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Schaefers C, Schmeißer W, John H, Worek F, Rein T, Rothmiller S, Schmidt A. Effects of the nerve agent VX on hiPSC-derived motor neurons. Arch Toxicol 2024; 98:1859-1875. [PMID: 38555327 PMCID: PMC11106096 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-024-03708-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2024] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024]
Abstract
Poisoning with the organophosphorus nerve agent VX can be life-threatening due to limitations of the standard therapy with atropine and oximes. To date, the underlying pathomechanism of VX affecting the neuromuscular junction has not been fully elucidated structurally. Results of recent studies investigating the effects of VX were obtained from cells of animal origin or immortalized cell lines limiting their translation to humans. To overcome this limitation, motor neurons (MN) of this study were differentiated from in-house feeder- and integration-free-derived human-induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSC) by application of standardized and antibiotic-free differentiation media with the aim to mimic human embryogenesis as closely as possible. For testing VX sensitivity, MN were initially exposed once to 400 µM, 600 µM, 800 µM, or 1000 µM VX and cultured for 5 days followed by analysis of changes in viability and neurite outgrowth as well as at the gene and protein level using µLC-ESI MS/HR MS, XTT, IncuCyte, qRT-PCR, and Western Blot. For the first time, VX was shown to trigger neuronal cell death and decline in neurite outgrowth in hiPSC-derived MN in a time- and concentration-dependent manner involving the activation of the intrinsic as well as the extrinsic pathway of apoptosis. Consistent with this, MN morphology and neurite network were altered time and concentration-dependently. Thus, MN represent a valuable tool for further investigation of the pathomechanism after VX exposure. These findings might set the course for the development of a promising human neuromuscular test model and patient-specific therapies in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Schaefers
- Bundeswehr Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Neuherbergstr. 11, 80937, Munich, Germany.
| | - Wolfgang Schmeißer
- Bundeswehr Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Neuherbergstr. 11, 80937, Munich, Germany
| | - Harald John
- Bundeswehr Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Neuherbergstr. 11, 80937, Munich, Germany
| | - Franz Worek
- Bundeswehr Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Neuherbergstr. 11, 80937, Munich, Germany
| | - Theo Rein
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Kraepelinstr. 2-10, 80804, Munich, Germany
| | - Simone Rothmiller
- Bundeswehr Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Neuherbergstr. 11, 80937, Munich, Germany
| | - Annette Schmidt
- Institute of Sport Science, University of the Bundeswehr Munich, Werner-Heisenberg-Weg 39, 85577, Neubiberg, Germany
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2
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Yuan S, Zhang H, Wang S, Jiang X, Ma M, Xu Y, Han Y, Wang Z. Do the same chlorinated organophosphorus flame retardants that cause cytotoxicity and DNA damage share the same pathway? ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2024; 273:116158. [PMID: 38417316 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2024.116158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2023] [Revised: 02/08/2024] [Accepted: 02/25/2024] [Indexed: 03/01/2024]
Abstract
Organophosphorus flame retardants (OPFRs) have been frequently detected with relatively high concentrations in various environmental media and are considered emerging environmental pollutants. However, their biological effect and underlying mechanism is still unclear, and whether chlorinated OPFRs (Cl-OPFRs) cause adverse outcomes with the same molecular initial events or share the same key events (KEs) remains unknown. In this study, in vitro bioassays were conducted to analyze the cytotoxicity, mitochondrial impairment, DNA damage and molecular mechanisms of two Cl-OPFRs. The results showed that these two Cl-OPFRs, which have similar structures, induced severe cellular and molecular damages via different underlying mechanisms. Both tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP) and tris(1-chloro-2-propyl) (TCPP) induced oxidative stress-mediated mitochondrial impairment and DNA damage, as shown by the overproduction of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and mitochondrial superoxide. Furthermore, the DNA damage caused by TCPP resulted in p53/p21-mediated cell cycle arrest, as evidenced by flow cytometry and real-time PCR. At the cellular and molecular levels, TCPP increased the sub-G1 apoptotic peak and upregulated the p53/Bax apoptosis pathway, possibly resulted in apoptosis associated with its stronger cytotoxicity. Although structurally similar to TCPP, TCEP did not induce mitochondrial impairment and DNA damage by the same KEs. These results provide insight into the toxicity of Cl-OPFRs with similar structures but different mechanisms, which is of great significance for constructing adverse outcome pathways or determining intermediate KEs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shengwu Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, National Engineering Laboratory for Lake Pollution Control and Ecological Restoration, State Environment Protection Key Laboratory for Lake Pollution Control, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Science, Beijing 100012, China
| | - Hong Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, National Engineering Laboratory for Lake Pollution Control and Ecological Restoration, State Environment Protection Key Laboratory for Lake Pollution Control, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Science, Beijing 100012, China
| | - Shuhang Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, National Engineering Laboratory for Lake Pollution Control and Ecological Restoration, State Environment Protection Key Laboratory for Lake Pollution Control, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Science, Beijing 100012, China.
| | - Xia Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, National Engineering Laboratory for Lake Pollution Control and Ecological Restoration, State Environment Protection Key Laboratory for Lake Pollution Control, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Science, Beijing 100012, China
| | - Mei Ma
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
| | - Yiping Xu
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Yingnan Han
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Zijian Wang
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
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3
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Silva HKTDA, Barbosa TM, Santos MCD, Jales JT, de Araújo AMU, Morais CLM, de Lima LAS, Bicudo TC, Gama RA, Marinho PA, Lima KMG. Detection of terbufos in cases of intoxication by means of entomotoxicological analysis using ATR-FTIR spectroscopy combined with chemometrics. Acta Trop 2023; 238:106779. [PMID: 36442528 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2022.106779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2022] [Revised: 11/23/2022] [Accepted: 11/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The detection of toxic substances in larvae from carcasses in an advanced stage of decomposition may help criminal expertise in elucidating the cause of death in suspected cases of poisoning. Terbufos (Counter®) or O,O-diethyl-S-[(tert-butylsulfanyl)methyl] phosphorodithioate is an insecticide and systemic nematicide, which has very high toxicity from an acute point of view (oral LD50 in rodents ranging from 1.4 to 9.2 mg/kg) that has been marketed irregularly and indiscriminately in Brazil as a rodenticide, often being used to practice homicides. The present study aims to evaluate the use of attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy to detect traces of terbufos pesticide in fly larvae (Sarcophagidae). ATR-FTIR spectra of scavenger fly larvae from control (n = 31) and intoxicated (n = 80) groups were collected and submitted to chemometric analysis by means of multivariate classification using principal component analysis with quadratic discriminant analysis (PCA-QDA), successive projections algorithm with quadratic discriminant analysis (SPA-QDA) and genetic algorithm with quadratic discriminant analysis (GA-QDA) in order to distinguish between control and intoxicated groups. All discriminant models showed sensitivity and specificity above 90%, with the GA-QDA model showing the best performance with 98.9% sensitivity and specificity. The proposed methodology proved to be sensitive and promising for the detection of terbufos in scavenger fly larvae from intoxicated rat carcasses. In addition, the non-destructive nature of the ATR-FTIR technique may be useful in preserving the forensic evidence, meeting the precepts of the chain of custody and allowing for counter-proof.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hellyda K T de Andrade Silva
- Laboratório de Química Biológica e Quimiometria, Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brasil
| | - Taciano M Barbosa
- Laboratório de Insetos e Vetores, Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brasil
| | - Marfran C D Santos
- Laboratório de Química Biológica e Quimiometria, Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brasil; Ciência e Tecnologia do Sertão Pernambucano - Campus Floresta, Instituto Federal de Educação, Floresta 56400-000, Brasil
| | - Jessica T Jales
- Laboratório de Insetos e Vetores, Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brasil
| | - Antonio M U de Araújo
- Escola de Ciências e Tecnologia, Centro de Tecnologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brasil
| | - Camilo L M Morais
- Laboratório de Química Biológica e Quimiometria, Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brasil
| | - Leomir A S de Lima
- Laboratório de Química Biológica e Quimiometria, Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brasil
| | - Tatiana C Bicudo
- Escola de Ciências e Tecnologia, Centro de Tecnologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brasil
| | - Renata A Gama
- Laboratório de Insetos e Vetores, Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brasil
| | - Pablo Alves Marinho
- Polícia Civil do Estado de Minas Gerais, Instituto de Criminalística, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brasil
| | - Kássio M G Lima
- Laboratório de Química Biológica e Quimiometria, Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brasil.
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4
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Amar SK, Donohue KB, Gust KA. Cellular and molecular responses to ethyl-parathion in undifferentiated SH-SY5Y cells provide neurotoxicity pathway indicators for organophosphorus impacts. Toxicol Sci 2022; 191:285-295. [PMID: 36458919 PMCID: PMC9936206 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfac125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
High-fidelity nonanimal screening methods are needed that can rapidly and accurately characterize organophosphorus compound (OP)-induced neurotoxicity. Herein, the efficacy of human neuroblastoma cell line (SH-SY5Y) to provide molecular and cellular responses characteristic of the OP neurotoxicity pathway was investigated in response to the OP-model compound, ethyl-parathion. Undifferentiated SH-SY5Y cells were exposed to ethyl-parathion for 30 min at 0 (control), 0.5, 2.5, 5, 10, and 25 µg/ml. Dose-responsive reductions in cell viability were observed with significant reductions at ≥10 µg/ml. From these results, ethyl-parathion exposures of 0 (control), 5, and 10 µg/ml were selected to examine bioindicators underlying the OP neurotoxicity pathway including: reactive oxygen species (ROS), cell membrane peroxidation, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), and apoptosis. Ethyl-parathion elicited highly significant increases in ROS relative to controls (p < .01) at both exposure concentrations, confirmed using N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) as a ROS quencher which alleviated ROS increases. A response characteristic of increased ROS exposure, cell membrane-lipid peroxidation, significantly increased (p < .05) at the highest ethyl-parathion exposure (10 µg/ml). As a likely consequence of membrane-lipid peroxidation, ethyl-parathion-induced reductions in MMP were observed with significant effects at 10 µg/ml, reducing MMP by 58.2%. As a culmination of these cellular-damage indicators, apoptosis progression was investigated by phosphatidylserine translocation where ethyl-parathion-induced dose-responsive, highly significant (p < .01) increases at both 5 and 10 µg/ml. Overall, the mechanistic responses observed in undifferentiated SH-SY5Y cells corresponded with in vivo mammalian results demonstrating potential for this nonanimal model to provide accurate OP neurotoxicology screening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saroj K Amar
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830, USA,US Army, Engineer Research and Development Center, Environmental Laboratory, Vicksburg, Mississippi 39180, USA
| | - Keri B Donohue
- US Army, Engineer Research and Development Center, Environmental Laboratory, Vicksburg, Mississippi 39180, USA
| | - Kurt A Gust
- To whom correspondence should be addressed at US Army, Engineer Research and Development Center, Environmental Laboratory EPP, 3909 Halls Ferry Rd, Vicksburg, MS 39180, USA. E-mail:
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5
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The SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cell line, a relevant in vitro cell model for investigating neurotoxicology in human: focus on organic pollutants. Neurotoxicology 2022; 92:131-155. [PMID: 35914637 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2022.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Revised: 07/21/2022] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Investigation of the toxicity triggered by chemicals on the human brain has traditionally relied on approaches using rodent in vivo models and in vitro cell models including primary neuronal cultures and cell lines from rodents. The issues of species differences between humans and rodents, the animal ethical concerns and the time and cost required for neurotoxicity studies on in vivo animal models, do limit the use of animal-based models in neurotoxicology. In this context, human cell models appear relevant in elucidating cellular and molecular impacts of neurotoxicants and facilitating prioritization of in vivo testing. The SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cell line (ATCC® CRL-2266TM) is one of the most used cell lines in neurosciences, either undifferentiated or differentiated into neuron-like cells. This review presents the characteristics of the SH-SY5Y cell line and proposes the results of a systematic review of literature on the use of this in vitro cell model for neurotoxicity research by focusing on organic environmental pollutants including pesticides, 2, 3, 7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), flame retardants, PFASs, parabens, bisphenols, phthalates, and PAHs. Organic environmental pollutants are widely present in the environment and increasingly known to cause clinical neurotoxic effects during fetal & child development and adulthood. Their effects on cultured SH-SY5Y cells include autophagy, cell death (apoptosis, pyroptosis, necroptosis, or necrosis), increased oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, disruption of neurotransmitter homeostasis, and alteration of neuritic length. Finally, the inherent advantages and limitations of the SH-SY5Y cell model are discussed in the context of chemical testing.
