. This stabilization facilitates two kinds of processes: translesion synthesis at sites of blocking lesions (e.g., oxidative base damage), which produces point mutations by error-prone polymerases, and homologous recombination-mediated restart of broken forks, which arise spontaneously and when crosslinks are unhooked by the ERCC1-XPF endonuclease. In the absence of the critical FANCD2 monoubiquitination step, broken replication forks further lose chromatid continuity by collapsing into a configuration that is more difficult to restart through recombination and prone to aberrant repair through nonhomologous end joining. Thus, the FA regulatory pathway promotes chromosome integrity by monitoring oxidative stress and coping efficiently with the accompanying oxidative DNA damage during DNA replication.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Larry H Thompson
- Biology and Biotechnology Research Program, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California 94551, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|