Fine physical mapping of the human matrix metalloproteinase genes clustered on chromosome 11q22.3

Matrix metalloproteinases at a glance

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a family of zinc-dependent proteinases that belong to the group of endopeptidases or matrixins. They are able to cleave a plethora of substrates, including components of the extracellular matrix and cell-surface-associated proteins, as well as intracellular targets. Accordingly, MMPs play key roles in a variety of physiological and pathological processes, such as tissue homeostasis and cancer cell invasion. MMP activity is exquisitely regulated at several levels, including pro-domain removal, association with inhibitors, intracellular trafficking and transport via extracellular vesicles. Moreover, the regulation of MMP activity is currently being rediscovered for the development of respective therapies for the treatment of cancer, as well as infectious, inflammatory and neurological diseases. In this Cell Science at a Glance article and the accompanying poster, we present an overview of the current knowledge regarding the regulation of MMP activity, the intra- and extra-cellular trafficking pathways of these enzymes and their diverse groups of target proteins, as well as their impact on health and disease.

MMP3 single-nucleotide polymorphisms are associated with noncontact ACL injuries in competing high-level athletes

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) play an important role in matrix remodeling, as well as in ligament integrity. Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) rupture is a severe and frequent knee injury in sports. The aim of this study was to investigate polymorphisms within the MMP3 gene with the predisposition for noncontact ACL rupture in the Croatian professional athletes. One hundred eighty-seven (95 with ACL rupture occurring through a noncontact mechanism and 92 asymptomatic controls) unrelated Caucasians were recruited between 2016 and 2017. All participants were genotyped for three single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) within the MMP3 gene: rs591058 C/T, rs650108 A/G, and rs679620 G/A using the pyrosequencing method. For all three investigated SNPs, genotype frequencies have significantly differed between cases and controls. The MMP3 rs591058 TT (p = 0.0012, odds ratio [OR] = 38.541, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.7024-8.7254), rs650108 GG (p = 0.0051, OR = 23.338, 95% CI = 1.2899-4.2226) and rs679620 AA (p = 0.0030, OR = 34.750, 95% CI = 1.5266-7.9101) genotypes, as well as haplotype variant T-G-A (p = 0.0104, OR = 1.71, 95% CI = 1.13-2.59) were significantly overrepresented in cases compared to controls. These results support association between functional variants within the MMP3 gene and the risk of ACL rupture. Still, further research is needed to corroborate these results in a larger population.

Matrix Metalloproteinases Contribute to the Calcification Phenotype in Pseudoxanthoma Elasticum

Ectopic calcification and dysregulated extracellular matrix remodeling are prominent hallmarks of the complex heterogenous pathobiochemistry of pseudoxanthoma elasticum (PXE). The disease arises from mutations in ABCC6, an ATP-binding cassette transporter expressed predominantly in the liver. Neither its substrate nor the mechanisms by which it contributes to PXE are completely understood. The fibroblasts isolated from PXE patients and Abcc6-/- mice were subjected to RNA sequencing. A group of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) clustering on human chromosome 11q21-23, respectively, murine chromosome 9, was found to be overexpressed. A real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and immunofluorescent staining confirmed these findings. The induction of calcification by CaCl2 resulted in the elevated expression of selected MMPs. On this basis, the influence of the MMP inhibitor Marimastat (BB-2516) on calcification was assessed. PXE fibroblasts (PXEFs) exhibited a pro-calcification phenotype basally. PXEF and normal human dermal fibroblasts responded with calcium deposit accumulation and the induced expression of osteopontin to the addition of Marimastat to the calcifying medium. The raised MMP expression in PXEFs and during cultivation with calcium indicates a correlation of ECM remodeling and ectopic calcification in PXE pathobiochemistry. We assume that MMPs make elastic fibers accessible to controlled, potentially osteopontin-dependent calcium deposition under calcifying conditions.

Pharmacological Insights into Halophyte Bioactive Extract Action on Anti-Inflammatory, Pain Relief and Antibiotics-Type Mechanisms

The pharmacological activities in bioactive plant extracts play an increasing role in sustainable resources for valorization and biomedical applications. Bioactive phytochemicals, including natural compounds, secondary metabolites and their derivatives, have attracted significant attention for use in both medicinal products and cosmetic products. Our review highlights the pharmacological mode-of-action and current biomedical applications of key bioactive compounds applied as anti-inflammatory, bactericidal with antibiotics effects, and pain relief purposes in controlled clinical studies or preclinical studies. In this systematic review, the availability of bioactive compounds from several salt-tolerant plant species, mainly focusing on the three promising species Aster tripolium, Crithmum maritimum and Salicornia europaea, are summarized and discussed. All three of them have been widely used in natural folk medicines and are now in the focus for future nutraceutical and pharmacological applications.

Contribution of Matrix Metalloproteinase-1 Genotypes to Colorectal Cancer in Taiwan

BACKGROUND/AIM

Matrix metalloproteinase-1 is responsible for extracellular matrix regulation, and its genetic role in colorectal cancer (CRC) is unclear. The aim of the study was to investigate the contribution of Matrix metalloproteinase-1 genotypes to CRC risk in Taiwan.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 362 cases and 362 controls were included and their MMP-1 -1607 (rs1799705) genotypes were examined. The environmental factors and clinical-pathological records were also analyzed.

RESULTS

The genotypic frequency of MMP-1 rs1799750 were different between the CRC and control groups (p for trend=0.0083). 1G/2G and 1G/1G were associated with lower risk (p=0.0438 and 0.0030, adjusted OR=0.73 and 0.54, 95%CI=0.54-0.90 and 0.37-0.83). Among non-smokers, those with 1G/2G and 1G/1G genotypes were at 0.70- and 0.48-fold odds of having CRC. Among non-alcohol drinkers, people with 1G/2G and 1G/1G genotypes were at 0.71- and 0.54-fold odds. The 1G/1G genotype were statistically lower among CRC patients with lymph node metastasis (7.2%) than those without (19.0%).