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6
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Sawyer TW, Wang Y, Villanueva M, Song Y, Hennes G. Acute and long-term effects of VX in rat brain cell aggregate culture. Toxicol In Vitro 2022; 78:105256. [PMID: 34653647 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2021.105256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Revised: 09/16/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The contact poison VX (O-ethyl S-(2-diisopropylaminoethyl) methylphosphonothioate) is a chemical warfare agent that is one of the most toxic organophosphorus compounds known. Its primary mechanism of toxic action is through the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase and resultant respiratory paralysis. The majority of work on VX has thus concentrated on its potent anticholinesterase activity and acute toxicity, with few studies investigating potential long-term effects. In this report we describe the effects of VX in aggregating rat brain cell cultures out to 28 days post-exposure. Cholinesterase activity was rapidly inhibited (60 min IC50 = 0.73 +/- 0.27 nM), but recovered towards baseline values over the next four weeks. Apoptotic cell death, as measured using caspase-3 activity was evident only at 100 μM concentrations. Cell type specific enzymatic markers (glutamine synthase, choline acetyltransferase and 2',3'-cyclic nucleotide 3'-phosphodiesterase) showed no significant changes. Total Akt levels were unchanged, while an increased phosphorylation of this protein was noted only at the highest VX concentration on the first day post-exposure. In contrast, significant and delayed (28 days post-exposure) decreases were noted in vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) levels, a protein whose reduced levels are known to contribute to neurodegenerative disorders. These observations may indicate that the long-term effects noted in some survivors of nerve agent intoxication may be due to VX-induced declines in brain VEGF levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas W Sawyer
- Defence Research & Development Canada, Suffield Research Centre, Box 4000, Medicine Hat, Alberta T1A 8K6, Canada.
| | - Yushan Wang
- Defence Research & Development Canada, Suffield Research Centre, Box 4000, Medicine Hat, Alberta T1A 8K6, Canada
| | - Mercy Villanueva
- Defence Research & Development Canada, Suffield Research Centre, Box 4000, Medicine Hat, Alberta T1A 8K6, Canada
| | - Yanfeng Song
- Defence Research & Development Canada, Suffield Research Centre, Box 4000, Medicine Hat, Alberta T1A 8K6, Canada
| | - Grant Hennes
- Defence Research & Development Canada, Suffield Research Centre, Box 4000, Medicine Hat, Alberta T1A 8K6, Canada
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7
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Liu Y, Yang K, Wang L, Yang J, Wang Y, Luo H, Li P, Yin Y. Vitamin B6 prevents Isocarbophos-induced posterior cerebral artery injury in offspring rats through up-regulating S1P receptor expression. Acta Biochim Biophys Sin (Shanghai) 2021; 53:1691-1701. [PMID: 34718372 DOI: 10.1093/abbs/gmab150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
We have previously reported that the long-term exposure of Isocarbophos, a kind of organophosphorus compounds, induces vascular dementia (VD) in rats. Studies have also shown that organophosphorus compounds have adverse effects on offsprings. Vitamin B6 is a coenzyme mainly involved in the regulation of metabolism and has been demonstrated to ameliorate VD. Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), a biologically active lipid, plays a vital role in the cardiovascular system. However, whether S1P is involved in the therapeutic effects of Vitamin B6 on posterior cerebral artery injury has yet to be further answered. In the present study, we aimed to explore the potential influence of Vitamin B6 on Isocarbophos-induced posterior cerebral artery injury in offspring rats and the role of the S1P receptor in this process. We found that Vitamin B6 significantly improves the vasoconstriction function of the posterior cerebral artery in rats induced by Isocarbophos by the blood gas analysis and endothelium-dependent relaxation function assay. We further demonstrated that Vitamin B6 alleviates the Isocarbophos-induced elevation of ICAM-1, VCAM-1, IL-1, and IL-6 by using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kits. By performing immunofluorescence and the western blot assay, we revealed that Vitamin B6 prevents the down-regulation of S1P in posterior cerebral artery injury. It is worth noting that Fingolimod, the S1P inhibitor, significantly inhibits the Vitamin B6-induced up-regulation of S1P in posterior cerebral artery injury. Collectively, our data indicate that Vitamin B6 may be a novel drug for the treatment of posterior cerebral artery injury and that S1P may be a drug target for its treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanhua Liu
- College of pharmacy, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang 453003, China
- Henan International Joint Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Drug Intervention, Xinxiang 453003, China
- Xinxiang Key Laboratory of Vascular Remodeling Intervention and Molecular Targeted Therapy Drug Development, Xinxiang 453003, China
| | - Kunli Yang
- Department of Physiology, North Sichuan Medical College, Nanchong 637007, China
| | - Ling Wang
- College of pharmacy, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang 453003, China
- Henan International Joint Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Drug Intervention, Xinxiang 453003, China
- Xinxiang Key Laboratory of Vascular Remodeling Intervention and Molecular Targeted Therapy Drug Development, Xinxiang 453003, China
- The First Affiliated Hospital, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang 453003, China
| | - Jinfang Yang
- College of pharmacy, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang 453003, China
- Henan International Joint Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Drug Intervention, Xinxiang 453003, China
- Xinxiang Key Laboratory of Vascular Remodeling Intervention and Molecular Targeted Therapy Drug Development, Xinxiang 453003, China
- Zhengzhou No.7 People's Hospital, Zhengzhou 450016, China
| | - Yang Wang
- College of pharmacy, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang 453003, China
- Henan International Joint Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Drug Intervention, Xinxiang 453003, China
- Xinxiang Key Laboratory of Vascular Remodeling Intervention and Molecular Targeted Therapy Drug Development, Xinxiang 453003, China
- The Third Affiliated Hospital, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang 453003, China
| | - Hu Luo
- College of pharmacy, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang 453003, China
- Henan International Joint Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Drug Intervention, Xinxiang 453003, China
- Xinxiang Key Laboratory of Vascular Remodeling Intervention and Molecular Targeted Therapy Drug Development, Xinxiang 453003, China
| | - Peng Li
- College of pharmacy, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang 453003, China
- Henan International Joint Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Drug Intervention, Xinxiang 453003, China
- Xinxiang Key Laboratory of Vascular Remodeling Intervention and Molecular Targeted Therapy Drug Development, Xinxiang 453003, China
| | - Yaling Yin
- Henan International Joint Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Drug Intervention, Xinxiang 453003, China
- Xinxiang Key Laboratory of Vascular Remodeling Intervention and Molecular Targeted Therapy Drug Development, Xinxiang 453003, China
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang 453003, China
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8
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Miller DR, McClain ES, Dodds JN, Balinski A, May JC, McLean JA, Cliffel DE. Chlorpyrifos Disrupts Acetylcholine Metabolism Across Model Blood-Brain Barrier. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2021; 9:622175. [PMID: 34513802 PMCID: PMC8431803 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2021.622175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2020] [Accepted: 07/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite the significant progress in both scientific understanding and regulations, the safety of agricultural pesticides continues to be called into question. The need for complementary analytics to identify dysregulation events associated with chemical exposure and leverage this information to predict biological responses remains. Here, we present a platform that combines a model organ-on-chip neurovascular unit (NVU) with targeted mass spectrometry (MS) and electrochemical analysis to assess the impact of organophosphate (OP) exposure on blood-brain barrier (BBB) function. Using the NVU to simulate exposure, an escalating dose of the organophosphate chlorpyrifos (CPF) was administered. With up to 10 μM, neither CPF nor its metabolites were detected across the BBB (limit of quantitation 0.1 µM). At 30 µM CPF and above, targeted MS detected the main urinary metabolite, trichloropyridinol (TCP), across the BBB (0.025 µM) and no other metabolites. In the vascular chamber where CPF was directly applied, two primary metabolites of CPF, TCP and diethylthiophosphate (DETP), were both detected (0.1–5.7 µM). In a second experiment, a constant dose of 10 µM CPF was administered to the NVU, and though neither CPF nor its metabolites were detected across the BBB after 24 h, electrochemical analysis detected increases in acetylcholine levels on both sides of the BBB (up to 24.8 ± 3.4 µM) and these levels remained high over the course of treatment. In the vascular chamber where CPF was directly applied, only TCP was detected (ranging from 0.06 μM at 2 h to 0.19 μM at 24 h). These results provide chemical evidence of the substantial disruption induced by this widely used commercial pesticide. This work reinforces previously observed OP metabolism and mechanisms of impact, validates the use of the NVU for OP toxicology testing, and provides a model platform for analyzing these organotypic systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dusty R Miller
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Ethan S McClain
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - James N Dodds
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States.,Center for Innovative Technology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States.,Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States.,Vanderbilt-Ingram Cancer Center, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States.,Vanderbilt Institute for Integrative Biosystems Research and Education, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Andrzej Balinski
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States.,Center for Innovative Technology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States.,Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States.,Vanderbilt-Ingram Cancer Center, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States.,Vanderbilt Institute for Integrative Biosystems Research and Education, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Jody C May
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States.,Center for Innovative Technology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States.,Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States.,Vanderbilt-Ingram Cancer Center, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States.,Vanderbilt Institute for Integrative Biosystems Research and Education, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - John A McLean
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States.,Center for Innovative Technology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States.,Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States.,Vanderbilt-Ingram Cancer Center, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States.,Vanderbilt Institute for Integrative Biosystems Research and Education, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - David E Cliffel
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States.,Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States.,Vanderbilt Institute for Integrative Biosystems Research and Education, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States
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9
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Yu Y, Chen H, Hua X, Wang Z, Li L, Li Z, Xiang M, Ding P. Long-term toxicity of lindane through oxidative stress and cell apoptosis in Caenorhabditis elegans. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2021; 272:116036. [PMID: 33218777 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.116036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2020] [Revised: 10/21/2020] [Accepted: 11/06/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Lindane persists in the environment and bioaccumulates as an organochlorine pesticide and can pose risks to ecological environments and human health. To explore the long-term toxicity and underlying mechanisms of lindane, Caenorhabditis elegans was chosen as an animal model for toxicological study. The indicators of physiological, oxidative stress and cell apoptosis were examined in nematodes chronically exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations of lindane (0.01-100 ng/L). The data suggested that exposure to lindane at doses above 0.01 ng/L induced adverse physiological effects in C. elegans. Significant increases of ROS production and lipofuscin accumulation were observed in 100 ng/L of lindane-exposed nematodes, suggesting that lindane exposure induced oxidative stress in nematodes. Exposure to 10-100 ng/L of lindane also significantly increased the average number of germ cell corpses, which indicated cell apoptosis induced by lindane in C. elegans. Moreover, chronic exposure to 100 ng/L lindane significantly influenced the expression of genes related to oxidative stress and cell apoptosis (e.g., isp-1, sod-3, ced-3, and cep-1 genes). These results indicated that oxidative stress and cell apoptosis could play an important role in toxicity induced by lindane in nematodes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunjiang Yu
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Health Risk Assessment, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment, Guangzhou, 510655, China.
