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Shedroff E, Martin ML, Whitmer SLM, Brignone J, Garcia JB, Sen C, Nazar Y, Fabbri C, Morales-Betoulle M, Mendez J, Montgomery J, Morales MA, Klena JD. Novel Oliveros-like Clade C Mammarenaviruses from Rodents in Argentina, 1990-2020. Viruses 2024; 16:340. [PMID: 38543706 PMCID: PMC10976098 DOI: 10.3390/v16030340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2023] [Revised: 02/06/2024] [Accepted: 02/19/2024] [Indexed: 05/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Following an Argentine Hemorrhagic Fever (AHF) outbreak in the early 1990s, a rodent survey for Junín virus, a New World Clade B arenavirus, in endemic areas of Argentina was conducted. Since 1990, INEVH has been developing eco-epidemiological surveillance of rodents, inside and outside the Argentine Hemorrhagic Fever endemic area. Samples from rodents captured between 1993 and 2019 that were positive for Arenavirus infection underwent Sanger and unbiased, Illumina-based high-throughput sequencing, which yielded 5 complete and 88 partial Mammarenaviruses genomes. Previously, 11 genomes representing four species of New World arenavirus Clade C existed in public records. This work has generated 13 novel genomes, expanding the New World arenavirus Clade C to 24 total genomes. Additionally, two genomes exhibit sufficient genetic diversity to be considered a new species, as per ICTV guidelines (proposed name Mammarenavirus vellosense). The 13 novel genomes exhibited reassortment between the small and large segments in New World Mammarenaviruses. This work demonstrates that Clade C Mammarenavirus infections circulate broadly among Necromys species in the Argentine Hemorrhagic Fever endemic area; however, the risk for Clade C Mammarenavirus human infection is currently unknown.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Shedroff
- Viral Special Pathogens Branch, The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd., Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (E.S.); (S.L.M.W.); (M.M.-B.); (J.M.)
| | - Maria Laura Martin
- Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Virales Humanas Dr. Julio I. Maiztegui, Monteagudo 2510, Pergamino 2700, Argentina; (M.L.M.); (J.B.); (J.B.G.); (C.S.); (Y.N.); (C.F.); (M.A.M.)
| | - Shannon L. M. Whitmer
- Viral Special Pathogens Branch, The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd., Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (E.S.); (S.L.M.W.); (M.M.-B.); (J.M.)
| | - Julia Brignone
- Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Virales Humanas Dr. Julio I. Maiztegui, Monteagudo 2510, Pergamino 2700, Argentina; (M.L.M.); (J.B.); (J.B.G.); (C.S.); (Y.N.); (C.F.); (M.A.M.)
| | - Jorge B. Garcia
- Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Virales Humanas Dr. Julio I. Maiztegui, Monteagudo 2510, Pergamino 2700, Argentina; (M.L.M.); (J.B.); (J.B.G.); (C.S.); (Y.N.); (C.F.); (M.A.M.)
| | - Carina Sen
- Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Virales Humanas Dr. Julio I. Maiztegui, Monteagudo 2510, Pergamino 2700, Argentina; (M.L.M.); (J.B.); (J.B.G.); (C.S.); (Y.N.); (C.F.); (M.A.M.)
| | - Yael Nazar
- Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Virales Humanas Dr. Julio I. Maiztegui, Monteagudo 2510, Pergamino 2700, Argentina; (M.L.M.); (J.B.); (J.B.G.); (C.S.); (Y.N.); (C.F.); (M.A.M.)
| | - Cintia Fabbri
- Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Virales Humanas Dr. Julio I. Maiztegui, Monteagudo 2510, Pergamino 2700, Argentina; (M.L.M.); (J.B.); (J.B.G.); (C.S.); (Y.N.); (C.F.); (M.A.M.)
| | - Maria Morales-Betoulle
- Viral Special Pathogens Branch, The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd., Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (E.S.); (S.L.M.W.); (M.M.-B.); (J.M.)
| | - Jairo Mendez
- Pan American Health Organization, 525 23rd St. New World, Washington, DC 20037, USA;
| | - Joel Montgomery
- Viral Special Pathogens Branch, The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd., Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (E.S.); (S.L.M.W.); (M.M.-B.); (J.M.)
| | - Maria Alejandra Morales
- Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Virales Humanas Dr. Julio I. Maiztegui, Monteagudo 2510, Pergamino 2700, Argentina; (M.L.M.); (J.B.); (J.B.G.); (C.S.); (Y.N.); (C.F.); (M.A.M.)
| | - John D. Klena
- Viral Special Pathogens Branch, The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd., Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (E.S.); (S.L.M.W.); (M.M.-B.); (J.M.)