CONCLUSION

The genotypes at MMP-1 rs1799705 play a role in determining susceptibility to CRC risk in Taiwan.

Matrix Metalloproteinase Genes (MMP1, MMP10, MMP12) on Chromosome 11q22 and the Risk of Non-Contact Anterior Cruciate Ligament Ruptures

Background: Sequence variants within the matrix metalloproteinases genes remain plausible biological candidates for further investigation of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) rupture risk. The aim of the present study was to establish whether variants within the MMP1 (rs1799750, ->G), MMP10 (rs486055, C > T) and MMP12 (rs2276109, T > C) genes were associated with non-contact ACL rupture in a Polish cohort. Methods: The unrelated, self-reported Polish Caucasian participants consisted of 228 (157 male) individuals with primary non-contact ACL rupture and 202 (117 male) participants without any history of ACL rupture. All samples were genotyped in duplicate using the Applied Biosystems TaqMan^® methodology. The statistical analyses were involved in determining the distribution of genotype and allele frequencies for the investigated polymorphisms between the diagnostic groups. Furthermore, pseudo-haplotypes were constructed to assess possible gene–gene interactions. Results: All genotype frequencies in the ACL rupture and control groups conformed to Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium expectations. None of the polymorphisms were associated with risk of non-contact ACL rupture under the codominant, dominant, recessive and over-dominant genetic models. Likewise, no genotype–genotype combinations inferred as “haplotypes” as a proxy of gene–gene interactions were associated with the risk of non-contact ACL ruptures. Conclusions: Despite the fact that the current study did not support existing evidence suggesting that variants within the MMP1, MMP10, and MMP12 genes influence non-contact ACL rupture risk, future work should include high-throughput sequencing technologies to identify potential targeted polymorphisms to fully characterize the 11q22 region with susceptibility to non-contact ACL rupture susceptibility in a Polish cohort.

MMP-8 C-799 T, Lys460Thr, and Lys87Glu variants are not related to risk of cancer

Background

Several studies have focused on the relationship between MMP-8 variants and cancer risk, but they have been unsuccessful in drawing reliable conclusions.

Methods

We employed odds ratio (OR) together with 95% confidence interval (CI) to assess the correlation between MMP-8 C-799 T, Lys460Thr, and Lys87Glu polymorphisms and cancer risk. We further employed in silico tools to evaluate the effect of MMP-8 expression on cancer susceptibility and overall survival time.

Results

A total of 8140 patients with malignant carcinoma and 10,529 healthy individuals (control) were enrolled. Overall, the analysis showed that the relationship between three MMP-8 variants and cancer susceptibility was not significant (allelic contrast, C-799 T: OR = 0.98, 95% CI = 0.92–1.04, P_{heterogeneity} = 0.068; Lys460Thr: OR = 0.94, 95% CI = 0.67–1.32, P_{heterogeneity} = 0.905; Lys87Glu: OR = 1.05, 95% CI = 0.93–1.18, P_{heterogeneity} = 0.968). Similar results were observed in subgroup analysis by ethnicity, cancer type, and source of control. In silico analysis indicated that MMP-8 expression was elevated in bladder cancer tissue compared to that in the control. However, both the higher and lower MMP-8 expression groups did not show an impact on the overall survival time of the patients.

Conclusions

MMP-8 C-799 T, Lys460Thr, and Lys87Glu variants are not participant with the susceptibility of cancer.

Anti-aging effects of Piper cambodianum P. Fourn. extract on normal human dermal fibroblast cells and a wound-healing model in mice

Background

Aging of skin is associated with environmental factors such as ultraviolet rays, air pollution, gravity, and genetic factors, all of which can lead to wrinkling of skin. Previous reports suggest that the wound repair is impaired by the aging process and strategies to manipulate the age-related wound healing are necessary in order to stimulate repair.

Objective

Several traditional plant extracts are well-known for their properties of skin protection and care. Piper cambodianum P. Fourn. (PPF), a member of Piperacecae, is a plant found in Vietnam that might have therapeutic properties. Therefore, the effects of PPF stem and leaf extract on aging process were investigated in vitro and in vivo.

Methods

PPF extract dissolved in methanol was investigated using Western blotting, real-time quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, flow cytometry, and cell wound-healing assays. We assessed the anti-aging effect of PPF in mouse using the wound-healing assay. The results were analyzed by Student’s unpaired t-test; *P<0.05 and **P<0.01 were considered to indicate significant and highly significant values, respectively, compared with corresponding controls.

Results

PPF treatment demonstrated in vitro and in vivo anti-aging activity. Western blot analysis of PPF-treated normal human dermal fibroblast cells showed a dose-dependent increase in the expression of extracellular matrix genes such as collagen and elastin, but decreased expression of the aging gene matrix metalloproteinase-3. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction showed that PPF-treated cells displayed dose-dependent increase in messenger RNA expression levels of collagen, elastin, and hyaluronan synthase-2 and decreased expression levels of matrix metalloproteinase-1 aging gene. PPF treatment led to decreased production of reactive oxygen species in cells subjected to ultraviolet irradiation. Furthermore, PPF extract showed positive wound-healing effects in mice.

Conclusion

This study demonstrated the anti-aging and wound-healing effects of PPF extract. Therefore, PPF extract represents a promising new therapeutic agent for anti-aging and wound-healing treatments.

Association of matrix metalloproteinase-10 polymorphisms with susceptibility to pelvic organ prolapse

AIM

The aim of this study was to explore the correlation between genetic mutations in matrix metalloproteinase-10 (MMP-10) and susceptibility to pelvic organ prolapse (POP).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

From September 2011 to December 2013, 263 subjects were recruited, including 91 patients with POP (case group) and 172 non-POP patients (control group). Total MMP-10 concentrations in serum were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The genotyping of MMP-10 was achieved by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. All data were analyzed with SPSS 18.0.