| | - Haibo Chen
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Health Risk Assessment, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment, Guangzhou, 510655, China; Institute for Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai, 200444, PR China
| | - Xin Hua
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Health Risk Assessment, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment, Guangzhou, 510655, China
| | - Zhengdong Wang
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Health Risk Assessment, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment, Guangzhou, 510655, China
| | - Liangzhong Li
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Health Risk Assessment, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment, Guangzhou, 510655, China
| | - Zongrui Li
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Health Risk Assessment, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment, Guangzhou, 510655, China
| | - Mingdeng Xiang
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Health Risk Assessment, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment, Guangzhou, 510655, China
| | - Ping Ding
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Health Risk Assessment, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment, Guangzhou, 510655, China
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10
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Ji C, Magnuson JT, Zhang W, Zhao M. New insight into the enantioselective cytotoxicity of cypermethrin: imbalance between cell cycle and apoptosis. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2021; 403:123893. [PMID: 33264957 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2020] [Revised: 08/14/2020] [Accepted: 08/31/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Cypermethrin (CP) is a frequently used chiral pesticide comprised of different enantiomers that can induce a variable toxic response in biota, dependent on conformational change. However, the potential mechanism accounting for the enantioselective toxicity induced by CP enantiomers remains unknown. Herein, to shed light on the underlying mechanism of enantioselective cytotoxicity on cell cycle and apoptotic function, an MTT assay, flow cytometric (FCM) approach, and qPCR arrays combining bioinformatic analysis were conducted on HepG2 cell lines following exposure to CP enantiomers. Decreased cell viability in keeping with increased cell arrest and apoptosis was observed in cells exposed to (1S,3R,αR)-CP, relative to the (1R,3S,αS)-CP treatment group. PCR array also reflected an enantioselective difference in expression of cell cycle and apoptosis-related genes. Ingenuity pathway analysis (IPA) showed that cell cycle checkpoints, arrest in interphase, death receptor signaling, and apoptosis were among the top canonical and disease and functions predicted to be affected between CP enantiomers. Data presented here not only provide potential molecular endpoints for evaluating toxicity by cell cycle and apoptosis but also help to guide the scientific application of chiral pesticides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenyang Ji
- College of Environment, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310032, China; Department of Environmental Sciences, University of California, Riverside, California, 92521, United States
| | - Jason T Magnuson
- Department of Environmental Sciences, University of California, Riverside, California, 92521, United States
| | - Wen Zhang
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310014, China
| | - Meirong Zhao
- College of Environment, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310032, China.
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11
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The neuroprotective effects of stimulation of NMDA receptors against POX-induced neurotoxicity in hippocampal cultured neurons; a morphometric study. Mol Cell Toxicol 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s13273-020-00091-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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12
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Liu L, Koo Y, Akwitti C, Russell T, Gay E, Laskowitz DT, Yun Y. Three-dimensional (3D) brain microphysiological system for organophosphates and neurochemical agent toxicity screening. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0224657. [PMID: 31703066 PMCID: PMC6839879 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0224657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2019] [Accepted: 10/19/2019] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
We investigated a potential use of a 3D tetraculture brain microphysiological system (BMPS) for neurotoxic chemical agent screening. This platform consists of neuronal tissue with extracellular matrix (ECM)-embedded neuroblastoma cells, microglia, and astrocytes, and vascular tissue with dynamic flow and membrane-free culture of the endothelial layer. We tested the broader applicability of this model, focusing on organophosphates (OPs) Malathion (MT), Parathion (PT), and Chlorpyrifos (CPF), and chemicals that interact with GABA and/or opioid receptor systems, including Muscimol (MUS), Dextromethorphan (DXM), and Ethanol (EtOH). We validated the BMPS platform by measuring the neurotoxic effects on barrier integrity, acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition, viability, and residual OP concentration. The results show that OPs penetrated the model blood brain barrier (BBB) and inhibited AChE activity. DXM, MUS, and EtOH also penetrated the BBB and induced moderate toxicity. The results correlate well with available in vivo data. In addition, simulation results from an in silico physiologically-based pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PBPK/PD) model that we generated show good agreement with in vivo and in vitro data. In conclusion, this paper demonstrates the potential utility of a membrane-free tetraculture BMPS that can recapitulate brain complexity as a cost-effective alternative to animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lumei Liu
- FIT BEST Laboratory, Department of Chemical, Biological, and Bio Engineering, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Greensboro, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Youngmi Koo
- FIT BEST Laboratory, Department of Chemical, Biological, and Bio Engineering, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Greensboro, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Chukwuma Akwitti
- FIT BEST Laboratory, Department of Chemical, Biological, and Bio Engineering, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Greensboro, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Teal Russell
- FIT BEST Laboratory, Department of Chemical, Biological, and Bio Engineering, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Greensboro, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Elaine Gay
- Center for Drug Discovery, RTI International, Research Triangle Park, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Daniel T. Laskowitz
- Departments of Neurology, Anesthesiology, and Neurobiology, Brain Injury Translational Research Center, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Yeoheung Yun
- FIT BEST Laboratory, Department of Chemical, Biological, and Bio Engineering, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Greensboro, North Carolina, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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13
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Wang H, Li F, Qu J, Mao T, Chen J, Li M, Lu Z, Fang Y, Shi G, Li B. The mechanism of damage by trace amounts of acetamiprid to the midgut of the silkworm, Bombyx mori. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2019; 34:1043-1051. [PMID: 31120183 DOI: 10.1002/tox.22775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2019] [Revised: 04/23/2019] [Accepted: 04/30/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Acetamiprid is widely used for agricultural pest control. However, it remains poorly understood whether the environmental residues of acetamiprid have the potential effects on economic insect. In this study, we evaluated the effects of acetamiprid on silkworm growth and development. The exposure to trace amounts of acetamiprid significantly decreased body weight, viability, and spinning ability. In addition, the activity of trypsin in the midgut was decreased after exposure. DGE and KEGG pathway enrichment analysis revealed that the significantly differentially expressed genes were mainly involved in nutrient metabolism, stress responses, and inflammation pathways. These results, in combination with hematoxylin-eosin staining and transmission electron microscopy, indicated that acetamiprid could cause oxidative damage to midgut, lead to inflammatory responses, and affect the activities of midgut digestive enzymes, thus resulting in abnormal growth and development. Our findings greatly contributed to the evaluation of the effects of acetamiprid residues on other nontarget beneficial insect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Wang
- School of Basic Medicine and Biological Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Fanchi Li
- School of Basic Medicine and Biological Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
- Sericulture Institute of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Jianwei Qu
- School of Basic Medicine and Biological Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Tingting Mao
- School of Basic Medicine and Biological Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Jian Chen
- School of Basic Medicine and Biological Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Mengxue Li
- School of Basic Medicine and Biological Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhengting Lu
- School of Basic Medicine and Biological Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Yilong Fang
- School of Basic Medicine and Biological Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Guofang Shi
- Huzhou Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Huzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Bing Li
- School of Basic Medicine and Biological Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
- Sericulture Institute of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
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14
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Ravid O, Elhaik Goldman S, Macheto D, Bresler Y, De Oliveira RI, Liraz-Zaltsman S, Gosselet F, Dehouck L, Beeri MS, Cooper I. Blood-Brain Barrier Cellular Responses Toward Organophosphates: Natural Compensatory Processes and Exogenous Interventions to Rescue Barrier Properties. Front Cell Neurosci 2018; 12:359. [PMID: 30459557 PMCID: PMC6232705 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2018.00359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2018] [Accepted: 09/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Organophosphorus compounds (OPs) are highly toxic chemicals widely used as pesticides (e.g., paraoxon (PX)- the active metabolite of the insecticide parathion) and as chemical warfare nerve agents. Blood-brain barrier (BBB) leakage has been shown in rodents exposed to PX, which is an organophosphate oxon. In this study, we investigated the cellular mechanisms involved in BBB reaction after acute exposure to PX in an established in vitro BBB system made of stem-cell derived, human brain-like endothelial cells (BLECs) together with brain pericytes that closely mimic the in vivo BBB. Our results show that PX directly affects the BBB in vitro both at toxic and non-toxic concentrations by attenuating tight junctional (TJ) protein expression and that only above a certain threshold the paracellular barrier integrity is compromised. Below this threshold, BLECs exhibit a morphological coping mechanism in which they enlarge their cell area thus preventing the formation of meaningful intercellular gaps and maintaining barrier integrity. Importantly, we demonstrate that reversal of the apoptotic cell death induced by PX, by a pan-caspase-inhibitor ZVAD-FMK (ZVAD) can reduce PX-induced cell death and elevate cell area but do not prevent the induced BBB permeability, implying that TJ complex functionality is hindered. This is corroborated by formation of ROS at all toxic concentrations of PX and which are even higher with ZVAD. We suggest that while lower levels of ROS can induce compensating mechanisms, higher PX-induced oxidative stress levels interfere with barrier integrity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Orly Ravid
- The Joseph Sagol Neuroscience Center, Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Ramat Gan, Israel
| | - Shirin Elhaik Goldman
- The Joseph Sagol Neuroscience Center, Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Ramat Gan, Israel
| | - David Macheto
- The Joseph Sagol Neuroscience Center, Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Ramat Gan, Israel
| | - Yael Bresler
- The Joseph Sagol Neuroscience Center, Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Ramat Gan, Israel
| | | | - Sigal Liraz-Zaltsman
- The Joseph Sagol Neuroscience Center, Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Ramat Gan, Israel
| | - Fabien Gosselet
- Blood-Brain Barrier Laboratory (LBHE), Université d'Artois, Lens, France
| | - Lucie Dehouck
- Blood-Brain Barrier Laboratory (LBHE), Université d'Artois, Lens, France
| | - Michal Schnaider Beeri
- The Joseph Sagol Neuroscience Center, Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Ramat Gan, Israel.,Interdisciplinary Center Herzliya, Herzliya, Israel.,Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
| | - Itzik Cooper
- The Joseph Sagol Neuroscience Center, Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Ramat Gan, Israel.,Interdisciplinary Center Herzliya, Herzliya, Israel
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15
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Eftekhari A, Dizaj SM, Chodari L, Sunar S, Hasanzadeh A, Ahmadian E, Hasanzadeh M. The promising future of nano-antioxidant therapy against environmental pollutants induced-toxicities. Biomed Pharmacother 2018; 103:1018-1027. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2018.04.126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2018] [Revised: 04/13/2018] [Accepted: 04/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
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16
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Redox imbalance caused by pesticides: a review of OPENTOX-related research. Arh Hig Rada Toksikol 2018; 69:126-134. [PMID: 29990294 DOI: 10.2478/aiht-2018-69-3105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2018] [Accepted: 05/01/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Pesticides are a highly diverse group of compounds and the most important chemical stressors in the environment. Mechanisms that could explain pesticide toxicity are constantly being studied and their interactions at the cellular level are often observed in well-controlled in vitro studies. Several pesticide groups have been found to impair the redox balance in the cell, but the mechanisms leading to oxidative stress for certain pesticides are only partly understood. As our scientific project "Organic pollutants in environment - markers and biomarkers of toxicity (OPENTOX)" is dedicated to studying toxic effects of selected insecticides and herbicides, this review is focused on reporting the knowledge regarding oxidative stress-related phenomena at the cellular level. We wanted to single out the most important facts relevant to the evaluation of our own findings from studies conducted on in vitro cell models.