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Tapia-Ramírez G, Lorenzo C, Navarrete D, Carrillo-Reyes A, Retana Ó, Carrasco-Hernández R. A Review of Mammarenaviruses and Rodent Reservoirs in the Americas. ECOHEALTH 2022; 19:22-39. [PMID: 35247117 PMCID: PMC9090702 DOI: 10.1007/s10393-022-01580-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2021] [Revised: 12/08/2021] [Accepted: 12/09/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
In the Americas, infectious viral diseases caused by viruses of the genus Mammarenavirus have been reported since the 1960s. Such diseases have commonly been associated with land use changes, which favor abundance of generalist rodent species. In the Americas-where the rates of land use change are among the highest worldwide-at least 1326 of all 2277 known rodent species have been reported. We conducted a literature review of studies between 1960 and 2020, to establish the current and historical knowledge about genotypes of mammarenaviruses and their rodent reservoirs in the Americas. Our overall goal was to show the importance of focusing research efforts on the American continent, since the conditions exist for future viral hemorrhagic fever (VHF) outbreaks caused by rodent-borne viruses, in turn, carried by widely distributed rodents. We found 47 species identified down to the species level, and one species identified only down to the genus level (Oryzomys sp.), reported in the Americas as reservoirs of mammarenaviruses, most these are ecological generalists. These species associate with 29 genotypes of Mammarenavirus, seven of which have been linked to VHFs in humans. We also highlight the need to monitor these species, in order to prevent viral disease outbreaks in the region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gloria Tapia-Ramírez
- Departamento de Conservación de la Biodiversidad, El Colegio de La Frontera Sur, Periférico Sur S/N María Auxiliadora, 29290, San Cristóbal de Las Casas, Chiapas, Mexico.
| | - Consuelo Lorenzo
- Departamento de Conservación de la Biodiversidad, El Colegio de La Frontera Sur, Periférico Sur S/N María Auxiliadora, 29290, San Cristóbal de Las Casas, Chiapas, Mexico
| | - Darío Navarrete
- Departamento de Observación de la Tierra, Atmósfera y Océano, El Colegio de La Frontera Sur, Periférico Sur S/N María Auxiliadora, 29290, San Cristóbal de Las Casas, Chiapas, Mexico
| | - Arturo Carrillo-Reyes
- Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de Ciencias y Artes de Chiapas, Av 1a. Sur Pte 1460, C.P., 29000, Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas, Mexico
| | - Óscar Retana
- Centro de Estudios en Desarrollo Sustentable, Universidad Autónoma de Campeche, Avenida Héroe de Nacozari 480, C.P., 24079, San Francisco de Campeche, Campeche, Mexico
| | - Rocío Carrasco-Hernández
- Centro de Investigación en Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias, Ismael Cosío Villegas, Calz. de Tlalpan 4502, C. P., 14080, Ciudad de México, Mexico
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3
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Abstract
In the past, viruses were considered nonliving infectious particles, little more than genetic material wrapped in a protein capsid. Today, virologists are beginning to think of viruses as living organisms that can be classified phylogenetically into defined species, much like any other living organism. The primary reasons for this shift in attitude can be partially attributed to the discovery of giant viruses, having large genomes and complex regulatory systems. Aside from that, it has become obvious that viruses lead complex lives; they evolve, speciate, and participate in the evolution of all classes of living organisms. In this chapter, we will discuss the early attempts to classify viruses, and review the biologic properties of the classes of virus that contain human pathogens.
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4
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Fernandes J, de Oliveira RC, Guterres A, Barreto-Vieira DF, Terças ACP, Teixeira BR, da Silva MAN, Caldas GC, de Oliveira Coelho JMC, Barth OM, D'Andrea PS, Bonvicino CR, de Lemos ERS. Detection of Latino virus (Arenaviridae: Mammarenavirus) naturally infecting Calomys callidus. Acta Trop 2018; 179:17-24. [PMID: 29217383 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2017.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2017] [Revised: 11/27/2017] [Accepted: 12/02/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Mammarenavirus species are associated with a specific rodent host species, although an increasing number of virus has been associated to more than one host, suggesting that co-evolution is less robust than initially thought. There are few eco-epidemiological studies of South America mammarenaviruses in non-endemic areas of Arenavirus Hemorrhagic Fever, affecting specially our current knowledge about animal reservoirs and virus range and host-virus relations. In Brazil, seven arenavirus species were described in seven different rodent species. Here in we describe a new rodent reservoir species in Brazil related to the previously described Latino mammarenavirus (LATV) MARU strain. Samples of 148 rodents from Mato Grosso state, Brazil were analyzed. Amplification of the glycoprotein precursor gene (GPC) was observed in six Calomys callidus rodents. According to phylogenetic inferences, is observed a well-supported monophyletic clade of LATV from C. callidus and other Clade C mammarenavirus. In addition, the phylogenetic relations of both genes showed a close relation between LATV MARU and Capão Seco strains, two distinct lineages. Additionally, the results obtained in this study point out to a change of scenario and in previously stabilized patterns in the dynamics of South American mammarenaviruses, showing that with more studies in AHF non-endemic or silent areas, more potential hosts for this virus will be discovered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorlan Fernandes
- Laboratório de Hantaviroses e Rickettsioses, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, CEP 21040-360 RJ, Brazil.
