Antigen--antibody interactions in the reverse micellar system: quenching of the fluorescence of fluorescein-labeled atrazine by antibodies against atrazine

A fluorescence enhancement-based label-free homogeneous immunoassay of benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) in aqueous solutions

A fluorescence enhancement-based immunoassay has been developed for the detection of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), in aqueous solutions. The results of this study show that BaP, which inefficiently fluoresces in aqueous solution, displays enhanced fluorescence when bound to the anti-BaP antibody (anti-BaP), as part of a label-free immunoassay system. Binding to anti-BaP results in a 3.12-fold increase in the fluorescence intensity of BaP, which emits at 435 nm when excited at 280 nm, due to the hydrophobic interaction and fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) between antibody and antigen. As result of this phenomenon, the antibody-based fluorescence immunoassay system can be used to detect BaP specifically with a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.06 ng mL(-1). Finally, extraction recoveries of BaP from spiked wheat and barley samples were found to be in the range of 80.5-87.0% and 92.9-92.1%, respectively.

Fluorescence quenching competitive immunoassay in micro droplets

A fluorescence quenching competitive immunoassay in micro droplets was applied to the sensitive detection of the pyrethroid insecticide, esfenvalerate. Laser induced fluorescence from rhodamine dye was used as a marker. The competitive immunoreaction was performed in micro droplets generated by a vibrating orifice aerosol generator system with a 10-microm diameter orifice. Fluorescence that was emitted from the droplets was detected by a 1/8 m imaging spectrograph with a 512 x 512 thermoelectrically cooled, charged-coupled device camera. The conjugate of esfenvalerate with rhodamine exhibited similar fluorescence to that of pure rhodamine 6G. When anti-esfenvalerate antibodies were added to the droplets, the fluorescence decreased. The reduction in emission was due to a strong quenching effect that arises from the interaction between the protein and rhodamine molecules following the antigen-antibody reaction. When a sample of esfenvalerate was added to the droplets, the release of the conjugated rhodamine from the antigen-antibody complex allowed the fluorescence signal to recover. An assay in a picoliter droplet sample was shown to enable detection down to approximately 0.1 nM. A very small mass of analyte could be detected with this method. A sample of river water was used to gauge the impact of matrix effects and was shown to give rise to negligible interference with the immunoassay.

Competitive quenching fluorescence immunoassay for chlorophenols based on laser-induced fluorescence detection in microdroplets

An improved biomonitoring system for the analysis of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol (TCP) in urine samples has been developed. The principle of the biosensor device is the detection of laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) in single microdroplets by a homogeneous quenching fluorescence immunoassay (QFIA). The competitive immunoassay occurs in microdroplets (d = 58,4 microm) produced by a piezoelectric generator system with 10-microm-diameter orifice. A continuous Ar ion laser (488 nm) excites the fluorescent tracer; its fluorescence is detected by a spectrometer attached to a 512 x 512 cooled, charge-coupled device camera. Fluorescence is quenched by specific binding of TCP polyclonal antibodies to the fluorescent tracer (hapten A-fluorescein); the quenching effect is diminished by the presence of the analyte. Thus, an increase in the signal is produced in a positive dose-dependent manner when TCP is present in the sample. In 10 mM PBS buffer, the IC50 of the LIF-microdroplet QFIA is 0.45 microg L(-1) reaching a LOD of 0.04 microg L(-1). The QFIA with the same reagents performed in microtiter plate format achieved a LOD of 0.36 microg L(-1) in buffer solution. Performance in human urine was similar to that observed in the buffer. A LOD of 1.6 ,g L(-1), with a dynamic range between 4 and 149.5 microg L(-1) in urine, was obtained without any sample treatment other than dilution with the assay buffer. The detectability achieved is sufficient for occupational exposure risk assessment.

Use of L-lysine fluorescence derivatives as tracers to enhance the performance of polarization fluoroimmunoassays. A study using two herbicides as model antigens

Fluorescence polarization immunoassay (FPIA) is a convenient homogeneous assay, the use of which is restricted in environmental analysis by low sensitivity and matrix effects. We selected the herbicides 2,4D and 2,4,5T to synthesize new L-lysine-based fluorescent tracers using solid-phase chemistry. In addition, three different immunogens of 2,4,5T were prepared for immunization and antibody production. The new tracers and antibodies were adapted to FPIA. Tracers with the hapten attached to the alpha-aminogroup of L-lysine and fluorescein to the e-amino group exhibited at least a 5-fold increased sensitivity when compared to the previously reported ethylenediamine-based tracer (2,4D-EDA-F). The isomeric structure (hapten attached to the e-amino and fluorescein to the alpha-amino group) appeared 7.6 times less sensitive, and all other alternative structures exhibited even lower sensitivities. This observation was confirmed against the monoclonal anti-2,4D antibody E2/G2 and polyclonal anti-2,4,5T antibodies. The affinity constant of 2,4D-EDA-F with E2/G2 was 8.1 times higher when compared with the new tracer, suggesting the more specific nature of the L-lysine-based tracer, the use of which leads to a more sensitive assay. This type of tracer could improve performance and lower substantially the detection limits of FPIAs.

Reverse micellar extraction for downstream processing of proteins/enzymes

New developments in the area of downstream processing are, hopefully, to fulfill the promises of modern biotechnology. The traditional separation processes such as chromatography or electrophoresis can become prohibitively expensive unless the product is of high value. Hence, there is a need to develop efficient and cost-effective downstream processing methods. Reverse micellar extraction is one such potential and a promising liquid-liquid extraction technique, which has received immense attention for isolation and purification of proteins/enzymes in the recent times. This technique is easy to scale-up and offers continuous operation. This review, besides briefly considering important physico-chemical and biological aspects, highlights the engineering aspects including mass transfer, mathematical modeling, and technology development. It also discusses recent developments in reverse micellar extraction such as affinity based separations, enzymatic reactions in reverse micelles coupled with membrane processes, reverse micellar extraction in hollow fibers, etc. Special emphasis has been given to some recent applications of this technique.

Enzymes in low water systems

Water is fundamental for enzyme action and for formation of the three-dimensional structure of proteins. Hence, it may be assumed that studies on the interplay between water and enzymes can yield insight into enzyme function and formation. This has proven correct, because the numerous studies that have been made on the behavior of water-soluble and membrane enzymes in systems with a low water content (reverse micelles or enzymes suspended in nonpolar organic solvents) have revealed properties of enzymes that are not easily appreciated in aqueous solutions. In the low water systems, it has been possible to probe the relation between solvent and enzyme kinetics, as well as some of the factors that affect enzyme thermostability and catalysis. Furthermore, the studies show that low water environments can be used to stabilize conformers that exhibit unsuspected catalytic properties, as well as intermediates of enzyme function and formation that in aqueous media have relatively short life-times. The structure of enzymes in these unnatural conditions is actively being explored.