RESULTS

We found that parity, menopause, history of total hysterectomy, and family history of POP were all significantly higher in the POP group than in the control group (P = 0.017, P = 0.046, P = 0.0029 and P < 0.001, respectively). Serum MMP-10 levels were obviously higher in the POP group than in the control group (P < 0.05). In addition, there was a statistically significant difference between the two groups in the distribution frequency of the MMP-10 (rs17435959G/C) genotype (P < 0.05). However, the distribution frequency of the MMP-10 (rs17293607C/T) genotype between the two groups showed no significant differences (P > 0.05). Furthermore, the patients with parity > 2 and postmenopausal women had elevated serum MMP-10 levels, and the patients with parity > 2 and postmenopausal women who carried the G/C + C/C genotype in the MMP-10 gene had an increased risk of POP.

CONCLUSION

We support the view that the rs17435959 polymorphism of the MMP-10 gene may be associated with an increased risk of POP.

Matrix metalloproteinase-8 promoter gene polymorphisms in Mexican women with ovarian cancer

Increased levels of matrix metalloproteinase-8 (MMP-8) have been associated with tumor grade and stage in ovarian cancer. Also, it has been reported that higher concentrations of this enzyme in fluid from malignant ovarian cysts compared with benign ovarian cysts. However, no genetic analysis has been conducted yet to assess the contribution of MMP-8 polymorphisms in ovarian cancer. Thus, this study was performed to investigate the frequencies of MMP-8 genotypes in Mexican women with ovarian cancer. MMP-8 promoter genotypes were examined in 35 malignant ovarian tumors, 51 benign tumors, and 37 normal ovary tissues. Two single nucleotide polymorphisms were selected and characterized using polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis. The chi-square test was used to calculate statistical significance. Haplotype analysis was performed using the SNPstats web tool. Of the two polymorphisms, only the MMP-8 -799 T/T genotype was significantly associated with an increased risk of ovarian cancer (OR 3.78, 95 % CI 1.18-12.13). The Kaplan-Meier analysis for this polymorphism showed that patients with the T/T genetic variant had a tendency toward significant worse overall survival compared with patients with the C/C + C/T genotypes. Haplotype analysis revealed no significant differences in haplotype distribution between benign ovarian tumors, malignant ovarian cancer, and controls. This study suggests that MMP-8 promoter gene polymorphism -799 T/T is significantly associated with an increased risk of ovarian cancer in Mexican women.

MMP-1 and -3 haplotype is associated with congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract

BACKGROUND

Congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract (CAKUT) are a common cause of progressive chronic kidney disease that may lead to end-stage renal disease and renal replacement therapy in childhood. Altered expression or activity of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) have been found in CAKUT. The MMP-1, -3, and -8 polymorphisms studied here are located in the gene promoters and alter expression. Our aim was to investigate associations of MMP polymorphisms, solely and in haplotypes, with CAKUT in children.

METHODS

A case-control study with 101 pediatric patients and 281 controls was performed. The MMP-1 (-1607 1G/2G), -3 (5A/6A), and -8 (-799 C/T) genotypes were determined by PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism.

RESULTS

We found statistically significant associations of MMP-3 5A/6A polymorphism (p < 0.0001) and 1G-(1607)-6A haplotype, with no preferences for MMP-8 -799C or T alleles, with CAKUT (OR = 2.93, 95 % CI 1.43-5.98, adjusted for gender, p = 0.003) and with obstructive uropathies in a subgroup of patients (OR = 4.57, 95 % CI 2.74-7.61, adjusted for gender, p < 0.0001).

CONCLUSIONS

MMP-3 genotypes and MMP-3 and -1 haplotypes encompassing either MMP-8 -799C or T alleles were associated with CAKUT and obstructive uropathies in pediatric patients. Still, functional and association studies are needed to elucidate evident roles of MMPs in CAKUT.

TCDD induces dermal accumulation of keratinocyte-derived matrix metalloproteinase-10 in an organotypic model of human skin

The epidermis of skin is the first line of defense against the environment. A three dimensional model of human skin was used to investigate tissue-specific phenotypes induced by the environmental contaminant, 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD). Continuous treatment of organotypic cultures of human keratinocytes with TCDD resulted in intracellular spaces between keratinocytes of the basal and immediately suprabasal layers as well as thinning of the basement membrane, in addition to the previously reported hyperkeratinization. These tissue remodeling events were preceded temporally by changes in expression of the extracellular matrix degrading enzyme, matrix metalloproteinase-10 (MMP-10). In organotypic cultures MMP-10 mRNA and protein were highly induced following TCDD treatment. Q-PCR and immunoblot results from TCDD-treated monolayer cultures, as well as indirect immunofluorescence and immunoblot analysis of TCDD-treated organotypic cultures, showed that MMP-10 was specifically contributed by the epidermal keratinocytes but not the dermal fibroblasts. Keratinocyte-derived MMP-10 protein accumulated over time in the dermal compartment of organotypic cultures. TCDD-induced epidermal phenotypes in organotypic cultures were attenuated by the keratinocyte-specific expression of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1, a known inhibitor of MMP-10. These studies suggest that MMP-10 and possibly other MMP-10-activated MMPs are responsible for the phenotypes exhibited in the basement membrane, the basal keratinocyte layer, and the cornified layer of TCDD-treated organotypic cultures. Our studies reveal a novel mechanism by which the epithelial-stromal microenvironment is altered in a tissue-specific manner thereby inducing structural and functional pathology in the interfollicular epidermis of human skin.

Matrix metalloproteinase-1 promoter -1607 1G/2G polymorphism and chronic periodontitis susceptibility: a meta-analysis and systematic review

AIM

Matrix metalloproteinase-1 promoter -1607 1G/2G (rs1799750) polymorphism have been shown to confer genetic susceptibility to chronic periodontitis (CP), but the results are inconsistent.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A meta-analysis and systematic review was performed to accomplish a more precise estimation of the relationship.

