Presence of estrogens and estrogen receptor-like proteins in Solanum glaucophyllum

Effect of 17β-Estradiol on Growth and Biosynthesis of Microalgae Scenedesmus quadricauda (CPCC-158) and Duckweed Lemna minor (CPCC-490) Grown in Three Different Media

As fish farm wastewaters have detectable levels of fish hormones, such as 17β-estradiol (E2), an understanding of the influence of fish steroids on algal (Scenedesmus quadricauda) and duckweed (Lemna minor) physiology is relevant to the potential use of fishery wastewaters for microalgae and plant biomass production. The study was conducted using three types of media: Bold Basal Medium (BBM), natural fishery wastewater (FWW), and reconstituted fishery wastewater (RFWW) with the nutrient composition adjusted to mimic FWW. During the experiment, the media were aerated and changes in the pH and conductivity of the water were closely monitored. E2 promoted the growth of S. quadricauda and L. minor, with significant accumulation of high-value biomolecules at very low steroid concentrations. However, clear differences in growth performance were observed in both test cultures, S. quadricauda and L. minor, grown in different media, and the most effective hormone concentrations were evidently different for the algae and the plant.

Estrogens and Androgens in Plants: The Last 20 Years of Studies

Although the only known steroid hormones in plants are brassinosteroids, interestingly, mammalian steroid hormones such as androgens or estrogens are also part of the plant metabolic profile. This presented review is focused on the progress that has been made in this matter during the last two decades. The presence of testosterone, 17β-estradiol, and other androgens/estrogens in plants (particularly those that can be measured using more advanced techniques) is described. The physiological activity of androgens and estrogens, especially in plants’ stress response, are discussed, together with some possible mechanisms of their action. The current knowledge indicates that although androgens and estrogens do not have the status of hormones in plants, they are physiologically active and can serve as regulators that support the activity of classic hormones in (1) regulating the various processes connected with plant growth and development and (2) the interaction of plants with their environment.

Plants are Capable of Synthesizing Animal Steroid Hormones

As a result of the findings of scientists working on the biosynthesis and metabolism of steroids in the plant and animal kingdoms over the past five decades, it has become apparent that those compounds that naturally occur in animals can also be found as natural constituents of plants and vice versa, i.e., they have essentially the same fate in the majority of living organisms. This review summarizes the current state of knowledge on the occurrence of animal steroid hormones in the plant kingdom, particularly focusing on progesterone, testosterone, androstadienedione (boldione), androstenedione, and estrogens.

Adverse Effects in Skeletal Muscle Following the Medicinal Use of Nicotiana glauca

Nicotiana glauca is a cosmopolitan shrub, used in medicine to treat swellings, wounds, sores and cancer. However, its users lack of knowledge of the adverse effects. We seek to evaluate the effects of lipid extracts from N. glauca on myoblasts, identifying the compounds which cause undesirable effects. Myoblasts are important in muscle homeostasis, thus a high death rate of them cause myopathies. We performed an ethanolic extraction from leaves of N. glauca and the extract was successively partitioned with hexane, chloroform and ethyl acetate. The effects of extracts in C2C12 cells were analysed by terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated deoxyuridine triphosphate nick-end labeling (TUNEL), Mitotracker and 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) staining, Western blotting, real-time PCR and immunofluorescence assays. Caspase activity was studied. The fraction with the highest apoptotic effects was analysed by chromatography, NMR and GC-MS spectrometry were used to identify the apoptotic agent, after which its biological activity was evaluated. The extracts from N. glauca induced apoptosis in C2C12 cells involving caspase-3/7. We found that the extracts trigger a defence response in muscle through Akt and heat shock protein 27 (HSP27). We identified an apoptotic agent as palmitic acid. These data suggest that the use of N. glauca in hormone replacement therapy, or in other therapies affects skeletal muscle homeostasis, worsening the negative effects of the menopause. Thus, the relevance of this work lies in the fact that it is the first time that a report about the molecular mechanism responsible for the side effects of medicinal use of N. glauca, has been shown. Moreover the compound responsible for these effects has been identified.

The accumulation, transformation, and effects of quinestrol in duckweed (Spirodela polyrhiza L.)