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17
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Three-dimensional (3D) tetra-culture brain on chip platform for organophosphate toxicity screening. Sci Rep 2018; 8:2841. [PMID: 29434277 PMCID: PMC5809488 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-20876-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2017] [Accepted: 01/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Organophosphate-based compounds (OPs) represent a significant threat to warfighters (nerve agents) and civilian populations (pesticides). There is a pressing need to develop in vitro brain models that correlate to the in vivo brain to rapidly study OPs for neurotoxicity. Here we report on a microfluidic-based three-dimensional, four-cell tissue construct consisting of 1) a blood-brain barrier that has dynamic flow and membrane-free culture of the endothelial layer, and 2) an extracellular matrix (ECM)-embedded tissue construct with neuroblastoma, microglia, and astrocytes. We demonstrated this platform’s utility by measuring OP effects on barrier integrity, acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition, viability and residual OP concentration with four model OPs. The results show that the OPs penetrate the blood brain barrier (BBB) and rapidly inhibit AChE activity, and that in vitro toxicity was correlated with available in vivo data. This paper demonstrates the potential utility of a membrane-free tetra-cultured brain on chip that can be scaled to high throughput as a cost-effective alternative method to animal testing.
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18
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Huang C, Li N, Yuan S, Ji X, Ma M, Rao K, Wang Z. Aryl- and alkyl-phosphorus-containing flame retardants induced mitochondrial impairment and cell death in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO-k1) cells. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2017; 230:775-786. [PMID: 28732339 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2017.07.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2017] [Revised: 06/15/2017] [Accepted: 07/07/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Phosphorus-containing flame retardants (PFRs) are increasingly in demand worldwide as replacements for brominated flame retardants (BFRs), but insufficient available toxicological information on PFRs makes assessing their health risks challenging. Mitochondria are important targets of various environmental pollutants, and mitochondrial dysfunction may lead to many common diseases. In the present study, mitochondria impairment-related endpoints were measured by a high content screening (HCS) assay for 11 selected non-halogen PFRs in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO-k1) cells. A cluster analysis was used to categorize these PFRs into three groups according to their structural characteristics and results from the HCS assay. Two groups, containing long-chain alkyl-PFRs and all aryl-PFRs, were found to cause mitochondrial impairment but showed different mechanisms of toxicity. Due to the high correlation between cell death and mitochondrial impairment, two PFRs with different structures, trihexyl phosphate (THP) and cresyl diphenyl phosphate (CDP), were selected and compared with chlorpyrifos (CPF) to elucidate their mechanism of inducing cell death. THP (an alkyl-PFR) was found to utilize a similar pathway as CPF to induce apoptosis. However, cell death induced by CDP (an aryl-PFR) was different from classical necrosis based on experiments to discriminate among the different modes of cell death. These results confirm that mitochondria might be important targets for some PFRs and that differently structured PFRs could function via distinct mechanisms of toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Huang
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100085 Beijing, China; College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049 Beijing, China
| | - Na Li
- Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100085 Beijing, China
| | - Shengwu Yuan
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100085 Beijing, China; College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049 Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoya Ji
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100085 Beijing, China; College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049 Beijing, China
| | - Mei Ma
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100085 Beijing, China; College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049 Beijing, China.
| | - Kaifeng Rao
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Aquatic Chemistry, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100085 Beijing, China
| | - Zijian Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Aquatic Chemistry, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100085 Beijing, China
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19
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Yazdinezhad A, Abbasian M, Hojjat Hosseini S, Naserzadeh P, Agh-Atabay AH, Hosseini MJ. Protective effects of Ziziphora tenuior extract against chlorpyrifos induced liver and lung toxicity in rat: Mechanistic approaches in subchronic study. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2017; 32:2191-2202. [PMID: 28569040 DOI: 10.1002/tox.22432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2017] [Revised: 04/08/2017] [Accepted: 04/15/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Chlorpyrifos (CPF) is one of the most widely used organophosphorus, which has spurred renewed interest. This study was conducted to investigate the protective effect of ziziphora tenuior extract against CPF-induced liver and lung toxicity. This study conducted 8-week rat sub-chronic toxicity study and then the effect of ziziphora tenuior extract in 3 different doses (40, 80, 160 mg/kg) was determined. We administrated maximum tolerated dose of CPF (6.75 mg/kg) by gavage for 8 weeks (5 times in week) to male rats. Rats were sacrificed 24 h after last dose and the biochemical analysis, which confirms involvement of oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of CPF toxicity in liver including increased in lipid peroxidation, protein carbonyl content, and ROS formation, glutathione depletion, decreased of antioxidant effect via frap oxidation and cytochrome c expulsion. In addition, pathological lesions confirm the dysfunction of the organs (liver and lung). In addition, using of ziziphora extract as an antioxidant is resulted in amelioration of oxidative stress marker in liver and lung damage. In conclusion, the current study revealed that CPF toxicity is related to oxidative stress and induction of cell death signaling and cotreatment with ziziphora extract is recommended in the routine therapy for the protection against CPF induced liver and lung tissue damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alireza Yazdinezhad
- Department of Pharmacognosy, School of Pharmacy, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran
| | - Meysam Abbasian
- Zanjan Applied Pharmacology Research Center, Zanjan University of Medical sciences, Zanjan, Iran
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran
| | - Seyed Hojjat Hosseini
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran
| | - Parvaneh Naserzadeh
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Mir-Jamal Hosseini
- Zanjan Applied Pharmacology Research Center, Zanjan University of Medical sciences, Zanjan, Iran
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran
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20
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Qin Y, Li X, Xiang Y, Wu D, Bai L, Li Z, Liang Y. Toxic effects of glyphosate on diploid and triploid fin cell lines from Misgurnus anguillicaudatus. CHEMOSPHERE 2017; 180:356-364. [PMID: 28415036 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.03.098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2017] [Revised: 03/22/2017] [Accepted: 03/24/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
We examined the toxic effects of glyphosate on diploid (DIMF) and triploid (TRMF) fin cell lines from the Oriental Weather Loach Misgurnus anguillicaudatus. The LC50 values of glyphosate estimated by methylthiazolyldiphenyl-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay were 315.34 and 371.77 mg/L for DIMF and TRMF, respectively. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione-S-transferase (GST) activities in DIMF and TRMF cells gradually increased and then decreased with increasing glyphosate concentrations, reaching a maximum at 240 mg/L glyphosate. In contrast, acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activities in DIMF and TRMF decreased with increasing concentrations of glyphosate in a concentration-dependent manner. SOD and AChE activities were generally significantly higher in TRMF compared with DIMF cells (P < 0.05). The rates of micronucleus and abnormal nuclei were significantly higher in DIMF and TRMF groups treated with 80-560 mg/L glyphosate compared with the control groups (P < 0.01). The highest micronuclei rates in both DIMF and TRMF cells (both 4.30‰) occurred at 400 mg/L glyphosate. There were no differences in the rates of micronuclei and abnormal nuclei between DIMF and TRMF cells at any glyphosate concentration. Cell damage, including chromatin condensation, nucleus distortion, and broken and reduced endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, and ribosomes, were found in both cells treated with the LC50 concentration of glyphosate. Moreover, vacuolization and apoptotic bodies occurred in glyphosate-exposed DIMF and TRMF cells, indicating apoptosis. These results indicate that glyphosate in the range of tested concentrations represent a potential risk to loach through inhibiting proliferation of diploid and triploid cell lines and induces micronuclei and apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanjie Qin
- Key Laboratory of Marine Bio-resource Restoration and Habitat Reparation in Liaoning Province, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, Liaoning, China; Key Laboratory of Mariculture, Agriculture Ministry, PRC, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, Liaoning, China
| | - Xia Li
- Key Laboratory of Marine Bio-resource Restoration and Habitat Reparation in Liaoning Province, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, Liaoning, China; Key Laboratory of Mariculture, Agriculture Ministry, PRC, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, Liaoning, China.
| | - Yang Xiang
- Key Laboratory of Marine Bio-resource Restoration and Habitat Reparation in Liaoning Province, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, Liaoning, China; Key Laboratory of Mariculture, Agriculture Ministry, PRC, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, Liaoning, China
| | - Di Wu
- Key Laboratory of Marine Bio-resource Restoration and Habitat Reparation in Liaoning Province, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, Liaoning, China; Key Laboratory of Mariculture, Agriculture Ministry, PRC, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, Liaoning, China
| | - Liwen Bai
- Key Laboratory of Marine Bio-resource Restoration and Habitat Reparation in Liaoning Province, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, Liaoning, China; Key Laboratory of Mariculture, Agriculture Ministry, PRC, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, Liaoning, China
| | - Zhuangzhuang Li
- Key Laboratory of Marine Bio-resource Restoration and Habitat Reparation in Liaoning Province, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, Liaoning, China; Key Laboratory of Mariculture, Agriculture Ministry, PRC, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, Liaoning, China
| | - Yan Liang
- Key Laboratory of Marine Bio-resource Restoration and Habitat Reparation in Liaoning Province, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, Liaoning, China; Key Laboratory of Mariculture, Agriculture Ministry, PRC, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, Liaoning, China
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21
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Xu HY, Wang P, Sun YJ, Jiang L, Xu MY, Wu YJ. Autophagy in Tri-o-cresyl Phosphate-Induced Delayed Neurotoxicity. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2017; 76:52-60. [PMID: 28040792 DOI: 10.1093/jnen/nlw108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The widely used organophosphorus compound tri-o-cresyl phosphate (TOCP) elicits delayed neurotoxicity characterized by progressive axonal degeneration in the spinal cord and peripheral nerves. However, the precise mechanisms of TOCP-induced delayed neurotoxicity are not clear. Because autophagy has been linked to the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases, we aimed to characterize autophagy in the progression of TOCP-induced delayed neurotoxicity. In vivo experiments using the adult hen animal model showed that autophagy in spinal cord axons and in sciatic nerves was markedly induced at the early preclinical stage of TOCP-induced delayed neurotoxicity; it was decreased as the delayed neurotoxicity progressed to the overt neuropathy stage. In cultured human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells, TOCP reduced cell growth, and induced prominent autophagy. The autophagy inhibitor 3-methyladenine could attenuate TOCP-induced cytotoxicity, indicating that the autophagy is accountable for TOCP-induced neurotoxicity. In addition, we found that TOCP-induced Parkin translocation to mitochondria in SH-SY5Y cells, suggesting that autophagy may function to degrade mitochondria after TOCP exposure. These results suggest that autophagy may play an important role in the initiation and progression of axonal damage during TOCP-induced neurotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hai-Yang Xu
- Laboratory of Molecular Toxicology, State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Pan Wang
- Laboratory of Molecular Toxicology, State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Ying-Jian Sun
- Laboratory of Molecular Toxicology, State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China.,Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Lu Jiang
- Laboratory of Molecular Toxicology, State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Ming-Yuan Xu
- Laboratory of Molecular Toxicology, State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Yi-Jun Wu
- Laboratory of Molecular Toxicology, State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China
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Zeng Z, Yan Y, Wang B, Liu N, Xu H. Discovery and identification of O, O-diethyl O-(4-(5-phenyl-4, 5-dihydroisoxazol-3-yl) phenyl) phosphorothioate (XP-1408) as a novel mode of action of organophosphorus insecticides. Sci Rep 2017; 7:3617. [PMID: 28620187 PMCID: PMC5472594 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-03663-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2016] [Accepted: 05/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Organophosphorus (OP) insecticides play an important role in pest control. Many OP insecticides have been removed from the market because of their high toxicity to humans. We designed and synthesized a new OP insecticide with the goal of providing a low cost, and less toxic insecticide. The mode of action of O, O-diethyl O-(4-(5-phenyl-4, 5-dihydroisoxazol-3-yl) phenyl) phosphorothioate (XP-1408) was studied in Drosophila melanogaster. Bioassays showed that XP-1408 at a concentration of 50 mg/L delayed larval development. Molecular docking into Drosophila acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and voltage-gated sodium channels suggested that XP-1408 fitted into their active sites and could be inhibitory. Whole-cell patch clamp recordings indicated that XP-1408 exhibited synergistic effects involving the inhibition of cholinergic synaptic transmission and blockage of voltage-gated potassium (Kv) channels and sodium (Nav) channels. In conclusion, the multiple actions of XP-1408 rendered it as a lead compound for formulating OP insecticides with a novel mode of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhigang Zeng
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, Key Laboratory of Natural Pesticide and Chemical Biology of the Ministry of Education, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, P.R. China
- School of Nuclear Technology and Chemistry & Biology, Hubei University of Science and Technology, Xianning, 437100, P.R. China
| | - Ying Yan
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, Key Laboratory of Natural Pesticide and Chemical Biology of the Ministry of Education, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, P.R. China
| | - Bingfeng Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, Key Laboratory of Natural Pesticide and Chemical Biology of the Ministry of Education, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, P.R. China
| | - Niu Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, Key Laboratory of Natural Pesticide and Chemical Biology of the Ministry of Education, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, P.R. China
| | - Hanhong Xu
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, Key Laboratory of Natural Pesticide and Chemical Biology of the Ministry of Education, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, P.R. China.
