Myristoylation of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 gag protein is required for efficient env protein transportation to the surface of cells

HIV-1 production is specifically associated with human NMT1 long form in human NMT isozymes

The N-myristoylation of the N-terminal of human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1) Pr55(gag) by human N-myristoyltransferase (hNMT) is a prerequisite modification for HIV-1 production. hNMT consists of multiple isozymes encoded by hNMT1 and hNMT2. The hNMT1 isozyme consists of long, medium, and short forms. Here, we investigated which isozyme is crucial for HIV-1 production. Human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293 cells transfected with infectious HIV-1 vectors were used as models of HIV-1-infected cells in this study. The significant reduction in HIV-1 production and the failure of the specific localization of Pr55(gag) in a detergent-resistant membrane fraction were dependent on the knockdown of the different forms of the hNMT1 isozyme but not of the hNMT2 isozyme. Additionally, the coexpression of an inactive mutant hNMT1 isozyme, namely the hNMT1 long form (hNMT1(L)), but not that of other hNMT mutants resulted in a significant reduction in HIV-1 production. These results strongly suggest that HIV-1 production is specifically associated with hNMT1, particularly hNMT1(L), but not with hNMT2 in vivo, contributing to the understanding of a step in HIV-1 replication.

N-myristoyltransferase 1 is essential in early mouse development

N-Myristoyltransferase (NMT) transfers myristate to an amino-terminal glycine of many eukaryotic proteins. In yeast, worms, and flies, this enzyme is essential for viability of the organism. Humans and mice possess two distinct but structurally similar enzymes, NMT1 and NMT2. These two enzymes have similar peptide specificities, but no one has examined the functional importance of the enzymes in vivo. To address this issue, we performed both genetic and biochemical studies. Northern blots with RNA from adult mice and in situ hybridization studies of day 13.5 embryos revealed widespread expression of both Nmt1 and Nmt2. To determine whether the two enzymes are functionally redundant, we generated Nmt1-deficient mice carrying a beta-galactosidase marker gene. beta-Galactosidase staining of tissues from heterozygous Nmt1-deficient (Nmt1+/-) mice and embryos confirmed widespread expression of Nmt1. Intercrosses of Nmt1+/- mice yielded no viable homozygotes (Nmt1-/-), and heterozygotes were born at a less than predicted frequency. Nmt1-/- embryos died between embryonic days 3.5 and 7.5. Northern blots revealed lower levels of Nmt2 expression in early development than at later time points, a potential explanation for the demise of Nmt1-/- embryos. To explore this concept, we generated Nmt1-/- embryonic stem (ES) cells. The Nmt2 mRNA could be detected in Nmt1-/- ES cells, but the total NMT activity levels were reduced by approximately 95%, suggesting that Nmt2 contributes little to total enzyme activity levels in these early embryo cells. The Nmt1-/- ES cells were functionally abnormal; they yielded small embryoid bodies in in vitro differentiation experiments and did not contribute normally to organogenesis in chimeric mice. We conclude that Nmt1 is not essential for the viability of mammalian cells but is required for development, likely because it is the principal N-myristoyltransferase in early embryogenesis.

Atomic force microscopy investigation of wild-type Moloney murine leukemia virus particles and virus particles lacking the envelope protein

Moloney murine leukemia virus (M-MuLV) lacking the gene for the envelope glycoprotein (env(-)) was produced in NIH 3T3 cells and investigated using atomic force microscopy (AFM). The particles were compared with similarly produced wild-type virions, some of which had been exposed to a monoclonal antibody against the surface component of the envelope protein (SU protein). The env(-) particles generally exhibit a distinctly different external appearance suggesting only a low density of associated proteins that have an almost fluid, mechanically unstable character. The weakly associated proteins may be host cell membrane proteins that are incorporated into the viral membrane in place of or in addition to virus envelope protein. The amount of this non-viral protein on virion surfaces appears to vary from negligible in most cases to a substantial complement in others. It seems clear that the presence of the envelope protein, in a mechanical sense, significantly strengthens and stabilizes the virion envelope. Binding of monoclonal antibody to wild-type virions indicates that some particles expose a significant amount of antigen while adjacent virions may not. This suggests that the conformation of the envelope glycoprotein or the disposition of oligosaccharides may be different among particles, on some virions exposing the specific epitope, and others little or none.