| | - Renata Carvalho de Oliveira
- Laboratório de Hantaviroses e Rickettsioses, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, CEP 21040-360 RJ, Brazil
| | - Alexandro Guterres
- Laboratório de Hantaviroses e Rickettsioses, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, CEP 21040-360 RJ, Brazil
| | - Débora Ferreira Barreto-Vieira
- Laboratório de Morfologia e Morfogênese Viral, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, CEP 21040-360 RJ, Brazil
| | | | - Bernardo Rodrigues Teixeira
- Laboratório de Biologia e Parasitologia de Mamíferos Silvestres Reservatórios, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, CEP 21040-360 RJ, Brazil
| | - Marcos Alexandre Nunes da Silva
- Laboratório de Morfologia e Morfogênese Viral, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, CEP 21040-360 RJ, Brazil
| | - Gabriela Cardoso Caldas
- Laboratório de Morfologia e Morfogênese Viral, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, CEP 21040-360 RJ, Brazil
| | | | - Ortrud Monika Barth
- Laboratório de Morfologia e Morfogênese Viral, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, CEP 21040-360 RJ, Brazil
| | - Paulo Sergio D'Andrea
- Laboratório de Biologia e Parasitologia de Mamíferos Silvestres Reservatórios, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, CEP 21040-360 RJ, Brazil
| | - Cibele Rodrigues Bonvicino
- Laboratório de Biologia e Parasitologia de Mamíferos Silvestres Reservatórios, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, CEP 21040-360 RJ, Brazil; Instituto Nacional do Câncer - INCA, Rio de Janeiro, CEP 20230-092 RJ, Brazil
| | - Elba Regina Sampaio de Lemos
- Laboratório de Hantaviroses e Rickettsioses, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, CEP 21040-360 RJ, Brazil.
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5
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Fernandes J, de Oliveira RC, Guterres A, de Carvalho Serra F, Bonvicino CR, D'Andrea PS, Cunha RV, Levis S, de Lemos ERS. Co-circulation of Clade C New World Arenaviruses: New geographic distribution and host species. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2015; 33:242-5. [PMID: 25975978 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2015.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2015] [Revised: 05/06/2015] [Accepted: 05/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Clade C, of the New World Arenaviruses, is composed of only the Latino and Oliveros viruses and, besides the geographic range of their rodent reservoirs, the distribution of these viruses has been restricted to Bolivia and Argentina. In this study, the genetic detection and phylogenetic analysis of the complete S segment sequences of sympatric arenaviruses from Brazil revealed a new geographic distribution of clade C arenaviruses, as well as the association of Oliveros virus with a new rodent reservoir.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorlan Fernandes
- Laboratório de Hantaviroses e Rickettsioses, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Brazil.
| | | | - Alexandro Guterres
- Laboratório de Hantaviroses e Rickettsioses, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Brazil
| | | | - Cibele Rodrigues Bonvicino
- Instituto Nacional do Câncer, Brazil; Laboratório de Biologia e Parasitologia de Mamíferos Silvestres Reservatórios, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Brazil
| | - Paulo Sergio D'Andrea
- Laboratório de Biologia e Parasitologia de Mamíferos Silvestres Reservatórios, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Brazil
| | | | - Silvana Levis
- Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Virales Humanas, Pergamino, Argentina
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Zapata JC, Salvato MS. Arenavirus variations due to host-specific adaptation. Viruses 2013; 5:241-78. [PMID: 23344562 PMCID: PMC3564120 DOI: 10.3390/v5010241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2012] [Revised: 01/11/2013] [Accepted: 01/14/2013] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Arenavirus particles are enveloped and contain two single-strand RNA genomic segments with ambisense coding. Genetic plasticity of the arenaviruses comes from transcription errors, segment reassortment, and permissive genomic packaging, and results in their remarkable ability, as a group, to infect a wide variety of hosts. In this review, we discuss some in vitro studies of virus genetic and phenotypic variation after exposure to selective pressures such as high viral dose, mutagens and antivirals. Additionally, we discuss the variation in vivo of selected isolates of Old World arenaviruses, particularly after infection of different animal species. We also discuss the recent emergence of new arenaviruses in the context of our observations of sequence variations that appear to be host-specific.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan C Zapata
- Institute of Human Virology-School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA.
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7
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Yama IN, Cazaux B, Britton-Davidian J, Moureau G, Thirion L, de Lamballerie X, Dobigny G, Charrel RN. Isolation and characterization of a new strain of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus from rodents in southwestern France. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2012; 12:893-903. [PMID: 22651393 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2011.0892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
A total of 821 tissue samples from rodents trapped during field campaigns organized in Europe and Africa were screened for the presence of arenaviruses by molecular methods and cell culture inoculation when feasible. Two Mus musculus domesticus trapped in the southwestern part of France were infected with a potentially new strain of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV), here referred to as LCMV strain HP65-2009, which was isolated and genetically characterized by whole genome sequencing. Genetic and phylogenetic analyses comparing LCMV HP65-2009 with 26 other LCMV strains showed that it represents a novel highly-divergent strain within the group of Mus musculus-associated LCMV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ines N Yama
- Unité des Virus Emergents UMR190 Emergence des Pathologies Virales, IRD, Université de la Méditerranée II, Marseille, France.