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Zhang D, He S, Ming T, Lu C, Zhou J, Su X. A metabonomic analysis on the response of Enterobacter cloacae from coastal outfall for land-based pollutant under phoxim stress. Arch Microbiol 2017; 199:1165-1173. [PMID: 28508092 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-017-1383-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2016] [Revised: 04/02/2017] [Accepted: 04/22/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Enterobacter cloacae is an opportunistic pathogen widely distributed in human and animal intestinal systems. The secretion of extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBLs) and cephalosporinase (AmpC) endows E. cloacae with strong drug resistance. In a previous study by our group, protein expression of E. cloacae under phoxim stress was measured by two-dimensional electrophoresis. Here, nuclear magnetic resonance was used to detect differences in E. cloacae metabonomics when under phoxim stress. We determined that there are 29 types of metabolites that differ between phoxim stress and normal culture conditions. Among these, 6 types of metabolites were upregulated in the phoxim stress group, and 23 types of metabolites were inhibited. Though enrichment analysis, seven pathways were identified by different expression levels of metabolites, which were involved in DNA and RNA synthesis, DNA damage repair, antioxidation and functions of the cell membrane and cell wall. The mechanism underlying how phoxim affects E. cloacae was determined by studying the results of both two-dimensional electrophoresis in our prior work and the analysis of E. cloacae metabonomic changes under phoxim stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dijun Zhang
- School of Marine Science, Ningbo University, 818 Fenghua Road, Ningbo, Zhejiang, 315211, People's Republic of China
| | - Shan He
- School of Marine Science, Ningbo University, 818 Fenghua Road, Ningbo, Zhejiang, 315211, People's Republic of China
| | - Tinghong Ming
- School of Marine Science, Ningbo University, 818 Fenghua Road, Ningbo, Zhejiang, 315211, People's Republic of China
| | - Chenyang Lu
- School of Marine Science, Ningbo University, 818 Fenghua Road, Ningbo, Zhejiang, 315211, People's Republic of China
| | - Jun Zhou
- School of Marine Science, Ningbo University, 818 Fenghua Road, Ningbo, Zhejiang, 315211, People's Republic of China.
| | - Xiurong Su
- School of Marine Science, Ningbo University, 818 Fenghua Road, Ningbo, Zhejiang, 315211, People's Republic of China.
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High concentration of trichlorfon (1 mM) disrupts axonal cytoskeleton and decreases the expression of plasticity-related proteins in SH-SY5Y cells. Toxicol In Vitro 2017; 39:84-92. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2016.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2016] [Revised: 11/08/2016] [Accepted: 12/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Bagherpour Shamloo H, Golkari S, Faghfoori Z, Movassaghpour A, Lotfi H, Barzegari A, Yari Khosroushahi A. Lactobacillus Casei Decreases Organophosphorus Pesticide Diazinon Cytotoxicity in Human HUVEC Cell Line. Adv Pharm Bull 2016; 6:201-10. [PMID: 27478782 DOI: 10.15171/apb.2016.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2016] [Revised: 04/27/2016] [Accepted: 05/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Exposure to diazinon can trigger acute and chronic toxicity and significantly induces DNA damage and proapoptotic effects in different human cells. Due to the significance of probiotic bacteria antitoxin effect, this study aimed to investigate the effect of Lactobacillus casei on diazinon (DZN) cytotoxicity in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) in vitro. METHODS The cytotoxicity assessments were performed by MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) test, DAPI (4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole) staining and flow cytometric methodologies. RESULTS Cytotoxic assessments through flow cytometry/ DAPI staining demonstrated that apoptosis is the main cytotoxic mechanism of diazinon in HUVEC cells and L. casei could decrease the diazinon cytotoxic effects on toxicants. CONCLUSION the screen of total bacterial secreted metabolites can be considered as a wealthy source to find the new active compounds to introduce as reducing agricultural remained pesticide cytotoxicity effects on the human food chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hasan Bagherpour Shamloo
- Biotechnology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.; Dryland Agricultural Research Institute (DARI), Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO), Maragheh, Iran
| | - Saber Golkari
- Dryland Agricultural Research Institute (DARI), Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO), Maragheh, Iran
| | - Zeinab Faghfoori
- Tuberculosis & Lung Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.; Student Research Committee, Faculty of Nutrition, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - AliAkbar Movassaghpour
- Hematology and Oncology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Hajie Lotfi
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Faculty of Advanced Medical Science, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz 51664, Iran
| | - Abolfazl Barzegari
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Faculty of Advanced Medical Science, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz 51664, Iran
| | - Ahmad Yari Khosroushahi
- Drug Applied Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.; Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
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Monocrotophos Induces the Expression of Xenobiotic Metabolizing Cytochrome P450s (CYP2C8 and CYP3A4) and Neurotoxicity in Human Brain Cells. Mol Neurobiol 2016; 54:3633-3651. [PMID: 27206429 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-016-9938-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2016] [Accepted: 05/10/2016] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Expression of various cytochrome P450s (CYPs) in mammalian brain cells is well documented. However, such studies are hampered in neural/glial cells of human origin due to nonavailability of human brain cells. To address this issue, we investigated the expression and inducibility of CYP2C8 and CYP3A4 and their responsiveness against cyclophosphamide (CPA) and organophosphorus pesticide monocrotophos (MCP), a known developmental neurotoxicant in human neural (SH-SY5Y) and glial (U373-MG) cell lines. CPA induced significant expression of CYP2C8 and CYP3A4 in both types of cells in a time-dependent manner. Neural cell line exhibited relatively higher constitutive and inducible expression of CYPs than the glial cell line. MCP exposure alone could not induce the significant expression of CYPs, whereas the cells preexposed to CPA showed a significant response to MCP. Similar to the case of CPA induced expressions, neural cells were found to be more vulnerable than glial cells. Our data indicate differential expressions of CYPs in cultured human neural and glial cell lines. The findings were synchronized with protein ligand docking studies, which showed a significant modulatory capacity of MCP by strong interaction with CYP regulators-CAR and PXR. Similarly, the known CYP inducer CPA has also shown significant high docking scores with the two studied CYP regulators. We also observed a significant induction in reactive oxygen species (ROS), lipid peroxides (LPO), micronucleus (MN), chromosomal aberration (CA), and reduction in reduced glutathione (GSH) and catalase following the exposure of MCP. Moreover, the expressions of apoptotic markers such as caspase-3, caspase-9, Bax, and p53 were significantly upregulated, whereas the levels of antiapoptotic marker, Bcl2, was downregulated after the exposure of MCP in both cell lines. These findings confirm the involvement of ROS-mediated oxidative stress, which subsequently triggers apoptosis pathways in both human neural (SH-SY5Y) and glial (U373-MG) cell lines following the exposure of MCP.
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Li F, Hu J, Tian J, Xu K, Ni M, Wang B, Shen W, Li B. Effects of phoxim on nutrient metabolism and insulin signaling pathway in silkworm midgut. CHEMOSPHERE 2016; 146:478-485. [PMID: 26741554 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.12.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2015] [Revised: 11/30/2015] [Accepted: 12/08/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Silkworm (Bombyx mori) is an important economic insect. Each year, poisoning caused by phoxim pesticide leads to huge economic losses in sericulture in China. Silkworm midgut is the major organ for food digestion and nutrient absorption. In this study, we found that the activity and expression of nutrition metabolism-related enzymes were dysregulated in midgut by phoxim exposure. DGE analysis revealed that 40 nutrition metabolism-related genes were differentially expressed. qRT-PCR results indicated that the expression levels of insulin/insulin growth factor signaling (IIS) pathway genes Akt, PI3K, PI3K60, PI3K110, IRS and PDK were reduced, whereas PTEN's expression was significantly increased in the midgut at 24 h after phoxim treatment. However, the transcription levels of Akt, PI3K60, PI3K110, IRS, InR and PDK were elevated and reached the peaks at 48 h, which were 1.48-, 1.35-, 1.21-, 2.24-, 2.89-, and 1.44-fold of those of the control, respectively. At 72 h, the transcription of these genes was reduced. Akt phosphorylation level was increasing along with the growth of silkworms in the control group. However, phoxim treatment led to increased Akt phosphorylation that surged at 24 h but gradually decreased at 48 h and 72 h. The results indicated that phoxim dysregulated the expression of IIS pathway genes and induced abnormal nutrient metabolism in silkworm midgut, which may be the reason of the slow growth of silkworms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fanchi Li
- School of Basic Medicine and Biological Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, PR China
| | - Jingsheng Hu
- School of Basic Medicine and Biological Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, PR China
| | - Jianghai Tian
- School of Basic Medicine and Biological Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, PR China
| | - Kaizun Xu
- School of Basic Medicine and Biological Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, PR China
| | - Min Ni
- School of Basic Medicine and Biological Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, PR China
| | - Binbin Wang
- School of Basic Medicine and Biological Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, PR China
| | - Weide Shen
- School of Basic Medicine and Biological Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, PR China; National Engineering Laboratory for Modern Silk, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, PR China
| | - Bing Li
- School of Basic Medicine and Biological Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, PR China; National Engineering Laboratory for Modern Silk, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, PR China.