RESULTS

Pooled estimates revealed that there was no significant association between this polymorphism and CP risk in Caucasian and Asian populations. In addition, it was reported by three Brazilian studies that no significant association was found for this polymorphism with CP risk in a Brazilian mixed population. Besides, there was no significant association of this polymorphism with mild to moderate and severe CP risk in both Caucasian and Asian populations. Moreover, both non-smokers and smokers did not have a significant association between this polymorphism and susceptibility to CP in Caucasian population.

CONCLUSIONS

Matrix metalloproteinase-1 promoter -1607 1G/2G (rs1799750) polymorphism may have no effect on the disease susceptibility of CP in Caucasian, Asian and Brazilian mixed populations. Besides, this polymorphism may not play a direct role in severity of CP among both Caucasian and Asian populations, and between this polymorphism and smoking there may be no interactions to be associated with CP risk in Caucasian population.

Role of matrix metalloproteinase-8 in atherosclerosis

Plaque rupture is the main cause of acute myocardial infarction and stroke. Atherosclerotic plaques have been described to be vulnerable and more prone to rupture when they are characterized by thin, highly inflamed, and collagen-poor fibrous caps and contain elevated levels of proteases, including metalloproteinases (MMPs). Initiation of collagen breakdown in plaques requires interstitial collagenases, a MMP subfamily consisting of MMP-1, MMP-8, and MMP-13. Previous reports demonstrated that MMP-1 and MMP-13 might be overexpressed in both human and experimental atherosclerosis. Since neutrophils have been only recently reported in atherosclerotic plaques, the role of MMP-8 (formerly known as “neutrophil collagenase”) was only marginally evaluated. In this paper, we will update and comment on evidence of the most relevant regulatory pathways and activities mediated by MMP-8 in atherogenesis.

Overexpression of matrix metalloproteinase 10 is associated with poor survival in patients with early stage of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma

Matrix metallopeptidase 10 (MMP10) is frequently expressed and correlates closely with metastasis and poor prognosis in various human cancers. However, the significance of MMP10 expression in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) and its role in ESCC progression remains unclear. In this report, upregulation of MMP10 mRNA was detected in 39/60 (65.0%) of primary ESCC tissues compared with their paired nontumor esophageal tissues. Tissue microarray (TMA) study found protein overexpression of MMP10 in 188/239 (78.7%) of primary ESCC tissues but not in their corresponding nontumor esophageal tissues, suggesting that overexpression of MMP10 may play important roles in ESCC development and progression. Although the overexpression of MMP10 was not significantly associated with disease-specific survival rate (P= 0.182) for all tested ESCCs, it was significantly associated with poorer disease-specific survival (P= 0.001) in early stage of ESCCs (I-IIA). In addition, multivariate analysis found that MMP10 expression in tumor tissues was evaluated as a potential independent prognostic factor for early stage ESCC patients. These findings suggest that MMP10 plays an important role in ESCC progression in the early stage, and overexpression of MMP10 in tumor tissues could be used as a potential prognostic marker for patients with early clinical stage of ESCC.

Association of MMP-8 promoter gene polymorphisms with carotid atherosclerosis: preliminary study

OBJECTIVE

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are involved in the remodeling of the extracellular matrix in the arterial wall. Collagen I is associated with vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) migration and monocyte differentiation. MMP-8 is expressed in atherosclerotic plaque and preferentially cleaves collagen type I. The aim of this study was to investigate the associations of two MMP-8 promoter polymorphisms, rs11225395 (-799C/T) and rs1320632 (-381 A/G), with carotid plaque occurrence, and the influence of these polymorphisms on MMP-8 mRNA expression in plaque tissue.

METHODS

The study included a total of 766 participants: 277 controls and 489 patients with carotid atherosclerosis undergoing endarterectomy. The two investigated polymorphisms were genotyped by PCR-RFLP. The gene expression analysis was performed by real-time PCR.

RESULTS

In females only, a significantly higher frequency of the -381G allele was found in patients with carotid atherosclerosis compared to controls (OR, 1.7; 95% CI 1.1-2.9; p = 0.001). Significant up-regulation of MMP-8 gene expression was observed in patients carrying the -381G allele compared to those with the AA genotype (mean factor, 3.54; S.E. range, 0.643-19.551; p = 0.007). Carotid plaque tissue of the haplotype G(-381)T(-799) showed a significantly higher mRNA level compared with the reference A(-381)C(-799) haplotype (p = 0.003).

CONCLUSION

Our preliminary results indicate that MMP-8 -381A/G and -799C/T gene polymorphisms could be risk factors for carotid atherosclerosis. Further validation and functional studies are needed to establish the potential regulatory role of these polymorphisms and their impact on susceptibility to carotid atherosclerosis.

The functional polymorphisms on promoter region of matrix metalloproteinase-12, -13 genes may alter the risk of epithelial ovarian carcinoma in Chinese

BACKGROUNDS AND AIMS

Growing evidences indicate that single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) gene promoter may alter MMPs protein expression levels to influence malignant tumors developing and progressing. Our study was to assess the effects of the SNPs in the promoter region of MMP-12 and MMP-13 on the risk of epithelial ovarian carcinoma (EOC) developing and progressing.

METHODS

MMP-12 A-82G and MMP-13 A-77G SNPs were genotyped by polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism in 256 EOC patients and 329 controls.

RESULTS

The A/G genotype frequency of MMP-12 was significantly higher in patients than in controls (7.0% vs 3.3%, P = 0.04); similarly, the frequency of MMP-12 82G allele was higher in patients too (P = 0.04). Compared with A/A genotype, A/G genotype significantly increased the risk of EOC (odds ratio, 2.19; 95% confidence interval, 1.01-4.72). Age-stratified analysis showed that individuals with A/G genotype had a higher risk in the final diagnosis aged younger than 50 years. We observed no overall association between MMP-13-77A/G polymorphism and EOC. However, an elevated positive association was observed for A/A versus G/G + A/G genotypes in mucinous ovarian cancer. Combining the analyzed 2 SNPs, the haplotype distributions in patients were not significantly different from that in controls.