cDNA cloning, genomic structure, chromosomal mapping, and expression analysis of parotid secretory protein in pig

A novel cDNA has been isolated from pig parotid glands by 3' and 5' rapid amplification of cDNA ends and designated parotid secretory protein (PSP). The open reading frame of this cDNA covers 714 bases, encoding 238 amino acids, which show 56% identity with human PSP at the level of the primary protein structure. The PSP genomic sequence comprises eight exons and seven introns, is approximately 22 kb in size, determined by sequencing, and maps to pig chromosome 17q21-q23. RT-PCR, dot blot, and Northern blot analyses demonstrated that PSP is strongly expressed in parotid glands, but is not present in heart, liver, lung, kidney, muscle, or stomach. A search for functionally significant protein motifs revealed consensus sequences for casein kinase II phosphorylation and N-myristoylation. We observed a unique amino acid sequence pattern consisting of the residues Leu-X(6)-Leu-X(6)-Leu-X(7)-Leu-X(6)-Leu-X(6)-Leu near the amino-terminal portion of the protein, which is similar to the leucine zipper.

Atomic force microscopy investigation of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and HIV-infected lymphocytes

Isolated human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and HIV-infected human lymphocytes in culture have been imaged for the first time by atomic force microscopy (AFM). Purified virus particles spread on glass substrates are roughly spherical, reasonably uniform, though pleomorphic in appearance, and have diameters of about 120 nm. Similar particles are also seen on infected cell surfaces, but morphologies and sizes are considerably more varied, possibly a reflection of the budding process. The surfaces of HIV particles exhibit "tufts" of protein, presumably gp120, which do not physically resemble spikes. The protein tufts, which number about 100 per particle, have average diameters of about 200 A, but with a large variance. They likely consist of arbitrary associations of small numbers of gp120 monomers on the surface. In examining several hundred virus particles, we found no evidence that the gp120 monomers form threefold symmetric trimers. Although >95% of HIV-infected H9 lymphocytic cells were producing HIV antigens by immunofluorescent assay, most lymphocytes displayed few or no virus on their surfaces, while others were almost covered by a hundred or more viruses, suggesting a dependence on cell cycle or physiology. HIV-infected cells treated with a viral protease inhibitor and their progeny viruses were also imaged by AFM and were indistinguishable from untreated virions. Isolated HIV virions were disrupted by exposure to mild neutral detergents (Tween 20 and CHAPS) at concentrations from 0.25 to 2.0%. Among the products observed were intact virions, the remnants of completely degraded virions, and partially disrupted particles that lacked sectors of surface proteins as well as virions that were split or broken open to reveal their empty interiors. Capsids containing nucleic acid were not seen, suggesting that the capsids were even more fragile than the envelope and were totally degraded and lost. From these images, a good estimate of the thickness of the envelope protein-membrane-matrix protein outer shell of the virion was obtained. Treatment with even low concentrations (<0.1%) of sodium dodecyl sulfate completely destroyed all virions but produced many interesting products, including aggregates of viral proteins with strands of nucleic acid.

Development of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for measurement of activity of myristoyl-coenzyme A:protein N-myristoyltransferase

