Microarray analysis of gene expression during bacteriophage T4 infection

Sustained in situ protein production and release in the mammalian gut by an engineered bacteriophage

Oral administration of biologic drugs is challenging because of the degradative activity of the upper gastrointestinal tract. Strategies that use engineered microbes to produce biologics in the lower gastrointestinal tract are limited by competition with resident commensal bacteria. Here we demonstrate the engineering of bacteriophage (phage) that infect resident commensals to express heterologous proteins released during cell lysis. Working with the virulent T4 phage, which targets resident, nonpathogenic Escherichia coli, we first identify T4-specific promoters with maximal protein expression and minimal impact on T4 phage titers. We engineer T4 phage to express a serine protease inhibitor of a pro-inflammatory enzyme with increased activity in ulcerative colitis and observe reduced enzyme activity in a mouse model of colitis. We also apply the approach to reduce weight gain and inflammation in mouse models of diet-induced obesity. This work highlights an application of virulent phages in the mammalian gut as engineerable vectors to release therapeutics from resident gut bacteria.

The Transcriptional Program of Staphylococcus aureus Phage K Is Affected by a Host rpoC Mutation That Confers Phage K Resistance

To better understand host-phage interactions and the genetic bases of phage resistance in a model system relevant to potential phage therapy, we isolated several spontaneous mutants of the USA300 S. aureus clinical isolate NRS384 that were resistant to phage K. Six of these had a single missense mutation in the host rpoC gene, which encodes the RNA polymerase β' subunit. To examine the hypothesis that mutations in the host RNA polymerase affect the transcription of phage genes, we performed RNA-seq analysis on total RNA samples collected from NRS384 wild-type (WT) and rpoCG17D mutant cultures infected with phage K, at different timepoints after infection. Infection of the WT host led to a steady increase of phage transcription relative to the host. Our analysis allowed us to define 53 transcriptional units and to categorize genes based on their temporal expression patterns. Predicted promoter sequences defined by conserved -35, -10, and, in some cases, extended -10 elements, were found upstream of early and middle genes. However, in many cases, sequences upstream of late genes did not contain clear, complete, canonical promoter sequences, suggesting that factors in addition to host RNA polymerase are required for their expression. Infection of the rpoCG17D mutant host led to a transcriptional pattern that was similar to that of the WT at early timepoints. However, beginning at 20 min after infection, transcription of late genes (such as phage structural genes and host lysis genes) was severely reduced. Our data indicate that the rpoCG17D mutation prevents the expression of phage late genes, resulting in a failed infection cycle for phage K. In addition to illuminating the global transcriptional landscape of phage K throughout the infection cycle, this study will inform our investigations into the basis of phage K's control of its transcriptional program as well as mechanisms of phage resistance.

From DNA to lytic proteins: transcription and translation of the bacteriophage T5 holin/endolysin operon

The analysis of transcriptional activity of the bacteriophage T5 hol/endo operon conducted in the paper revealed a strong constitutive promoter recognized by E. coli RNA polymerase and a transcription initiation point of the operon. It was also shown that the only translational start codon for holin was a non-canonical TTG. Translation initiation regions (TIRs) of both genes of the operon (hol and endo) were further analyzed using chimeric constructs, in which parts of the hol/endo regulatory regions were fused with the gene of a reporter protein (EGFP). It was found that TIR of hol was 20 times less effective than that of endo. As it turned out, the level of EGFP production was influenced by the composition of the constructs and the type of the hol start codon. Apparently, the translational suppression of holin's accumulation and posttranslational activation of endolysin by Ca2+ are the main factors ensuring the proper timing of the host cell lysis by bacteriophage T5. The approach based on the use of chimeric constructs proposed in the paper can be recommended for studying other native or artificial operons of any complexity: analyzing the impacts of separate DNA regions, as well as their coupled effect, on the processes of transcription and translation of recombinant protein(s).

In planta interactions of a novel bacteriophage against Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato

The biology and biotechnology of bacteriophages have been extensively studied in recent years to explore new and environmentally friendly methods of controlling phytopathogenic bacteria. Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato (Pst) is responsible for bacterial speck disease in tomato plants, leading to decreased yield. Disease management strategies rely on the use of copper-based pesticides. The biological control of Pst with the use of bacteriophages could be an alternative environmentally friendly approach to diminish the detrimental effects of Pst in tomato cultivations. The lytic efficacy of bacteriophages can be used in biocontrol-based disease management strategies. Here, we report the isolation and complete characterization of a bacteriophage, named Medea1, which was also tested in planta against Pst, under greenhouse conditions. The application of Medea1 as a root drenching inoculum or foliar spraying reduced 2.5- and fourfold on average, respectively, Pst symptoms in tomato plants, compared to a control group. In addition, it was observed that defense-related genes PR1b and Pin2 were upregulated in the phage-treated plants. Our research explores a new genus of Pseudomonas phages and explores its biocontrol potential against Pst, by utilizing its lytic nature and ability to trigger the immune response of plants. KEY POINTS: • Medea1 is a newly reported bacteriophage against Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato having genomic similarities with the phiPSA1 bacteriophage • Two application strategies were reported, one by root drenching the plants with a phage-based solution and one by foliar spraying, showing up to 60- and 6-fold reduction of Pst population and disease severity in some cases, respectively, compared to control • Bacteriophage Medea1 induced the expression of the plant defense-related genes Pin2 and PR1b.