CONCLUSION

These results suggested that the G allele of the MMP-12 82A/G polymorphism might be a risk factor for the development and progression of EOC and that the A/A genotype of MMP-13-77A/G polymorphism was associated with special pathological subtype and clinical stage in EOC at least in Chinese women.

Matrix metalloprotease polymorphisms are associated with gas transfer in alpha 1 antitrypsin deficiency

Alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency (AATD) is associated with variable development of emphysema and other features of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are believed to be important in the pathophysiology of COPD, and may therefore confer susceptibility to this phenotype in patients with AATD.

Objectives: to assess the role of polymorphism of MMP1, MMP3 and MMP12 in AATD phenotypes.

Methods: 424 PiZZ subjects from the UK AATD Registry were assessed for history of chronic bronchitis (CB), post-bronchodilator lung function impairment and decline of lung function. Tag single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) for MMP1, MMP3 and MMP12 were chosen using HapMap (r2>0.8, MAF>0.05) and were genotyped using TaqMan® genotyping technologies. Quantitative genetic association was assessed using regression modelling to correct for covariates.

Results: in patients with AATD, carriers of the G allele of rs678815 ( MMP3) had lower gas transfer (KCO) ( P = 0.025, B =-7.766) than the homozygous wild type, while carriers of the T allele of rs470358 ( MMP1) had higher KCO ( P = 0.025, B = 6.130).

Conclusions: variations in MMP1 and MMP3 are associated with gas transfer in AATD, supporting a previous family study showing linkage of KCO to this gene region. Replication of these preliminary data is now required particularly if MMP inhibitors are to be considered as a therapeutic option.

Matrix metalloproteinase 12 accelerates the initiation of atherosclerosis and stimulates the progression of fatty streaks to fibrous plaques in transgenic rabbits

Whether fatty streaks are directly followed by fibrous plaque formation in atherosclerosis remains controversial. Disruption of the basement membrane and elastic layers is thought to be essential for this process. Matrix metalloproteinase 12 (MMP-12) can degrade a broad spectrum of substrates, but the role of MMP-12 in the early stage of atherosclerosis is unclear. To investigate MMP-12 function in the initiation and progression of atherosclerosis, we investigated macrophage migration and elastolysis in relation to fatty streaks in human MMP-12 transgenic (hMMP-12 Tg) rabbits. Fatty streaks in hMMP-12 Tg rabbits fed a 1% cholesterol diet for 6 weeks (cholesterol-induced model of atherosclerosis) were more pronounced and were associated with more significant degradation of the internal elastic layer compared with wild-type (WT) animals. Numbers of infiltrating macrophages and smooth muscle cells in the lesions were increased in hMMP-12 Tg compared with WT animals. In both cuff- and ligation-induced models of atherosclerosis, smooth muscle cell-predominant atherosclerotic lesions were elevated with significant elastolysis of the internal elastic lamina in Tg compared with WT animals; "microelastolytic sites" were recognized before formation of the neointima in the cuff model only. These results indicate that MMP-12 may be critical to the initiation and progression of atherosclerosis via degradation of the elastic layers and/or basement membrane. Therefore, a specific MMP-12 inhibitor might prove useful for the treatment of progressive atherosclerosis.

Haplotypes in matrix metalloproteinase gene cluster on chromosome 11q22 contribute to the risk of lung cancer development and progression

PURPOSE

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) play important roles in cancer development and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) in some MMP genes were shown to confer susceptibility to certain cancers. This study examined the association between genotypes and haplotypes in the MMP1-MMP3-MMP12 gene cluster and risk of lung cancer development and metastasis.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

A two-stage investigation was conducted. First, 35 SNPs covering these genes were selected and validated in 190 patients and 190 controls. Twenty-two validated SNPs were then analyzed in an entire case-control panel consisting of 711 patients and 716 controls. Associations with the risk of lung cancer were estimated by logistic regression.

RESULTS

The investigated MMP gene region could be partitioned into two major haplotype blocks. One common haplotype in the block composed of major part of MMP1 transcription region was significantly associated with increased risk for the development [odds ratio (OR), 1.35; 95% confidence interval (95% CI), 1.11-1.63; P = 0.01; permutated P = 0.134] and distant metastasis of lung cancer (ORs for stage IV versus stages I-III, 1.67; 95% CI, 1.12-2.50; P = 0.009; permutated P = 0.048) and the other showed a protective effect against metastasis (ORs for stage IV versus stages I-III, 0.22; 95% CI, 0.07-0.62; P = 0.001; permutated P = 0.011). Another common haplotype in the block across MMP3 was significantly associated with decreased risk for developing lung cancer (OR, 0.71; 95% CI, 0.59-0.86; P = 0.003; permutated P = 0.027).

CONCLUSIONS

The observed multiple cancer-associated genetic variants suggested that the MMP1-MMP3-MMP12 gene cluster plays important roles in lung cancer development and progression.

Inflammation, genetic polymorphisms in proinflammatory genes TNF-A, RANTES, and CCR5, and risk of pancreatic adenocarcinoma

Adenocarcinoma of the exocrine pancreas is the fourth leading cause of cancer-related death in men and women in the U.S. Cytokines and other proinflammatory mediators have been implicated in inflammatory pancreatic diseases including pancreatitis and cancer. We analyzed cytokine gene polymorphisms as risk factors for pancreatic cancer using questionnaire data obtained by in-person interviews and germ line DNA collected in a population-based case-control study of pancreatic cancer (532 cases and 1,701 controls) conducted in the San Francisco Bay Area. We used mass spectrometry and gel-based methods to genotype 308 cases and 964 population-based controls. Odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were estimated using logistic regression analysis and included adjustment for age, sex, and smoking. We assessed potential interactions between these polymorphisms, proinflammatory conditions (e.g., pancreatitis, ulcer, and obesity), and smoking as risk factors for pancreatic cancer. There was no overall association between pancreatic cancer risk and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-A -308G/A), regulated upon activation, normally T cell-expressed, and presumably secreted (RANTES -403G/A), and CC chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5-Delta32) polymorphisms. There was a nearly 7-fold increased relative risk estimate for pancreatic cancer in individuals with a history of pancreatitis (adjusted OR, 6.9; 95% CI, 3.4-14.1). Among patients with pancreatic cancer, pancreatitis was significantly associated with TNF-A -308 GA + AA (OR, 3.1; 95% CI, 1.3-7.4) and with RANTES -403 GA + AA (OR, 2.3; 95% CI, 1.0-5.4). There was evidence for a possible interaction between current active smoking and CCR5-32del. Our results lend support for the hypothesis that proinflammatory gene polymorphisms, in combination with proinflammatory conditions, may influence the development of pancreatic cancer.