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8
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Briese T, Paweska JT, McMullan LK, Hutchison SK, Street C, Palacios G, Khristova ML, Weyer J, Swanepoel R, Egholm M, Nichol ST, Lipkin WI. Genetic detection and characterization of Lujo virus, a new hemorrhagic fever-associated arenavirus from southern Africa. PLoS Pathog 2009; 5:e1000455. [PMID: 19478873 PMCID: PMC2680969 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 325] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2009] [Accepted: 04/28/2009] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Lujo virus (LUJV), a new member of the family Arenaviridae and the first hemorrhagic fever–associated arenavirus from the Old World discovered in three decades, was isolated in South Africa during an outbreak of human disease characterized by nosocomial transmission and an unprecedented high case fatality rate of 80% (4/5 cases). Unbiased pyrosequencing of RNA extracts from serum and tissues of outbreak victims enabled identification and detailed phylogenetic characterization within 72 hours of sample receipt. Full genome analyses of LUJV showed it to be unique and branching off the ancestral node of the Old World arenaviruses. The virus G1 glycoprotein sequence was highly diverse and almost equidistant from that of other Old World and New World arenaviruses, consistent with a potential distinctive receptor tropism. LUJV is a novel, genetically distinct, highly pathogenic arenavirus. In September and October 2008, five cases of undiagnosed hemorrhagic fever, four of them fatal, were recognized in South Africa after air transfer of a critically ill index case from Zambia. Serum and tissue samples from victims were subjected to unbiased pyrosequencing, yielding within 72 hours of sample receipt, multiple discrete sequence fragments that represented approximately 50% of a prototypic arenavirus genome. Thereafter, full genome sequence was generated by PCR amplification of intervening fragments using specific primers complementary to sequence obtained by pyrosequencing and a universal primer targeting the conserved arenaviral termini. Phylogenetic analyses confirmed the presence of a new member of the family Arenaviridae, provisionally named Lujo virus (LUJV) in recognition of its geographic origin (Lusaka, Zambia, and Johannesburg, South Africa). Our findings enable the development of specific reagents to further investigate the reservoir, geographic distribution, and unusual pathogenicity of LUJV, and confirm the utility of unbiased high throughput pyrosequencing for pathogen discovery and public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Briese
- Center for Infection and Immunity, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail: (TB); (WIL)
| | - Janusz T. Paweska
- Special Pathogens Unit, National Institute for Communicable Diseases of the National Health Laboratory Service, Sandringham, South Africa
| | - Laura K. McMullan
- Special Pathogens Branch, Division of Viral and Rickettsial Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | | | - Craig Street
- Center for Infection and Immunity, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Gustavo Palacios
- Center for Infection and Immunity, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Marina L. Khristova
- Biotechnology Core Facility Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Jacqueline Weyer
- Special Pathogens Unit, National Institute for Communicable Diseases of the National Health Laboratory Service, Sandringham, South Africa
| | - Robert Swanepoel
- Special Pathogens Unit, National Institute for Communicable Diseases of the National Health Laboratory Service, Sandringham, South Africa
| | - Michael Egholm
- 454 Life Sciences, Branford, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Stuart T. Nichol
- Special Pathogens Branch, Division of Viral and Rickettsial Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - W. Ian Lipkin
- Center for Infection and Immunity, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail: (TB); (WIL)
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9
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Arenavirus genetic diversity and its biological implications. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2009; 9:417-29. [PMID: 19460307 PMCID: PMC7106275 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2009.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2009] [Revised: 03/13/2009] [Accepted: 03/13/2009] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The Arenaviridae family currently comprises 22 viral species, each of them associated with a rodent species. This viral family is important both as tractable experimental model systems to study acute and persistent infections and as clinically important human pathogens. Arenaviruses are enveloped viruses with a bi-segmented negative-strand RNA genome. The interaction with the cellular receptor and subsequent entry into the host cell differs between Old World and New World arenavirus that use α-dystoglycan or human transferring receptor 1, respectively, as main receptors. The recent development of reverse genetic systems for several arenaviruses has facilitated progress in understanding the molecular biology and cell biology of this viral family, as well as opening new approaches for the development of novel strategies to combat human pathogenic arenaviruses. On the other hand, increased availability of genetic data has allowed more detailed studies on the phylogeny and evolution of arenaviruses. As with other riboviruses, arenaviruses exist as viral quasispecies, which allow virus adaptation to rapidly changing environments. The large number of different arenavirus host reservoirs and great genetic diversity among virus species provide the bases for the emergence of new arenaviruses potentially pathogenic for humans.