Myristoyl-coenzyme A (CoA):protein N-myristoyltransferase (NMT) catalyzes the covalent attachment of myristate to the N-terminal glycine residue of various proteins. To develop a high-throughput assay for NMT, the principle of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is used, in which anti-N-myristoylglycine (anti-N-Myr-Gly) monoclonal antibody is utilized for the detection of the N-myristoylglycine moiety of the product of NMT catalysis. Enzyme-catalyzed reaction was performed using recombinant NMT expressed in Escherichia coli, myristoyl-CoA, and an octapeptide substrate that is biotinylated at its C terminus. The mixture of the products of the reaction was added to immunoplate wells precoated with anti-N-Myr-Gly monoclonal antibody. Then, the N-myristoyl-biotinylated octapeptide product was specifically captured by the antibody and stained with streptavidin-biotinylated peroxidase and tetramethylbenzidine substrate. This was followed by absorbance measurement (lambda(450)-lambda(630)). In this ELISA, the calibration curve showed a strong correlation between the concentration of the synthetic N-myristoyl-biotinylated octapeptide and the absorbance, indicating that this system may be useful for enzyme kinetics studies. Using this ELISA system, we assayed for serinal derivatives to determine their NMT inhibitory activity and found that serinal bisulfite inhibits yeast NMT activity. This is the first report of the measurement of NMT activity by the ELISA system.

Three isoforms of cyclophilin A associated with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 were found by proteomics by using two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) strain LAV-1 (HIV-1(LAV-1)) particles were collected by ultracentrifugation, treated with subtilisin, and then purified by Sepharose CL-4B column chromatography to remove microvesicles. The lysate of the purified HIV-1(LAV-1) particles was subjected to two-dimensional (2D) gel electrophoresis and stained. The 2D gel electrophoresis image suggested that 24 proteins can be identified inside the virion. Furthermore, the stained protein spots were excised and digested with trypsin. The resulting peptide fragments were characterized by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry. Peptide mass fingerprinting data suggested that two isoforms of cyclophilin A (CyPA), one with an isoelectric point (pI) of 6.40 and one with a pI of 6.53, are inside the viral membrane; that another isoform, with a pI of 6.88, is outside the viral membrane; and that the CyPA isoform with a pI of 6.53 is N acetylated. The mechanisms that permit the redistribution of CyPA on the viral surface have not yet been clarified, but it is surmised that the CyPA isoform with a pI of 6.88 may play a critical role in the attachment of virions to the surface of target cells and that both CyPA isoforms with pIs of 6.40 and 6.53 may regulate the conformation of the HIV-1 capsid protein.

Novel strategy for anti-HIV-1 action: selective cytotoxic effect of N-myristoyltransferase inhibitor on HIV-1-infected cells

N-myristoyltransferase (NMT) is essential for the survival of eukaryotes and the production of infectious human immunodeficiency virus type-1(HIV-1) by the host cell. In this study, we found decreases in the mRNA levels of human NMT isoforms and the NMT activities in the course of HIV-1 infection in the human T-cell line, CEM. Investigating the cytotoxic effect of the novel synthetic NMT inhibitors on the chronic HIV-1 infected T-cell line, CEM/LAV-1, and the uninfected CEM, revealed that the cytotoxic effect was significantly selective for CEM/LAV-1. This was thought to be due to the difference between the NMT levels of the cell lines. In this paper, we propose that NMT may be a candidate target for anti-HIV-1-infected-cell agents.

Acid-labile formylation of amino terminal proline of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 p24(gag) was found by proteomics using two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time-of-flight mass spectrometry

HIV-1(LAV-1) particles were collected by ultracentrifugation, treated with subtilisin, and then purified by Sepharose CL-4B column chromatography to remove microvesicles. The lysate of the purified human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) particles was subjected to two-dimensional (2D) gel electrophoresis and stained, and the stained spots were excised and digested with trypsin. The resulting peptide fragments were characterized by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). Twenty-five proteins were identified as the proteins inside the virion and the acid-labile formyl group of an amino terminal proline residue of HIV-1(LAV-1) p24(gag) was determined by MALDI-TOF MS before and after weak-acid treatments (0.6 N hydrochloric acid) and confirmed by post-source decay (PSD) of the N-formylated N-terminal tryptic peptide (N-formylated Pro(1)-Arg(18)). The role of formylation has been unclear so far, but it is surmised that the acid-labile formylation of HIV-1(LAV-1) p24(gag) may play a critical role in the formation of the HIV-1 core for conferring HIV-1 infectivity.