Potential risk of endocrine disrupting compounds on non-target organisms has received extensive attentions in recent years. The present work aimed to investigate the behavior and effect of a synthetic steroid estrogen quinestrol in duckweed Spirodela polyrhiza L. Experimental results showed that quinestrol could be uptaken, accumulated, and biotransformed into 17 α-ethynylestradiol in S. polyrhiza L. The accumulation of quinestrol had a positive relation to the exposure concentration. The bioaccumulation rate was higher when the duckweed was exposed to quinestrol solutions at low concentrations than at high concentration. While the transformation of quinestrol showed no concentration-dependent manner. Quinestrol reduced the biomass and pigment content and increased superoxide dismutase and catalase activities and malondialdehyde contents in the duckweed. The results demonstrated that quinestrol could be accumulated and biotransformed in aquatic plant S. polyrhiza L. This work would provide supplemental data on the behavior of this steroid estrogen compound in aquatic system.

Hormonally active phytochemicals and vertebrate evolution

Living plants produce a diversity of chemicals that share structural and functional properties with vertebrate hormones. Wildlife species interact with these chemicals either through consumption of plant materials or aquatic exposure. Accumulating evidence shows that exposure to these hormonally active phytochemicals (HAPs) often has consequences for behavior, physiology, and fecundity. These fitness effects suggest there is potential for an evolutionary response by vertebrates to HAPs. Here, we explore the toxicological HAP-vertebrate relationship in an evolutionary framework and discuss the potential for vertebrates to adapt to or even co-opt the effects of plant-derived chemicals that influence fitness. We lay out several hypotheses about HAPs and provide a path forward to test whether plant-derived chemicals influence vertebrate reproduction and evolution. Studies of phytochemicals with direct impacts on vertebrate reproduction provide an obvious and compelling system for studying evolutionary toxicology. Furthermore, an understanding of whether animal populations evolve in response to HAPs could provide insightful context for the study of rapid evolution and how animals cope with chemical agents in the environment.

Steroidogenesis in plants--Biosynthesis and conversions of progesterone and other pregnane derivatives

In plants androstanes, estranes, pregnanes and corticoids have been described. Sometimes 17β-estradiol, androsterone, testosterone or progesterone were summarized as sex hormones. These steroids influence plant development: cell divisions, root and shoot growth, embryo growth, flowering, pollen tube growth and callus proliferation. First reports on the effect of applicated substances and of their endogenous occurrence date from the early twenties of the last century. This caused later on doubts on the identity of the compounds. Best investigated is the effect of progesterone. Main steps of the progesterone biosynthetic pathway have been analyzed in Digitalis. Cholesterol-side-chain-cleavage, pregnenolone and progesterone formation as well as the stereospecific reduction of progesterone are described and the corresponding enzymes are presented. Biosynthesis of androstanes, estranes and corticoids is discussed. Possible progesterone receptors and physiological reactions on progesterone application are reviewed.

Effects of progesterone application on antioxidant enzyme activities and K+/Na+ ratio in bean seeds exposed to salt stress

This study aimed to investigate the influence of progesterone, a mammalian sex hormone, on germination of bean ( Phaseolus vulgaris L.) seeds exposed to salt stress. The exogenous addition of 10−6, 10−8 and 10−10 M progesterone to the stressing media in which bean seeds were germinated in combination with the salt (100 mM NaCl) stressor induced significant protective changes in the germination and early growth parameters. The mitigating effect of progesterone was evaluated by the measurement of radicle and plumule lengths, activities of antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POX) and catalase (CAT). In addition, it is the first study that exhibited changes in K/Na ratio. The obtained results showed that progesterone application stimulated germination and growth of salt-stressed seeds. Similarly, it stimulated significantly SOD, POX and CAT activities compared to both control and salt control. Salt stress significantly increased the lipid peroxidation compared to the control seeds. However, parallel to the increase in antioxidant activity, lipid peroxidation was significantly reduced by progesterone application. The best stimulatory effects on investigated parameters were recorded at 10−8 M progesterone-applied seeds. On the other hand, salt stress reduced remarkably K/Na ratio by 50% in radicle and by 80% in plumule. However, progesterone application significantly mitigated the reduction in K/Na ratio. These findings clearly demonstrate that progesterone has a positive role in moderate detrimental effects induced by salt.