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10
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Mills JN, Alva H, Ellis BA, Wagoner KD, Childs JE, Calderón G, Enría DA, Jahrling PB. Dynamics of oliveros virus infection in rodents in central Argentina. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2008; 7:315-23. [PMID: 17760514 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2006.0599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Oliveros virus (OLV) is an arenavirus hosted by the sigmodontine rodent, Necromys benefactus, in central Argentina. We report a 3-year longitudinal field study of the dynamics of OLV infection in host populations from 15 localities in two provinces on the central Argentine pampa. There was an overall 3-year period immunofluorescent antibody prevalence of 25% in the host population, and infected hosts were found throughout the study area. Spill-over infection into common sympatric species was rare. Infection dynamics exhibited many of the patterns seen for other rodent-borne arenaviruses and hantaviruses, but had some unique characteristics. Host population density was highest in autumn and lowest in spring, while antibody prevalence was highest in spring and lowest in autumn. Virus transmission was horizontal: infection was strongly associated with age, reaching 45% prevalence in the oldest individuals, and prevalence of infection was equal among male and female hosts. Infection may have been associated with scars, which were also approximately equally distributed among male and female Necromys.
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Affiliation(s)
- James N Mills
- Division of Viral and Rickettsial Diseases, National Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
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11
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Cleri DJ, Ricketti AJ, Porwancher RB, Ramos-Bonner LS, Vernaleo JR. Viral hemorrhagic fevers: current status of endemic disease and strategies for control. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2006; 20:359-93, x. [PMID: 16762743 PMCID: PMC7135140 DOI: 10.1016/j.idc.2006.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Dennis J Cleri
- Department of Medicine, Seton Hall University School of Graduate Medical Education, 400 South Orange Avenue, South Orange, NJ 07079, USA.
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12
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Damonte EB, Coto CE. Treatment of arenavirus infections: from basic studies to the challenge of antiviral therapy. Adv Virus Res 2003; 58:125-55. [PMID: 12205778 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-3527(02)58004-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Elsa B Damonte
- Laboratorio de Virología, Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, 1428 Buenos Aires, Argenting
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13
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Abstract
The rodent-borne Arenaviruses are divided into two major antigenic groups: the Old World and New World complexes. Of the 15 known New World arenaviruses, four (Junin, Machupo, Sabia, and Guanarito) have been associated with hemorrhagic fever in humans. It has been difficult to assess the pathogenic or epidemic potential of the remaining viruses and the threat of emerging disease. We obtained full-length small (S) segment sequence data, encoding the nucleoprotein (NP) and glycoprotein precursor (GPC), from all American arenaviruses to predict their evolutionary and functional relationships. Phylogenetic analysis of NP or GPC amino acid sequences from all New World arenaviruses revealed three lineages and that Tamiami and Whitewater Arroyo viruses were probably derived from a single recombinant progenitor. The results imply that arenaviruses have been evolving independently for a very long time, leading to very diverse groupings that do not correlate with geography, rodent host, or human epidemic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela M. Archer
- Department of Microbiology, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas 78284
| | - Rebeca Rico-Hesse
- Department of Virology and Immunology, Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research, San Antonio, Texas 78227
- To whom correspondence and reprint requests should be addressed at Department of Virology and Immunology, Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research, 7620 NW Loop 410@Military Drive, San Antonio, TX 78227. Fax: (210) 258-9776.
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14
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Charrel RN, Feldmann H, Fulhorst CF, Khelifa R, de Chesse R, de Lamballerie X. Phylogeny of New World arenaviruses based on the complete coding sequences of the small genomic segment identified an evolutionary lineage produced by intrasegmental recombination. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2002; 296:1118-24. [PMID: 12207889 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-291x(02)02053-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies suggested that the small genomic segments (S-RNA) of the South American arenaviruses (SA-AVs) represent three phylogenetic lineages (designated A, B, and C) and indicated that the S-RNA of Whitewater Arroyo virus (WWAV) (a North American arenavirus [NA-AV]) is a product of genetic recombination between a lineage A and lineage B virus. The purpose of this study was to extend our knowledge on the phylogenetic relationships between WWAV, the two other NA-AVs (Tamiami and bear canyon), and the 15 SA-AVs. Therefore, we determined the complete sequence of the S-RNA of nine arenaviruses previously uncharacterized or sequenced only partially. Phylogenetic analyses of the two complete coding regions indicated that the S-RNA of the three NA-AVs have descended from a single ancestral virus, which was the product of recombination between a lineage A and lineage B arenavirus. No such evidence for genetic recombination was found in cupixi virus (a novel arenavirus isolated from a wild rodent captured in Northeastern Brazil) or the 14 other SA-AVs. The recombinant nature of the S-RNA of NA-AVs distinguishes them from the SA-AVs, and thus, indicates that the NA-AVs represent a fourth phylogenetic lineage in the Tacaribe serocomplex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rémi N Charrel
- Unité des Virus Emergents (EA 3292, IFR 48), Université de la Méditerranée, Faculté de Médecine, 27 blvd Jean Moulin, 13005, Marseille, France.