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28
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Felemban SG, Garner AC, Smida FA, Boocock DJ, Hargreaves AJ, Dickenson JM. Phenyl Saligenin Phosphate Induced Caspase-3 and c-Jun N-Terminal Kinase Activation in Cardiomyocyte-Like Cells. Chem Res Toxicol 2015; 28:2179-91. [PMID: 26465378 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.5b00338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
At present, little is known about the effect(s) of organophosphorous compounds (OPs) on cardiomyocytes. In this study, we have investigated the effects of phenyl saligenin phosphate (PSP), two organophosphorothioate insecticides (diazinon and chlorpyrifos), and their acutely toxic metabolites (diazoxon and chlorpyrifos oxon) on mitotic and differentiated H9c2 cardiomyoblasts. OP-induced cytotoxicity was assessed by monitoring MTT reduction, LDH release, and caspase-3 activity. Cytotoxicity was not observed with diazinon, diazoxon, or chlorpyrifos oxon (48 h exposure; 200 μM). Chlorpyrifos-induced cytotoxicity was only evident at concentrations >100 μM. In marked contrast, PSP displayed pronounced cytotoxicity toward mitotic and differentiated H9c2 cells. PSP triggered the activation of JNK1/2 but not ERK1/2, p38 MAPK, or PKB, suggesting a role for this pro-apoptotic protein kinase in PSP-induced cell death. The JNK1/2 inhibitor SP 600125 attenuated PSP-induced caspase-3 and JNK1/2 activation, confirming the role of JNK1/2 in PSP-induced cytotoxicity. Fluorescently labeled PSP (dansylated PSP) was used to identify novel PSP binding proteins. Dansylated PSP displayed cytotoxicity toward differentiated H9c2 cells. 2D-gel electrophoresis profiles of cells treated with dansylated PSP (25 μM) were used to identify proteins fluorescently labeled with dansylated PSP. Proteomic analysis identified tropomyosin, heat shock protein β-1, and nucleolar protein 58 as novel protein targets for PSP. In summary, PSP triggers cytotoxicity in differentiated H9c2 cardiomyoblasts via JNK1/2-mediated activation of caspase-3. Further studies are required to investigate whether the identified novel protein targets of PSP play a role in the cytotoxicity of this OP, which is usually associated with the development of OP-induced delayed neuropathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shatha G Felemban
- School of Science and Technology, Nottingham Trent University , Clifton Lane, Nottingham NG11 8NS, United Kingdom
| | - A Christopher Garner
- School of Science and Technology, Nottingham Trent University , Clifton Lane, Nottingham NG11 8NS, United Kingdom
| | - Fathi A Smida
- School of Science and Technology, Nottingham Trent University , Clifton Lane, Nottingham NG11 8NS, United Kingdom
| | - David J Boocock
- John van Geest Cancer Research Centre, Nottingham Trent University , Clifton Lane, Nottingham NG11 8NS, United Kingdom
| | - Alan J Hargreaves
- School of Science and Technology, Nottingham Trent University , Clifton Lane, Nottingham NG11 8NS, United Kingdom
| | - John M Dickenson
- School of Science and Technology, Nottingham Trent University , Clifton Lane, Nottingham NG11 8NS, United Kingdom
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Ahmed T, Banerjee BD. HSP27 modulates survival signaling in endosulfan-exposed human peripheral blood mononuclear cells treated with curcumin. Hum Exp Toxicol 2015; 35:695-704. [PMID: 26242398 DOI: 10.1177/0960327115597986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Endosulfan, a well-known organochlorine pesticide, induces apoptosis and depletion of reduced glutathione (GSH) in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). Thus, for the amelioration of its effect, antioxidant and antiapoptotic potential of curcumin was evaluated. For ascertaining the attenuating effect of curcumin, various biochemical indices of cell damage such as cytotoxicity, oxidative stress, apoptosis (phosphatidylserine externalization, DNA fragmentation, and cytochrome c) in human PBMC was evaluated following endosulfan exposure (0-100 µM). To assess the role of HSP27 on endosulfan-induced apoptosis, the expression of HSP27 was examined. Curcumin (25 µM) increased cell viability significantly. As evident from the restoration of GSH, antiapoptotic potential was directly proportional to their antioxidant nature of curcumin. The present study indicates that the beneficial effect of curcumin on endosulfan-induced cytotoxicity is related to the induced synthesis of HSP27, emphasizing its antioxidant and therapeutic potential as well as underscoring the mechanism of pesticide-induced toxicity at cellular level. Taken together, these findings suggest that curcumin protects against endosulfan-induced immunotoxicity in human PBMC by attenuating apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Ahmed
- School of Biotechnology, IFTM University, Moradabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - B D Banerjee
- Environmental Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, University College of Medical Sciences and GTB Hospital, Delhi, India
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30
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Wang B, Li F, Ni M, Zhang H, Xu K, Tian J, Hu J, Shen W, Li B. Molecular Signatures of Reduced Nerve Toxicity by CeCl3 in Phoxim-exposed Silkworm Brains. Sci Rep 2015; 5:12761. [PMID: 26227613 PMCID: PMC4521201 DOI: 10.1038/srep12761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2015] [Accepted: 07/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
CeCl3 can reduce the damage caused by OP pesticides, in this study we used the brain of silkworms to investigate the mechanism of CeCl3 effects on pesticide resistance. The results showed that phoxim treatments led to brain damages, swelling and death of neurons, chromatin condensation, and mitochondrial damage. Normal nerve conduction was severely affected by phoxim treatments, as revealed by: increases in the contents of neurotransmitters Glu, NO, and ACh by 63.65%, 61.14%, and 98.54%, respectively; decreases in the contents of 5-HT and DA by 53.19% and 43.71%, respectively; reductions in the activities of Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase, Ca(2+)/Mg(2+)-ATPase, and AChE by 85.27%, 85.63%, and 85.63%, respectively; and increase in the activity of TNOS by 22.33%. CeCl3 pretreatment can significantly reduce such damages. Results of DGE and qRT-PCR indicated that CeCl3 treatments significantly upregulated the expression levels of CYP4G23, cyt-b5, GSTs-σ1, ace1, esterase-FE4, and β-esterase 2. Overall, phoxim treatments cause nerve tissue lesions, neuron death, and nerve conduction hindrance, but CeCl3 pretreatments can promote the expression of phoxim resistance-related genes in silkworm brains to reduce phoxim-induced damages. Our study provides a potential new method to improve the resistance of silkworms against OP pesticides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Binbin Wang
- School of Basic Medicine and Biological Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, PR China
| | - Fanchi Li
- School of Basic Medicine and Biological Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, PR China
| | - Min Ni
- School of Basic Medicine and Biological Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, PR China
| | - Hua Zhang
- School of Basic Medicine and Biological Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, PR China
| | - Kaizun Xu
- School of Basic Medicine and Biological Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, PR China
| | - Jianghai Tian
- School of Basic Medicine and Biological Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, PR China
| | - Jingsheng Hu
- School of Basic Medicine and Biological Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, PR China
| | - Weide Shen
- School of Basic Medicine and Biological Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, PR China
- National Engineering Laboratory for Modern Silk, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, PR China
| | - Bing Li
- School of Basic Medicine and Biological Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, PR China
- National Engineering Laboratory for Modern Silk, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, PR China
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31
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Emerick GL, Fernandes LS, de Paula ES, Barbosa F, dos Santos NAG, dos Santos AC. In vitro study of the neuropathic potential of the organophosphorus compounds fenamiphos and profenofos: Comparison with mipafox and paraoxon. Toxicol In Vitro 2015; 29:1079-87. [PMID: 25910916 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2015.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2014] [Revised: 03/24/2015] [Accepted: 04/11/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Organophosphorus-induced delayed neuropathy (OPIDN) is a central-peripheral distal axonopathy that develops 8-14 days after poisoning by a neuropathic organophosphorus compound (OP). Several OPs that caused OPIDN were withdrawn from the agricultural market due to induction of serious delayed effects. Therefore, the development of in vitro screenings able to differentiate neuropathic from non-neuropathic OPs is of crucial importance. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the differences in the neurotoxic effects of mipafox (neuropathic OP) and paraoxon (non-neuropathic OP) in SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells, using the inhibition and aging of neuropathy target esterase (NTE), inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), activation of calpain, neurite outgrowth, cytotoxicity and intracellular calcium as indicators. Additionally, the potential of fenamiphos and profenofos to cause acute and/or delayed effects was also evaluated. Mipafox had the lowest IC50 and induced the highest percentage of aging of NTE among the OPs evaluated. Only mipafox was able to cause calpain activation after 24 h of incubation. Concentrations of mipafox and fenamiphos which inhibited at least 70% of NTE were also able to reduce neurite outgrowth. Cytotoxicity was higher in non-neuropathic than in neuropathic OPs while the intracellular calcium levels were higher in neuropathic than in non-neuropathic OPs. In conclusion, the SH-SY5Y cellular model was selective to differentiate neuropathic from non-neuropathic OPs; fenamiphos, but not profenofos presented results compatible with the induction of OPIDN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guilherme L Emerick
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Toxicológicas e Bromatológicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto - FCFRP, USP, Avenida do Café s/n, Monte Alegre, 14040-903 Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil; Departamento de Farmácia, Instituto de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso - ICS/UFMT/CUS, Sinop, MT, Brazil.