MMP-1 promoter gene polymorphism and susceptibility to chronic periodontitis in a Chinese population

A single nucleotide polymorphism in the promoter region of -1607 bp of the human MMP-1 gene has been found to be associated with an increased risk of various inflammatory diseases and cancer metastasis. This study aimed to evaluate the association between the MMP-1 promoter gene polymorphism and chronic periodontitis susceptibility and/or severity in a Chinese population. Genomic DNA was obtained from whole blood samples in 60 Chinese subjects with chronic periodontitis and 50 periodontally healthy subjects as controls. MMP-1 promoter fragment was amplified by polymerase chain reaction, and the polymorphism was analyzed by restriction endonuclease cleavage. In the control subjects, the 2G allele was observed a frequency of 49%, while in severely diseased patients, the 2G allele was seen in 73.4%. The individuals with the 2G allele seem to be approximately three times at greater risk for developing the severe chronic periodontitis (chi(2) = 12.148, P = 0.000). The genotype of 2G/2G was found in 58.5% of the severe periodontitis and 24% of the control group (chi(2) = 11.779, P = 0.003). This study suggests that a single nucleotide polymorphism in the MMP-1 promoter region of -1607 bp may be associated with severe chronic periodontitis in a Chinese population.

Ascending Thoracic Aneurysms Are Associated With Decreased Systemic Atherosclerosis

STUDY OBJECTIVES

We noted clinically that patients with aortic root aneurysms and dissections seemed to have little systemic atherosclerosis. It is our objective to determine whether there is a negative association between ascending thoracic aneurysms and systemic atherosclerosis.

DESIGN

Atherosclerosis was quantified by evaluating non-contrast CT images of the chest and scoring the degree of calcifications as a marker for atherosclerosis in the coronary arteries and aorta.

PATIENTS

The degree of calcification was compared in 64 patients with aortic root aneurysm (annuloaortic ectasia, 31 patients; type A dissection, 33 patients) vs 86 control subjects. Multivariable analysis was applied to test for an association between aortic root aneurysms and systemic calcification independent of risk factors for atherosclerosis.

RESULTS

Multivariable analysis revealed that patients with ascending aortic aneurysms of the annuloaortic ectasia type and patients with type A dissections had significantly lower overall calcification scores in their arterial vessels compared to patients in the control group (p = 0.03 and p < 0.0001, respectively). These results were independent of all other risk factors for atherosclerosis. Smoking, dyslipidemia, diabetes, and age were all found to increase the degree of atherosclerosis (p < 0.01 to 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Aortic root pathology (annuloaortic ectasia or type A dissection) is associated with decreased systemic atherosclerosis. It is possible that a mechanism exists whereby the same genetic mutations predisposing patients to ascending aortic aneurysms also exert a protective effect against systemic atherosclerosis.

Genetic variations in the matrix metalloproteinase-1 promoter and risk of susceptibility and/or severity of chronic periodontitis in the Czech population

OBJECTIVES

Matrix metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1) is a potent enzyme degrading extracellular matrix that was implicated in the pathogenesis of chronic periodontitis. Therefore, the aim of our study was to examine the association between three promoter polymorphisms of the MMP-1 gene and chronic periodontitis susceptibility and/or severity in a Czech population.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 329 Caucasian subjects were enrolled in this study. They were 133 patients with mild to severe chronic periodontitis and 196 unrelated control subjects. MMP-1 promoter polymorphisms (-1607 1G/2G, -519A/G, and -422A/T) were genotyped using standard polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length product methods.

RESULTS

Genotype analysis of the three single nucleotide polymorphisms across 27 different combinations showed significant association with chronic periodontitis (p<0.05). Analyses of individual polymorphisms showed no differences in distribution of the -519A/G and -422A/T variants between periodontitis and control groups. However, a trend to increased frequency of the -1607 1G allele was observed in patients with chronic periodontitis compared with the controls (p=0.054). When the groups were further stratified by smoking status, the 1G allele was associated with chronic periodontitis among non-smokers but not among smokers (p=0.033). On the contrary, the distribution of genotype frequencies of the MMP-1 -422A/T polymorphism was different between the patient and control smokers with respect to heterozygotes (73.91% versus 50.91%; p=0.017).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrate that the polymorphisms in the MMP-1 promoter may have only a small effect on the etiopathogenesis of chronic periodontitis.

A single nucleotide polymorphism in the matrix metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1) promoter influences amnion cell MMP-1 expression and risk for preterm premature rupture of the fetal membranes

Interstitial collagen gives fetal membranes tensile strength, and membrane rupture has been attributed to collagen degradation. A polymorphism at -1607 in the matrix metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1) promoter (an insertion of a guanine (G)) creates a core Ets binding site and increases promoter activity. We investigated whether this polymorphism is functionally significant for MMP-1 expression in amnion cells and whether it is associated with preterm premature rupture of the membranes (PPROM). The 2G promoter had >2-fold greater activity than the 1G allele in amnion mesenchymal cells and WISH amnion cells. Phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) increased mesenchymal cell nuclear protein binding with greater affinity to the 2G allele. Induction of MMP-1 mRNA by PMA was significantly greater in cells with a 1G/2G or 2G/2G genotype compared with cells homozygous for the 1G allele. When treated with PMA, the 1G/2G and 2G/2G cells produced greater amounts of MMP-1 protein than 1G/1G cells. A significant association was found between fetal carriage of a 2G allele and PPROM. We conclude that the 2G allele has stronger promoter activity in amnion cells, that it confers increased responsiveness of amnion cells to stimuli that induce MMP-1, and that this polymorphism contributes to the risk of PPROM.