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15
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Affiliation(s)
- J C S Clegg
- Centre for Applied Microbiology and Research, Porton Down, Salisbury, Wiltshire SP4 0JG, UK
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16
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Krafft AE, Kulesh DA. Applying Molecular Biological Techniques to Detecting Biological Agents. Clin Lab Med 2001. [DOI: 10.1016/s0272-2712(18)30026-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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17
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Moncayo AC, Hice CL, Watts DM, Travassos de Rosa AP, Guzman H, Russell KL, Calampa C, Gozalo A, Popov VL, Weaver SC, Tesh RB. Allpahuayo virus: a newly recognized arenavirus (arenaviridae) from arboreal rice rats (oecomys bicolor and oecomys paricola) in northeastern peru. Virology 2001; 284:277-86. [PMID: 11384226 DOI: 10.1006/viro.2000.0803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Allpahuayo virus was initially isolated from arboreal rice rats (Oecomys bicolor and Oecomys paricola) collected during 1997 at the Allpahuayo Biological Station in northeastern Peru. Serological and genetic studies identified the virus as a new member of the Tacaribe complex of the genus Arenavirus. The small (S) segment of the Allpahuayo virus prototype strain CLHP-2098 (Accession No. AY012686) was sequenced, as well as that of sympatric isolate CLHP-2472 (Accession No. AY012687), from the same rodent species. The S segment was 3382 bases in length and phylogenetic analysis indicated that Allpahuayo is a sister virus to Pichinde in clade A. Two ambisense, nonoverlapping reading frames were identified, which result in two predicted gene products, a glycoprotein precursor (GPC) and a nucleocapsid protein (NP). A predicted stable single hairpin secondary structure was identified in the intergenic region between GPC and NP. Details of the genetic organization of Allpahuayo virus are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- A C Moncayo
- Center for Tropical Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, 77555-0609, USA.
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18
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Charrel RN, de Lamballerie X, Fulhorst CF. The Whitewater Arroyo virus: natural evidence for genetic recombination among Tacaribe serocomplex viruses (family Arenaviridae). Virology 2001; 283:161-6. [PMID: 11336541 DOI: 10.1006/viro.2001.0874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The Tacaribe serocomplex (family Arenaviridae) comprises three phylogenetic lineages, designated A, B, and C. The sequence of a 3278-nt fragment of the small genomic segment of the Whitewater Arroyo (WWA) virus was determined to extend our knowledge on the phylogenetic relationship of this newly discovered North American Tacaribe complex virus to other arenaviruses. Independent analyses of full-length nucleoprotein (N) and glycoprotein precursor (GPC) amino acid sequences indicated that the WWA virus N and GPC genes are descended from a lineage A virus and lineage B virus, respectively. The different phylogenetic histories of the N and GPC genes indicate that the WWA virus genome is a product of recombination between two Tacaribe complex viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- R N Charrel
- Center for Tropical Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555-0609, USA
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19
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Charrel RN, de Lamballerie X, De Micco P, Fulhorst CF. Nucleotide sequence of the pirital virus (family Arenaviridae) small genomic segment. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2001; 280:1402-7. [PMID: 11162687 DOI: 10.1006/bbrc.2001.4288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Pirital virus is a newly discovered South American member of the family Arenaviridae. We determined that the complete nucleotide sequence of the small genomic segment of Pirital virus is 3393 nt long, and encodes the viral nucleoprotein (N) and glycoprotein precursor (GPC) (561 aa and 509 aa, respectively) in nonoverlapping open reading frames of opposite polarities. The N and GPC genes are separated by an intergenic region that is 80 nt long; the predicted secondary structure of this region includes a single hairpin stabilized by 11 G-C and 8 A-U base pairs. Independent analyses of N and GPC amino acid sequence data confirmed that Pirital virus is related to Pichindé virus and belongs to the lineage A of the New World (Tacaribe complex) arenaviruses. The analysis of genetic distances between Pirital virus and other arenaviruses confirmed that Pirital virus is a distinct species within the family Arenaviridae.
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Affiliation(s)
- R N Charrel
- Center for Tropical Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555-0609, USA.
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20
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Bowen MD, Rollin PE, Ksiazek TG, Hustad HL, Bausch DG, Demby AH, Bajani MD, Peters CJ, Nichol ST. Genetic diversity among Lassa virus strains. J Virol 2000; 74:6992-7004. [PMID: 10888638 PMCID: PMC112216 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.74.15.6992-7004.2000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 202] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2000] [Accepted: 05/04/2000] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The arenavirus Lassa virus causes Lassa fever, a viral hemorrhagic fever that is endemic in the countries of Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Guinea and perhaps elsewhere in West Africa. To determine the degree of genetic diversity among Lassa virus strains, partial nucleoprotein (NP) gene sequences were obtained from 54 strains and analyzed. Phylogenetic analyses showed that Lassa viruses comprise four lineages, three of which are found in Nigeria and the fourth in Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone. Overall strain variation in the partial NP gene sequence was found to be as high as 27% at the nucleotide level and 15% at the amino acid level. Genetic distance among Lassa strains was found to correlate with geographic distance rather than time, and no evidence of a "molecular clock" was found. A method for amplifying and cloning full-length arenavirus S RNAs was developed and used to obtain the complete NP and glycoprotein gene (GP1 and GP2) sequences for two representative Nigerian strains of Lassa virus. Comparison of full-length gene sequences for four Lassa virus strains representing the four lineages showed that the NP gene (up to 23.8% nucleotide difference and 12.0% amino acid difference) is more variable than the glycoprotein genes. Although the evolutionary order of descent within Lassa virus strains was not completely resolved, the phylogenetic analyses of full-length NP, GP1, and GP2 gene sequences suggested that Nigerian strains of Lassa virus were ancestral to strains from Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone. Compared to the New World arenaviruses, Lassa and the other Old World arenaviruses have either undergone a shorter period of diverisification or are evolving at a slower rate. This study represents the first large-scale examination of Lassa virus genetic variation.