| | - Laís S Fernandes
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Toxicológicas e Bromatológicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto - FCFRP, USP, Avenida do Café s/n, Monte Alegre, 14040-903 Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Eloísa Silva de Paula
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Toxicológicas e Bromatológicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto - FCFRP, USP, Avenida do Café s/n, Monte Alegre, 14040-903 Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Fernando Barbosa
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Toxicológicas e Bromatológicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto - FCFRP, USP, Avenida do Café s/n, Monte Alegre, 14040-903 Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Neife Aparecida Guinaim dos Santos
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Toxicológicas e Bromatológicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto - FCFRP, USP, Avenida do Café s/n, Monte Alegre, 14040-903 Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Antonio Cardozo dos Santos
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Toxicológicas e Bromatológicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto - FCFRP, USP, Avenida do Café s/n, Monte Alegre, 14040-903 Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
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32
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Raszewski G, Lemieszek MK, Łukawski K, Juszczak M, Rzeski W. Chlorpyrifos and cypermethrin induce apoptosis in human neuroblastoma cell line SH-SY5Y. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 2014; 116:158-67. [PMID: 24975276 DOI: 10.1111/bcpt.12285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2014] [Accepted: 06/03/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Our previous in vivo studies showed that chlorpyrifos (CPF) and cypermethrin (CM) in a mixture dermally administered, strongly inhibited cholinesterase activity in plasma and the brain and were very toxic to the rat central nervous system. In this work, the mechanisms of neurotoxicity have not been elucidated. We used human undifferentiated SH-SY5Y cells to study mechanisms of pesticide-induced neuronal cell death. It was found that chlorpyrifos (CPF) and its mixture with cypermethrin (CPF+CM) induced cell death of SH-SY5Y cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner, as shown by MTT assays. Pesticide-induced SH-SY5Y cell death was characterized by concentration-dependent down-regulation of Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL as well as an increase in the caspase 3 activation. Pan-caspase inhibitor Q-VD-OPh produced a slight but significant reversal effect of pesticide-induced toxicity indicating that the major caspase pathways are not integral to CPF- and CPF+CM-induced cell death. Furthermore, signal transduction inhibitors PD98059, SL-327, SB202190, SP600125 and mecamylamine failed to attenuate pesticides effect. Atropine exhibited minimal ability to reverse toxicity. Finally, it was shown that inhibition of TNF-α by pomalidomide attenuated CPF-/CPF+CM-induced apoptosis. Overall, our data suggest that FAS/TNF signalling pathways may participate in CPF and CPF+CM toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grzegorz Raszewski
- Department of Physiopathology, Institute of Rural Health, Lublin, Poland
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33
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Prado A, Petroianu GA, Lorke DE, Chambers JW. A trivalent approach for determining in vitro toxicology: Examination of oxime K027. J Appl Toxicol 2014; 35:219-27. [PMID: 24853289 DOI: 10.1002/jat.3013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2014] [Accepted: 03/10/2014] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Unforeseen toxic effects contribute to compound attrition during preclinical evaluation and clinical trials. Consequently, there is a need to correlate in vitro toxicity to in vivo and clinical outcomes quickly and effectively. We propose an expedited evaluation of physiological parameters in vitro that will improve the ability to predict in vivo toxicity of potential therapeutics. By monitoring metabolism, mitochondrial physiology and cell viability, our approach provides insight to the extent of drug toxicity in vitro. To implement our approach, we used human hepatocellular carcinoma cells (HepG2) and neuroblastoma cells (SH-SY5Y) to monitor hepato- and neurotoxicity of the experimental oxime K027. We utilized a trivalent approach to measure metabolism, mitochondrial stress and induction of apoptosis in 96-well formats. Any change in these three areas may suggest drug-induced toxicity in vivo. K027 and pralidoxime, an oxime currently in clinical use, had no effect on glycolysis or oxygen consumption in HepG2 and SH-SY5Y cells. Similarly, these oximes did not induce oxidant generation nor alter mitochondrial membrane potential. Further, K027 and pralidoxime failed to activate effector caspases, and these oximes did not alter viability. The chemotherapeutic agent, docetaxel, negatively affected metabolism, mitochondrial physiology and viability. Our studies present a streamlined high-throughput trivalent approach for predicting toxicity in vitro, and this approach reveals that K027 has no measurable hepatotoxicity or neurotoxicity in vitro, which correlates with their in vivo data. This approach could eliminate toxic drugs from consideration for in vivo preclinical evaluation faster than existing toxicity prediction panels and ultimately prevent unnecessary experimentation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana Prado
- Department of Cellular Biology and Pharmacology, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami, FL, USA
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Gu Z, Zhou Y, Xie Y, Li F, Ma L, Sun S, Wu Y, Wang B, Wang J, Hong F, Shen W, Li B. The adverse effects of phoxim exposure in the midgut of silkworm, Bombyx mori. CHEMOSPHERE 2014; 96:33-38. [PMID: 23899924 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.06.089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2013] [Accepted: 06/29/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The silkworm is an important economic insect. Poisoning of silkworms by organophosphate pesticides causes tremendous loss to the sericulture. In this study, Solexa sequencing technology was performed to profile the gene expression changes in the midgut of silkworms in response to 24h of phoxim exposure and the impact on detoxification, apoptosis and immune defense were addressed. The results showed that 254 genes displayed at least 2.0-fold changes in expression levels, with 148 genes up-regulated and 106 genes down-regulated. Cytochrome P450 played an important role in detoxification. Histopathology examination and transmission electron microscope revealed swollen mitochondria and disappearance of the cristae of mitochondria, which are the important features in insect apoptotic cells. Cytochrome C release from mitochondria into the cytoplasm was confirmed. In addition, the Toll and immune deficiency (IMD) signal pathways were all inhibited using qRT-PCR. Our results could help better understand the impact of phoxim exposure on silkworm.
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Affiliation(s)
- ZhiYa Gu
- School of Basic Medicine and Biological Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, PR China
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Zou C, Kou R, Gao Y, Xie K, Song F. Activation of mitochondria-mediated apoptotic pathway in tri-ortho-cresyl phosphate-induced delayed neuropathy. Neurochem Int 2013; 62:965-72. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2013.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2012] [Revised: 03/15/2013] [Accepted: 03/19/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Lu X, Yu C. Enantiomer-specific profenofos-induced cytotoxicity and DNA damage mediated by oxidative stress in rat adrenal pheochromocytoma (PC12) cells. J Appl Toxicol 2013; 34:166-75. [DOI: 10.1002/jat.2847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2012] [Revised: 10/23/2012] [Accepted: 10/30/2012] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xianting Lu
- College of Materials and Environmental Engineering; Hangzhou Dianzi University; Hangzhou 310018 China
| | - Cheng Yu
- HangZhou Environmental Protection CO. LTD; Hangzhou 310007 China
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Cardona D, López-Granero C, Cañadas F, Llorens J, Flores P, Pancetti F, Sánchez-Santed F. Dose-dependent regional brain acetylcholinesterase and acylpeptide hydrolase inhibition without cell death after chlorpyrifos administration. J Toxicol Sci 2013; 38:193-203. [DOI: 10.2131/jts.38.193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Diana Cardona
- Departamento de Neurociencia y Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Almería,Spain
| | | | - Fernando Cañadas
- Departamento de Neurociencia y Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Almería,Spain
| | - Jordi Llorens
- Departament de Ciéncies Fisológiques II, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain
| | - Pilar Flores
- Departamento de Neurociencia y Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Almería,Spain
| | - Floria Pancetti
- Departamento de Ciencias Biomédicas, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Católica del Norte, Chile
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Toor HK, Sangha GK, Khera KS. Imidacloprid induced histological and biochemical alterations in liver of female albino rats. PESTICIDE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2013; 105:1-4. [PMID: 24238282 DOI: 10.1016/j.pestbp.2012.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2012] [Revised: 10/06/2012] [Accepted: 10/09/2012] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Imidacloprid is a neonicotinoid insecticide being used extensively for crop protection and pet flea control programmes. The effect of repeated oral administration of two doses of imidcloprid (1/10th and 1/50th of LD50 of imidacloprid) on liver of female albino rat was assessed. Histological examination of liver revealed that imidacloprid (1/10th of LD50) treatment resulted in dilations of central vein and sinusoids between hepatocytes however imidacloprid (1/50th of LD50) treatment did not induce histopathological changes in liver. Non significant decrease in alkaline phosphatase (AKP) activity was observed in imidacloprid treated rats. Liver aspartate aminotransferase level showed significant increase in higher dose of imidacloprid. Additionally, significant increases in plasma levels of aspatate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and alkaline phosphatase (AKP) were observed in the treated rats. The results suggest that the higher doses of imidacloprid at 1/10th of LD50 is hepatotoxic as compared to lower dose of 1/50th of LD50 of imidacloprid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harmandeep Kaur Toor
- Department of Zoology, College of Basic Sciences and Humanities, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141004, Punjab, India
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Desouky MMA, Abdel-Gawad H, Hegazi B. Distribution, fate and histopathological effects of ethion insecticide on selected organs of the crayfish, Procambarus clarkii. Food Chem Toxicol 2012; 52:42-52. [PMID: 23127602 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2012.10.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2012] [Revised: 10/16/2012] [Accepted: 10/23/2012] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
This study aims to investigate the fate and histopathological effects of ethion on selected organs of the crayfish, Procamabrus clarkii. Crayfish were exposed to 1 mg l(-1) (14)C-ethion and the concentrations of ethion and its possible degradation products were measured in water and different organs of the crayfish over both the exposure and recovery periods. Chromatographic analysis revealed that ethion was degraded into ethion monooxon, ethion dioxon, O,O-diethyl phosphorothioate, O-ethyl phosphorothioate and one unknown compound. At the end of exposure period, ethion was accumulated in different organs of the crayfish especially in the hepatopancreas and gills. Following the transfer of crayfish to clean water for seven days, the concentration of insecticide residues were decreased in both the hepatopancreas and gills suggesting that these organs play an important role in elimination of ethion. On the other hand, the exposure of the crayfish to ¼ 96 h-LC(50) (0.36 mg l(-1)) of ethion caused extensive ultrastructural alterations to both hepatopancreas and gill epithelial cells. In the hepatopancreas, the most notable pathological features included vacuolation, degradation and distinct cell lysis. In the gill epithelium, the histopathological alterations included infiltration of hemocytes, cytoplasmic vacuolation and a decrease in the number of basal plasma membrane infoldings.
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Zhao M, Wang C, Zhang C, Wen Y, Liu W. Enantioselective cytotoxicity profile of o,p'-DDT in PC 12 cells. PLoS One 2012; 7:e43823. [PMID: 22937105 PMCID: PMC3427172 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0043823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2012] [Accepted: 07/26/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The continued uses of dichlordiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) for indoor vector control in some developing countries have recently fueled intensive debates toward the global ban of this persistent legacy contaminant. Current approaches for ecological and health risk assessment has ignored the chiral nature of DDT. In this study by employing an array of cytotoxicity related endpoints, we investigated the enantioselective cytotoxicity of o,p'-DDT. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS we demonstrated for the first time that R-(-)-o,p'-DDT caused more neuron cell death by inducing more severe oxidative stress, which selectively imbalanced the transcription of stress-related genes (SOD1, SOD2, HSP70) and enzyme (superoxide dismutase and lactate dehydrogenase) activities, and greater cellular apoptosis compared to its enantiomer S-(+)-o,p'-DDT at the level comparable to malaria area exposure (parts per million). We further elucidated enantioselective modes of action using microarray combined with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The enantioselective apoptosis might involve three signaling pathways via caspase 3, tumor protein 53 (p53) and NF(k)B. CONCLUSIONS Based on DDT stereochemistry and results reported for other chiral pesticides, our results pointed to the same directional enantioselectivity of chiral DDT toward mammalian cells. We proposed that risk assessment on DDT should consider the enantiomer ratio and enantioselectivities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meirong Zhao
- Research Center of Environmental Science, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China
| | - Cui Wang
- Research Center of Environmental Science, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China
| | - Chunlong Zhang
- University of Houston-Clear Lake, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Yuezhong Wen
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Weiping Liu
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
- * E-mail:
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Liyasova MS, Schopfer LM, Lockridge O. Cresyl saligenin phosphate, an organophosphorus toxicant, makes covalent adducts with histidine, lysine, and tyrosine residues of human serum albumin. Chem Res Toxicol 2012; 25:1752-61. [PMID: 22793878 DOI: 10.1021/tx300215g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