An overview of collagenase-3 expression in malignant tumors and analysis of its potential value as a target in antitumor therapies

Collagenase-3 (MMP-13) is a member of the matrix metalloproteinase family of endopeptidases that is characterized by a potent degrading activity against a wide spectrum of substrates. This enzyme was first detected in breast carcinomas but it is also overexpressed in a variety of malignant tumors including head and neck carcinomas, chondrosarcomas, skin carcinomas, and carcinomas of the female genital tract. Clinical studies have revealed that in all these tumors collagenase-3 expression is associated with invasive and metastatic tumors. Analysis of the molecular mechanisms underlying its marked overexpression in malignant tumors has allowed to identify different cytokines, growth factors and tumor promoters with ability to up-regulate collagenase-3 expression in tumor cells, or in stromal fibroblasts surrounding epithelial tumor cells. The first strategies designed to target this enzyme are being developed, and are mainly directed to prepare synthetic inhibitors with ability to selectively block the collagenase-3 proteolytic activity. Alternatively, inhibitors of the signal transduction pathways mediating the expression of this enzyme by tumor cells may also be useful for collagenase-3 targeting. These studies together with those performed on other enzymes associated with tumor processes may lead to the development of novel therapeutic strategies to control the progression and metastatic capacity of neoplastic cells.

Physiological roles of matrix metalloproteinases: implications for tumor growth and metastasis

Physiological processes involving remodelling of the extracellular matrix, such as wound healing, embryogenesis, angiogenesis, and the female reproductive cycle, require the activity of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). This group of proteases degrades basal membranes and connective tissues and plays an essential role in the homeostasis of the extracellular matrix. An imbalance in the expression or activity of MMPs can have important consequences in diseases such as multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, or the development of cancers. Because of the pathophysiological importance of MMPs, their activity is highly controlled in order to confine them to specific areas. An activation cascade, initiated by the proteolysis of plasminogen, cleaves proMMPs, and every step is controlled by specific activators or inhibitors. MMPs destabilize the organization of the extracellular matrix and influence the development of cancer by contributing to cell migration, tumor cell proliferation, and angiogenesis. Accordingly, these proteases possess an important role in cell-matrix interactions by affecting fundamental processes such as cell differentiation and proliferation. Therefore, the characterization of MMPs involved in specific types and stages of tumors will significantly improve the diagnosis and treatment of these cancers in humans.Key words: matrix metalloproteinases, physiology, cancer, cell invasion, extracellular matrix.

Osteoarthritis-susceptibility locus on chromosome 11q, detected by linkage

We present a two-stage genomewide scan for osteoarthritis-susceptibility loci, using 481 families that each contain at least one affected sibling pair. The first stage, with 272 microsatellite markers and 297 families, involved a sparse map covering 23 chromosomes at intervals of approximately 15 cM. Sixteen markers that showed evidence of linkage at nominal P</=.05 were then taken through to the second stage, with an additional 184 families. This second stage confirmed evidence of linkage for markers on chromosome 11q. Additional markers from this region were then typed to create a denser map. We obtained a maximum single-point LOD score, at D11S901, of 2.40 (P=.0004) and a maximum multipoint-LOD score of 3.15, between markers D11S1358 and D11S35. A subset of 196 of the 481 families, comprising affected female sibling pairs, generated a corrected LOD score of 2.54 (P=.0003) for marker D11S901, with evidence for linkage extending 12 cM proximal to this marker. When we stratified for affected male sibling pairs there was no evidence of linkage to chromosome 11. Our data suggest that a female-specific susceptibility gene for idiopathic osteoarthritis is located on chromosome 11q.

Cloning and characterization of human MMP-23, a new matrix metalloproteinase predominantly expressed in reproductive tissues and lacking conserved domains in other family members

A cDNA encoding a new human matrix metalloproteinase (MMP), tentatively called MMP-23, has been cloned from an ovary cDNA library. This protein exhibits sequence similarity with MMPs, but displays a different domain structure. Thus, MMP-23 lacks a recognizable signal sequence and has a short prodomain, although it contains a single cysteine residue that can be part of the cysteine-switch mechanism operating for maintaining enzyme latency. The C-terminal domain is considerably shortened and shows no sequence similarity to hemopexin, whereas all human MMPs, with the exception of matrilysin, contain four hemopexin-like repeats. Furthermore, MMP-23 is devoid of structural features distinctive of the diverse MMP subclasses, including the specific residues located close to the zinc-binding site in collagenases, the transmembrane domain of membrane-type MMPs, or the fibronectin-like domain of gelatinases. Fluorescent in situ hybridization experiments showed that the human MMP-23 gene maps to 1p36, a location which differs from all MMP genes mapped to date. Recombinant MMP-23 produced in Escherichia coli exhibits low, but significant proteolytic activity against a synthetic substrate commonly used for assaying MMPs. Northern blot analysis demonstrated that MMP-23 is predominantly expressed in ovary, testis, and prostate, suggesting that this new MMP may play a specialized role in reproductive processes.

Expression and regulation of collagenase-3 (MMP-13) in human malignant tumors

Human collagenase-3 (MMP-13) is a matrix metalloproteinase originally identified in breast carcinomas. Recent studies have revealed that this enzyme is also produced by a variety of malignant tumors including head and neck carcinomas, chondrosarcomas and basal cell carcinomas of the skin. In all cases, the expression of collagenase-3 is associated with aggressive tumors. Different cytokines, growth factors and tumor promoters are able to up-regulate collagenase-3 expression in tumor cells or in stromal cells surrounding epithelial tumor cells. Functional analysis of the collagenase-3 gene promoter has allowed the identification of AP-1 and OSE-2 elements mediating, at least in part, its expression in both normal and pathological conditions.