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Affiliation(s)
- M D Bowen
- Special Pathogens Branch, Division of Viral and Rickettsial Diseases, National Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia 30333, USA
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21
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García JB, Morzunov SP, Levis S, Rowe J, Calderón G, Enría D, Sabattini M, Buchmeier MJ, Bowen MD, St Jeor SC. Genetic diversity of the Junin virus in Argentina: geographic and temporal patterns. Virology 2000; 272:127-36. [PMID: 10873755 DOI: 10.1006/viro.2000.0345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
RNA was purified from 39 strains of cell-cultured Junin virus (JUN) from central Argentina, which included both human- and rodent-derived isolates (a total of 26 and 13, respectively), as well as from 2 laboratory JUN strains, XJ Cl3 and XJ #44. JUN-specific primers were used to amplify a 511-nucleotide (nt) fragment of the nucleocapsid protein gene and a 495-nt fragment of the glycoprotein 1 (GP1) gene. Genetic diversity among JUN strains studied was up to 13% at the nt level and up to 9% at the amino acid (aa) level for the GP1 gene and up to 9% (nt) and 4% (aa) for the NP gene. Phylogenetic analyses of both genes revealed three distinct clades. The first clade was composed of the JUN strains from the center of the endemic area and included the majority of JUN strains analyzed in the current study. The second clade contained 4 JUN strains isolated between 1963 and 1971 from Cordoba Province, the western-most edge of the known endemic area. The third clade contained 4 JUN strains that originated from Calomys musculinus trapped in Zarate, the northeastern edge of the known endemic area. Certain JUN sequences, which were obtained from GenBank and identified as XJ, XJ #44, and Candid #1 strains, appeared to form a separate clade. Over 400 nt of the GP1 and GP2 genes were additionally sequenced for 7 JUN strains derived from patients with different clinical presentations and outcomes of Argentine hemorrhagic fever. Analysis of the corresponding aa sequences did not allow us to attribute any particular genetic marker to the changing severity or clinical form of the human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- J B García
- Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Virales Humanas, Pergamino, Argentina
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22
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Vapalahti O, Lundkvist A, Fedorov V, Conroy CJ, Hirvonen S, Plyusnina A, Nemirov K, Fredga K, Cook JA, Niemimaa J, Kaikusalo A, Henttonen H, Vaheri A, Plyusnin A. Isolation and characterization of a hantavirus from Lemmus sibiricus: evidence for host switch during hantavirus evolution. J Virol 1999; 73:5586-92. [PMID: 10364307 PMCID: PMC112616 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.73.7.5586-5592.1999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/1998] [Accepted: 03/19/1999] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A novel hantavirus, first detected in Siberian lemmings (Lemmus sibiricus) collected near the Topografov River in the Taymyr Peninsula, Siberia (A. Plyusnin et al., Lancet 347:1835-1836, 1996), was isolated in Vero E6 cells and in laboratory-bred Norwegian lemmings (Lemmus lemmus). The virus, named Topografov virus (TOP), was most closely related to Khabarovsk virus (KBR) and Puumala viruses (PUU). In a cross focus reduction neutralization test, anti-TOP Lemmus antisera showed titers at least fourfold higher with TOP than with other hantaviruses; however, a rabbit anti-KBR antiserum neutralized TOP and KBR at the same titer. The TOP M segment showed 77% nucleotide and 88% amino acid identity with KBR and 76% nucleotide and 82% amino acid identity with PUU. However, the homology between TOP and the KBR S segment was disproportionately higher: 88% at the nucleotide level and 96% at the amino acid level. The 3' noncoding regions of KBR and the TOP S and M segments were alignable except for 113- and 58-nucleotide deletions in KBR. The phylogenetic relationships of TOP, KBR, and PUU and their respective rodent carriers suggest that an exceptional host switch took place during the evolution of these viruses; while TOP and KBR are monophyletic, the respective rodent host species are only distantly related.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Vapalahti
- Department of Virology, Haartman Institute, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland.