CBDP [2-(2-cresyl)-4H-1-3-2-benzodioxaphosphorin-2-oxide] is a toxic organophosphorus compound. It is generated in vivo from tri-ortho-cresyl phosphate (TOCP), a component of jet engine oil and hydraulic fluids. Exposure to TOCP was proven to occur on board aircraft by finding CBDP-derived phospho-butyrylcholinesterase in the blood of passengers. Adducts on BChE, however, do not explain the toxicity of CBDP. Critical target proteins of CBDP are yet to be identified. Our goal was to facilitate the search for the critical targets of CBDP by determining the range of amino acid residues capable of reacting with CBDP and characterizing the types of adducts formed. We used human albumin as a model protein. Mass spectral analysis of the tryptic digest of CBDP-treated human albumin revealed adducts on His-67, His-146, His-242, His-247, His-338, Tyr-138, Tyr-140, Lys-199, Lys-351, Lys-414, Lys-432, and Lys-525. Adducts formed on tyrosine residues were different from those formed on histidines and lysines. Tyrosines were organophosphorylated by CBDP, while histidine and lysine residues were alkylated. This is the first report of an organophosphorus compound with both phosphorylating and alkylating properties. The o-hydroxybenzyl adduct on histidine is novel. The ability of CBDP to form stable adducts on histidine, tyrosine, and lysine allows one to consider new mechanisms of toxicity from TOCP exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariya S Liyasova
- Department of Environmental, Agricultural & Occupational Health, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198-5950, USA
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Jiang W, Duysen EG, Lockridge O. Induction of plasma acetylcholinesterase activity and apoptosis in mice treated with the organophosphorus toxicant, tri-o-cresyl phosphate. Toxicol Res (Camb) 2012. [DOI: 10.1039/c2tx20009k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Organophosphorus compounds (OP) inhibit acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity and cause cultured cells to undergo apoptosis. Live mice treated with OP have reduced AChE activity, but after a short recovery period, their AChE activity rebounds to levels that exceed baseline by more than 2-fold. To date no information is available on whether abnormally high AChE activity is characteristic of apoptosis in animals. Our goal was to determine whether induction of AChE activity is associated with apoptosis in live mice. For this purpose we treated mice with 1500 mg kg−1tri-o-cresyl phosphate. On day one after treatment their plasma AChE activity was inhibited by 50%. On day 4, plasma AChE activity rebounded to a level 2.2-fold higher than pretreatment activity and remained elevated for about two months. On day 4, AChE activity in the lung was 1.5-fold higher than in controls. Cells in lung sections that were positive in the apoptosis TUNEL assay, stained heavily for AChE activity. In conclusion, AChE activity and apoptosis are induced in mice treated with tri-o-cresyl phosphate. Unusually high AChE activity may be a marker of exposure to apoptosis-inducing substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Jiang
- Department of Environmental, Agricultural and Occupational Health, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Ellen G. Duysen
- Department of Environmental, Agricultural and Occupational Health, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
- Eppley Institute, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198-5950, USA. Fax: +1 402 559 4651; Tel: +1 402 559 6032
| | - Oksana Lockridge
- Eppley Institute, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198-5950, USA. Fax: +1 402 559 4651; Tel: +1 402 559 6032
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Pomeroy-Black M, Ehrich M. Organophosphorus compound effects on neurotrophin receptors and intracellular signaling. Toxicol In Vitro 2012; 26:759-65. [PMID: 22449548 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2012.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2011] [Revised: 03/05/2012] [Accepted: 03/08/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Neurite outgrowth of SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells following the addition of spinal cord extracts from chickens exposed to a neuropathic organophosphorus (OP) compound suggests the presence of a growth factor during OP neuropathy. However, exposure of SH-SY5Y cells directly to neuropathic OP compounds results in apoptosis and/or decreased neurite outgrowth. These cellular effects may follow OP-induced interference with neurotrophin-receptor binding and/or intracellular signaling resulting from receptor binding. We hypothesized that sub-lethal concentrations of a neuropathic OP compound interferes with neurotrophin-receptor binding as well as specific intracellular signaling pathways in neuroblastoma cells which would not occur with a non-neuropathic OP compound. SH-SY5Y cells were exposed to a neuropathic OP compound (PSP; 0.01, 0.1, 1.0μM), a neuropathic OP compound with nerve growth factor (1.0μM PSP+1ng/ml NGF), a non-neuropathic OP compound (paraoxon; 100μM), and medium only for 4, 8, 24, and 48h. Western blots indicate that cells exposed to a low dose of PSP or the high dose of PSP+NGF contained the phosphorylated form of a common neurotrophin receptor (pp75) that was four times greater than that of the phosphorylated form of the high-affinity NGF receptor (pTrkA) suggesting that p75 activation may contribute to early cell death after exposure to OP compounds. Furthermore, events in signaling pathways after exposure to PSP differed from those after exposure to paraoxon, with activation of the MEK1/2 protein increasing significantly only after exposure to paraoxon. Both types of OP compounds, however, caused significant activation of Akt in the PI-3K cell-survival pathway. These results suggest that exposure to a non-neuropathic OP compound causes increased activity of the MAPK pathway whereas exposure to neuropathic OP compounds prevented upregulation of the pathway. Since this pathway is integral to neurite outgrowth and cell survival, this study has revealed molecular mechanisms implicated in neuronal response after exposure to neuropathic OP compounds.
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Flaskos J. The developmental neurotoxicity of organophosphorus insecticides: A direct role for the oxon metabolites. Toxicol Lett 2012; 209:86-93. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2011.11.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2011] [Revised: 11/25/2011] [Accepted: 11/26/2011] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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Eterović VA, Pérez D, Martins AH, Cuadrado BL, Carrasco M, Ferchmin PA. A cembranoid protects acute hippocampal slices against paraoxon neurotoxicity. Toxicol In Vitro 2011; 25:1468-74. [PMID: 21569834 PMCID: PMC3162106 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2011.04.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2011] [Revised: 04/01/2011] [Accepted: 04/22/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Many neurotoxic organophosphates (OPs) inhibit acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and as a result can cause a life threatening cholinergic crisis. Current medical countermeasures, which typically include atropine and oximes target the cholinergic crisis and are effective in decreasing mortality but do not sufficiently protect against delayed neurological deficits. There is, therefore, a need to develop neuroprotective drugs to prevent long-term neurological deficits. We used acute hippocampal slices to test the hypothesis that 4R,6R-cembratrienediol (4R) protects against functional damage caused by the OP paraoxon (POX). To assess hippocampal function, we measured synaptically evoked population spikes (PSs). Application of 4R reversed POX inhibition of PSs and the EC(50) of this effect was 0.8 μM. Atropine alone did not protect against POX neurotoxicity, but it did enhance protection by 4R. Pralidoxime partially regenerated AChE activity and protected against POX inhibition of PSs. 4R did not regenerate AChE suggesting that under our experimental conditions, the deleterious effect of POX on hippocampal function is not directly related to AChE inhibition. In conclusion, 4R is a promising neuroprotective compound against OP neurotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vesna A Eterović
- Department of Biochemistry, Universidad Central Del Caribe, Bayamón, PR 00960-6032
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Duysen EG, Lockridge O. Induction of plasma acetylcholinesterase activity in mice challenged with organophosphorus poisons. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2011; 255:214-20. [PMID: 21767560 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2011.06.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2011] [Revised: 06/03/2011] [Accepted: 06/24/2011] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The restoration of plasma acetylcholinesterase activity in mice following inhibition by organophosphorus pesticides and nerve agents has been attributed to synthesis of new enzyme. It is generally assumed that activity levels return to normal, are stable and do not exceed the normal level. We have observed over the past 10 years that recovery of acetylcholinesterase activity levels in mice treated with organophosphorus agents (OP) exceeds pretreatment levels and remains elevated for up to 2 months. The most dramatic case was in mice treated with tri-cresyl phosphate and tri-ortho-cresyl phosphate, where plasma acetylcholinesterase activity rebounded to a level 250% higher than the pretreatment activity. The present report summarizes our observations on plasma acetylcholinesterase activity in mice treated with chlorpyrifos, chlorpyrifos oxon, diazinon, tri-ortho-cresyl phosphate, tri-cresyl phosphate, tabun thiocholine, parathion, dichlorvos, and diisopropylfluorophosphate. We have developed a hypothesis to explain the excess acetylcholinesterase activity, based on published observations. We hypothesize that acetylcholinesterase activity is induced when cells undergo apoptosis and that consequently there is a rise in the level of plasma acetylcholinesterase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellen G Duysen
- Eppley Institute, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198-5950, USA
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Rodríguez HH, Espinoza-Navarro O, Silva I, Needham D, Castro ME, Sarabia L, Inostroza J, Jimenez L. The effect of paraoxon on spermatogenesis in Dugesia gonocephala from the Chilean Altiplano: proliferation and apoptosis. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2011; 18:497-502. [PMID: 20865341 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-010-0385-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2009] [Accepted: 07/27/2010] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION AND AIMS The Chilean Altiplano ecosystem is conserved free from contaminants and pollutants because of the absence of major local human activities such as agriculture or other industries. We studied the effects of paraoxon on proliferation and apoptosis of testicular cells during active spermatogenesis in Dugesia gonocephala collected from a pristine river (Guacollo) in the Altiplano region nearby Visviri town, Chile. MATERIALS AND METHODS Adult planarians were incubated in varying concentrations of paraoxon (0.8, 0.4, 0.04, 0.004, and 0.0004 mM) for 4 h. After 3 h of incubation, bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) was added. Effects on cell proliferation (BrdU) and apoptosis (Apaf-1) were determined by immunohistochemistry. RESULTS Paraoxon concentrations of 0.4 and 0.8 mM caused 100% mortality in the respective treatment groups. The lowest tested concentration (0.0004 mM) caused a significant increase on cell proliferation in the seminiferous tubules, as well as an increase in the number of apoptotic cells. All other tested concentrations significantly inhibited cell proliferation and induced apoptosis. CONCLUSIONS Paraoxon inhibits DNA synthesis and induces apoptosis during spermatogenesis in adult planarians from a high-altitude, pollution-free environment. This could suggest its use as a biosensor or biomarker for contamination with agro pesticides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hector Hernan Rodríguez
- Unidad de Histoembriología, ICBM, Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, Avenida Independencia 1027, 8389100, Santiago, Chile.
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Febbraio F, Merone L, Cetrangolo GP, Rossi M, Nucci R, Manco G. Thermostable Esterase 2 from Alicyclobacillus acidocaldarius as Biosensor for the Detection of Organophosphate Pesticides. Anal Chem 2011; 83:1530-6. [DOI: 10.1021/ac102025z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ferdinando Febbraio
- Istituto di Biochimica delle Proteine, CNR. Via P. Castellino 111, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Luigia Merone
- Istituto di Biochimica delle Proteine, CNR. Via P. Castellino 111, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | | | - Mosè Rossi
- Istituto di Biochimica delle Proteine, CNR. Via P. Castellino 111, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Roberto Nucci
- Istituto di Biochimica delle Proteine, CNR. Via P. Castellino 111, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Manco
- Istituto di Biochimica delle Proteine, CNR. Via P. Castellino 111, 80131 Naples, Italy
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Charoenying T, Suriyo T, Thiantanawat A, Chaiyaroj SC, Parkpian P, Satayavivad J. Effects of paraoxon on neuronal and lymphocytic cholinergic systems. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2011; 31:119-128. [PMID: 21787676 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2010.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2010] [Revised: 09/05/2010] [Accepted: 09/21/2010] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The cholinergic system in lymphocytes is hypothesized to be a key target for neurotoxic organophosphates (OPs). The present study determined the comparative effects of paraoxon, the active metabolite of OP-parathion, which is detected in the human neuroblastoma line, SH-SY5Y, and leukemic T-lymphocytes, MOLT-3, in vitro. Paraoxon induced cytotoxic effects in a dose- and time-dependent manner in both cells. Further, the paraoxon-induced modulatory effects were comparable despite different cell types, including over-expression of N-terminus acetylcholinesterase (N-AChE) protein, a marker of apoptosis, down-regulations of mRNA encoding M1, M2, and M3 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs), and induction in expression of c-Fos gene, an indication of certain mAChR subtype(s) activation. Furthermore, the non-selective cholinergic antagonist atropine partially attenuated the paraoxon-induced N-AChE and c-Fos activations in both types of cells. These results provide initial and additional information that OPs may similarly induce neuro- and immuno-toxic effects through mAChRs activation, and they underline the potential of using lymphocytes for assessing OPs-induced neurotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanvisith Charoenying
- Inter-University Program in Environmental Toxicology, Technology, and Management, Asian Institute of Technology, Mahidol University, and Chulabhorn Research Institute, Bangkok 10210, Thailand
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Induction of apoptosis in human colon carcinoma COLO 205 cells by the recombinant α subunit of C-phycocyanin. Biotechnol Lett 2010; 33:637-44. [DOI: 10.1007/s10529-010-0464-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2010] [Accepted: 10/27/2010] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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