Semicontinuous bioreactor production of a recombinant human therapeutic protein using a chemically inducible viral amplicon expression system in transgenic plant cell suspension cultures

Plant cell culture is an alternative for the production of recombinant human therapeutic proteins because of improved product safety, lower production cost, and capability for eukaryotic post-translational modification. In this study, bioreactor production of recombinant human alpha-1-antitrypsin (rAAT) glycoprotein using a chemically inducible Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) viral amplicon expression system in transgenic Nicotiana benthamiana cell culture is presented. Optimization of a chemically inducible plant cell culture requires evaluation of effects of timing of induction (TOI) and concentration of inducer (COI) on protein productivity and protein quality (biological functionality). To determine the optimal TOI, the oxygen uptake rate (OUR) of the plant cell culture was chosen as a physiological indicator for inducing maximum rAAT expression. Effects of COI on rAAT production were investigated using a semicontinuous culture, which enables the distinction between effects of growth rate and effects of inducer concentration. An optimized semicontinuous bioreactor operation was further proposed to maximize the recombinant protein production. The results demonstrated that the transgenic plant cells, transformed with the inducible viral amplicon expression system, maintain higher OUR and exhibit lower extracellular protease activity and lower total phenolics concentration in the optimized semicontinuous bioreactor process than in a traditional batch bioreactor operation, resulting in a 25-fold increase in extracellular functional rAAT (603 microg/L) and a higher ratio of functional rAAT to total rAAT (85-90%). Surprisingly, sustained rAAT production and steady state, long-term bioreactor operation is possible following chemical induction and establishment of the viral amplicons.

The evolution of the ligand/receptor couple: a long road from comparative endocrinology to comparative genomics

Comparative endocrinology considers the evolution of bioregulatory systems and the anatomical structures and molecules that constitute the neuroendocrine and endocrine systems. One aim of comparative endocrinology is to trace the origins of the main endocrine systems. The understanding of the evolution of the ligand/receptor couple is central to this objective. One classical approach to tackle this question is the characterization of receptors and ligands in various types of non-model organisms using as a starting point the knowledge accumulated on classical models such as mammals (mainly human and mouse) and arthropods (with Drosophila among other insects). In this review we discuss the potential caveats associated to this two-by-two comparison between a classical model and non-model organisms. We suggest that the use of an evolutionary approach involving comparisons of several organisms in a coherent framework permits reconstruction of the most probable scenarios. The use of the vast amount of genomic data now available, coupled to functional experiments, offers unprecedented possibilities to trace back the origins of the main ligand/receptor couples.

Toxic Chemical Compounds of the Solanaceae

The Solanaceae is comprised of some 2500 species of cosmopolitan plants, especially native to the American continent. They have great value as food, like the well-known potato, tomato and eggplants, and medicines, like species of Atropa, Withania and Physalis, but many plants of this family are toxic, and sometimes lethal to mammals, in particular to man. Some of them also produce hallucinations and perceptual changes. The toxic species of this family are characterized by the occurrence of a variety of chemical compounds, some of which are responsible for the toxicity and lethality observed after ingestion, while others are suspected to be toxic. In this review, the following toxic compounds belonging to different members of the Solanaceae family are described: Tropane alkaloids ( Atropa, Datura, Hyoscyamus, Mandragora); pyrrolidine and pyrrolic alkaloids ( Nierembergia, Physalis, Solanum); protoalkaloids ( Nierembergia); glycoalkaloids ( Lycopersicon, Solanum); nicotine ( Nicotiana); cardenolides ( Cestrum, Nierembergia); capsaicinoids ( Capsicum); kaurene-type tetracyclic diterpenes ( Cestrum); steroidal glycosides ( Cestrum, Solanum); 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 and vitamin D3 ( Cestrum, Solanum, Nierembergia); and withasteroids, withanolides ( Withania), and physalins ( Physalis). Other bioactive chemical constituents of members of this family are sugar esters and lectins. Phenylpropanoids are not included in this paper.

Sex steroids and potential mechanisms of non-genomic endocrine disruption in invertebrates

The review reports on the presence and metabolism of sex steroids in several invertebrate species and provides detailed information on possible mechanisms of endocrine disruption other than the interaction with nuclear receptors. The presence of most vertebrate sex steroids in invertebrate tissues has been demonstrated by liquid or gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. In addition, enzymatic pathways involved in the steroidogenic pathway have been described in at least some invertebrate phyla. Some endocrine disruptors induce alterations in these metabolic pathways and might lead to changes in steroid levels. Growing evidence suggests that estradiol can act through non-genomic pathways in molluscs, and that xenobiotics can as well interfere in these signalling cascades. In spite of these recent advances, most question marks on the action and function of sex steroids in invertebrates remain to be answered.