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23
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Albariño CG, Posik DM, Ghiringhelli PD, Lozano ME, Romanowski V. Arenavirus phylogeny: a new insight. Virus Genes 1998; 16:39-46. [PMID: 9580250 DOI: 10.1023/a:1007993525052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Arenaviridae is a worldwide distributed family, of enveloped, single stranded, RNA viruses. The arenaviruses were divided in two major groups (Old World and New World), based on serological properties and genetic data, as well as the geographic distribution. In this study the phylogenetic relationship among the members of the Arenaviridae was examined, using the reported genomic sequences. The comparison of the aligned nucleotide sequences of the S RNA and the predicted amino acid sequences of the GPC and N proteins, together with the phylogenetic analysis, strongly suggest a possible kinship of Pichindé and Oliveros viruses, with the Old World arenavirus group. This analysis points at the evolutive relationships between the arenaviruses of the Americas and can be used to evaluate the different hypotheses about their origin.
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Affiliation(s)
- C G Albariño
- Instituto de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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24
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An overview of the epidemiological, ecological and preventive hallmarks of Argentine haemorrhagic fever (Junin virus). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1998. [DOI: 10.1016/s0020-2452(98)80004-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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25
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Abstract
We undertook a comprehensive phylogenetic study to establish the genetic relationship among the viruses of the genus Flavivirus and to compare the classification based on molecular phylogeny with the existing serologic method. By using a combination of quantitative definitions (bootstrap support level and the pairwise nucleotide sequence identity), the viruses could be classified into clusters, clades, and species. Our phylogenetic study revealed for the first time that from the putative ancestor two branches, non-vector and vector-borne virus clusters, evolved and from the latter cluster emerged tick-borne and mosquito-borne virus clusters. Provided that the theory of arthropod association being an acquired trait was correct, pairwise nucleotide sequence identity among these three clusters provided supporting data for a possibility that the non-vector cluster evolved first, followed by the separation of tick-borne and mosquito-borne virus clusters in that order. Clades established in our study correlated significantly with existing antigenic complexes. We also resolved many of the past taxonomic problems by establishing phylogenetic relationships of the antigenically unclassified viruses with the well-established viruses and by identifying synonymous viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Kuno
- Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, National Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado 80522-2087, USA.
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26
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Bowen MD, Peters CJ, Nichol ST. Phylogenetic analysis of the Arenaviridae: patterns of virus evolution and evidence for cospeciation between arenaviruses and their rodent hosts. Mol Phylogenet Evol 1997; 8:301-16. [PMID: 9417890 DOI: 10.1006/mpev.1997.0436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Viruses of the Arenaviridae cause hemorrhagic fevers and neurologic disease in humans. Historically, the arenaviruses have been divided into two complexes (LASV-LCMV, Tacaribe) through the use of antigenic typing. The phylogeny of the Arenaviridae as a whole has not been estimated previously due to a lack of sequence data for all members of the family. In this study, nucleocapsid protein gene sequence data were obtained for all currently known arenaviruses and used to estimate, for the first time, a phylogeny of the entire virus family. The LCMV-LASV complex arenaviruses are monophyletic and comprise three distinct lineages. The Tacaribe complex viruses also are monophyletic and occupy three distinct lineages. Comparisons of arenavirus phylogeny with rodent host phylogeny and taxonomic relationships provide several examples in which virus-host cospeciation is potentially occurring. The pathogenic arenaviruses do not appear to be monophyletic, suggesting that the pathogenic phenotype has arisen in multiple independent events during virus evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- M D Bowen
- Special Pathogens Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia 30333, USA.
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27
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Lozano ME, Posik DM, Albariño CG, Schujman G, Ghiringhelli PD, Calderón G, Sabattini M, Romanowski V. Characterization of arenaviruses using a family-specific primer set for RT-PCR amplification and RFLP analysis. Its potential use for detection of uncharacterized arenaviruses. Virus Res 1997; 49:79-89. [PMID: 9178499 DOI: 10.1016/s0168-1702(97)01458-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Arenaviruses are enveloped viruses with a genome composed of two ssRNA species, designated L and S. The arenaviruses were divided in two major groups (Old World and New World), based on serological properties and genetic data, as well as geographic distribution. A sequence alignment analysis of all reported arenavirus S RNAs yielded 17 conserved regions in addition to a reported conserved region at the end of both RNAs. The consensus sequences of these regions were used to design generalized primers suitable for RT-PCR amplification of a set of overlapping nucleotide sequence fragments comprising the complete S RNA of any arenavirus. A restriction analysis (RFLP) was designed to rapidly typify the amplified fragments. This RT-PCR-RFLP approach was tested with Old World (LCM) and New World (Junin and Tacaribe) arenaviruses. Furthermore, using this procedure the whole S RNA of a novel arenavirus isolate obtained from a rodent trapped in central Argentina, was amplified and characterized. Partial nucleotide sequence data were used for phylogenetic analyses that showed the relationships between this arenavirus and the rest of the members of the family. This relatively simple methodology will be useful both in basic studies and epidemiological survey programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- M E Lozano
- Depto. de Ciencias Biológicas, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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