Collagenase 2 (MMP-8) expression in murine tissue-remodeling processes. Analysis of its potential role in postpartum involution of the uterus

Neutrophil collagenase or collagenase 2 (MMP-8) is unique among the family of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) because of its exclusive pattern of expression in inflammatory conditions. At present, no evidence of the occurrence of this enzyme in tissues other than human has been reported. In this work, we have cloned the murine homologue of human collagenase 2. The isolated cDNA contains an open reading frame coding for a polypeptide of 465 amino acids, which is 74% identical to its human counterpart. The mouse collagenase 2 exhibits the domain structure characteristic of several MMPs, including a signal sequence, a prodomain with the cysteine residue essential for enzyme latency, an activation locus with the Zinc-binding site, and a COOH-terminal fragment with sequence similarity to hemopexin. It also contains the three conserved residues (Tyr-209, Asp-230, and Gly-232) located around the Zinc-binding site and are distinctive of the collagenase subfamily. Northern blot analysis of RNAs isolated from a variety of mouse tissues revealed that collagenase 2 is expressed at late stages during mouse embryogenesis, coinciding with the appearance of hematopoietic cells. In addition, collagenase 2 was highly expressed in the postpartum uterus starting at 1 day postpartum and extending up to 5 days. Enzymatic analysis revealed that matrilysin, another MMP overexpressed in uterine tissue, is able to activate murine procollagenase 2. These data suggest that both enzymes could form an activation cascade resulting in the generation of the collagenolytic activity required during the process of massive connective tissue resumption occurring in the involuting uterus.

A transcriptional Map of the FMF region

Familial Mediterranean fever (FMF) is a recessively inherited disorder characterized by attacks of fever and serositis, which affects primarily non-Ashkenazi Jews, Armenians, Turks, and Arabs. We present here a transcriptional map covering the FMF locus that we constructed in the course of the positional cloning of the gene responsible for this disease. This map was established from a contig constructed with YAC, BAC, and cosmid clones and covers about 500 kb of 16p13.3. It contains nine transcriptional units corresponding to known genes or to genes belonging to known gene families, 23 gene fragments characterized by partial sequences, and an endogenous retrovirus sequence. It thus considerably increases the number of genes in this interval and improves our knowledge concerning some of the genes or gene families present in this region. Data accumulated in this region were also used in a comparative study of different methods of exon detection.

Structural analysis and promoter characterization of the human collagenase-3 gene (MMP13)

Human collagenase-3 (MMP13) is a recently identified member of the matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) family that is expressed in breast carcinomas and in articular cartilage from arthritic patients. In this work we have isolated and characterized genomic clones coding for human collagenase-3. This gene is composed of 10 exons and 9 introns and spans over 12.5 kb. The overall organization of the collagenase-3 gene is similar to that of other MMP genes clustered at chromosome 11q22, including fibroblast collagenase (MMP-1), matrilysin (MMP-7), and macrophage metalloelastase (MMP-12), but is more distantly related to genes coding for stromelysin-3 (MMP-11), gelatinase-A (MMP-2), and gelatinase-B (MMP-9), which map outside of this gene cluster. Nucleotide sequence analysis of about 1 kb of the 5'-flanking region of the collagenase-3 gene revealed the presence of a TATA box, an AP-1 motif, a PEA-3 consensus sequence, an osteoblast specific element (OSE-2), and a TGF-beta inhibitory element. Transient transfection experiments in HeLa and COS-1 cells with chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT)-containing constructs showed that the AP-1 site is functional and responsible for the observed inducibility of the reporter gene by the tumor promoter 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA). However, and in contrast to other MMP genes, no significative synergistic effect on CAT activity between the AP-1 and PEA-3 elements found in the collagenase-3 gene promoter was found. DNA binding analysis with nuclear extracts from HeLa cells revealed the formation of specific complexes between collagenase-3 promoter sequences containing the AP-1 site and nuclear proteins. The presence of this AP-1 functional site, which is able to confer responsiveness to a variety of tumor promoters and oncogene products, amy contribute to explaining the high-level expression of collagenase-3 in breast carcinomas and degenerative joint diseases.

Identification and characterization of a novel human matrix metalloproteinase with unique structural characteristics, chromosomal location, and tissue distribution

We have cloned a novel member of the matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) family of proteins from a human liver cDNA library. The isolated cDNA contains an open reading frame coding for a polypeptide of 508 amino acids, which has been tentatively called MMP-19. This protein exhibits the domain structure characteristic of previously described MMPs, including a signal sequence, a prodomain with the cysteine residue essential for maintaining the latency of these enzymes, an activation locus with the zinc-binding site, and a COOH-terminal fragment with sequence similarity to hemopexin. However, it lacks a series of structural features distinctive of the diverse MMP subclasses, including the Asp, Tyr, and Gly residues located close to the zinc-binding site in collagenases, the fibronectin-like domain of gelatinases, the transmembrane domain of membrane-type (MT) MMPs, and the furin-activation sequence common to stromelysin-3 and MT-MMPs. In addition, the 9-residue insertion rich in hydrophobic amino acids present at the hinge region in stromelysins is replaced in MMP-19 by a longer insertion very rich in acidic residues. On the basis of these structural characteristics, we propose that MMP-19 does not belong to any of the previously defined MMP-subclasses and may represent the first member of a new MMP subfamily. Chromosomal location of the MMP-19 gene revealed that it maps to chromosome 12q14, which is also a unique location for any MMPs mapped to date. The cDNA encoding a full-length MMP-19 was expressed in Escherichia coli, and after purification and refolding, the recombinant protein was able to degrade synthetic substrates for MMPs. MMP-19 proteolytic activity was abolished by TIMP-2 and EDTA, thus providing additional evidence that the isolated cDNA codes for an authentic MMP. Northern blot analysis of polyadenylated RNAs isolated from a variety of human tissues revealed that MMP-19 is mainly expressed in placenta, lung, pancreas, ovary, spleen, and intestine, suggesting that it may play a specialized role in these tissues.