Integrated Omics Reveal Time-Resolved Insights into T4 Phage Infection of E. coli on Proteome and Transcriptome Levels

Bacteriophages are highly abundant viruses of bacteria. The major role of phages in shaping bacterial communities and their emerging medical potential as antibacterial agents has triggered a rebirth of phage research. To understand the molecular mechanisms by which phages hijack their host, omics technologies can provide novel insights into the organization of transcriptional and translational events occurring during the infection process. In this study, we apply transcriptomics and proteomics to characterize the temporal patterns of transcription and protein synthesis during the T4 phage infection of E. coli. We investigated the stability of E. coli-originated transcripts and proteins in the course of infection, identifying the degradation of E. coli transcripts and the preservation of the host proteome. Moreover, the correlation between the phage transcriptome and proteome reveals specific T4 phage mRNAs and proteins that are temporally decoupled, suggesting post-transcriptional and translational regulation mechanisms. This study provides the first comprehensive insights into the molecular takeover of E. coli by bacteriophage T4. This data set represents a valuable resource for future studies seeking to study molecular and regulatory events during infection. We created a user-friendly online tool, POTATO4, which is available to the scientific community and allows access to gene expression patterns for E. coli and T4 genes.

Shutoff of host transcription triggers a toxin-antitoxin system to cleave phage RNA and abort infection

Toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems are widespread in bacteria, but their activation mechanisms and bona fide targets remain largely unknown. Here, we characterize a type III TA system, toxIN, that protects E. coli against multiple bacteriophages, including T4. Using RNA sequencing, we find that the endoribonuclease ToxN is activated following T4 infection and blocks phage development primarily by cleaving viral mRNAs and inhibiting their translation. ToxN activation arises from T4-induced shutoff of host transcription, specifically of toxIN, leading to loss of the intrinsically unstable toxI antitoxin. Transcriptional shutoff is necessary and sufficient for ToxN activation. Notably, toxIN does not strongly protect against another phage, T7, which incompletely blocks host transcription. Thus, our results reveal a critical trade-off in blocking host transcription: it helps phage commandeer host resources but can activate potent defense systems. More generally, our results now reveal the native targets of an RNase toxin and activation mechanism of a phage-defensive TA system.

Phage-Encoded Endolysins

Due to the global emergence of antibiotic resistance, there has been an increase in research surrounding endolysins as an alternative therapeutic. Endolysins are phage-encoded enzymes, utilized by mature phage virions to hydrolyze the cell wall from within. There is significant evidence that proves the ability of endolysins to degrade the peptidoglycan externally without the assistance of phage. Thus, their incorporation in therapeutic strategies has opened new options for therapeutic application against bacterial infections in the human and veterinary sectors, as well as within the agricultural and biotechnology sectors. While endolysins show promising results within the laboratory, it is important to document their resistance, safety, and immunogenicity for in-vivo application. This review aims to provide new insights into the synergy between endolysins and antibiotics, as well as the formulation of endolysins. Thus, it provides crucial information for clinical trials involving endolysins.

Rethinking Phage Ecology by Rooting it Within an Established Plant Framework

Despite the abundance and significance of bacteriophages to microbial ecosystems, no broad ecological frameworks exist within which to determine "bacteriophage types" that reflect their ecological strategies and ways in which they interact with bacterial cells. To address this, we repurposed the well-established Grime's triangular CSR framework, which classifies plants according to three axes: competitiveness (C), ability to tolerate stress (S), and capacity to cope with disturbance (R). This framework is distinguished from other accepted schemes, as it seeks to identify individual characteristics of plants to understand their biological strategies and roles within an ecosystem. Our repurposing of the CSR triangle is based on phage transcription and the observation that typically phages have three major distinguishable transcription phases: early, middle, and late. We hypothesize that the proportion of genes expressed in these phases reflects key information about the phage "ecological strategy," namely the C, S, and R strategies, allowing us to examine phages in a similar way to how plants are projected onto the triangle. In the "phage version" of this scheme, we suggest: (1) that some phages prioritize the early phase of transcription that shuts off host defense mechanisms, which reflects competitiveness; (2) other phages prioritize tuning resource management mechanisms in the cell such as nucleotide metabolism during their "mid" expression profile to tolerate stress; and (3) a further subset of phages (termed Ruderals) survive disturbance by investing significant resources into regeneration so they express a higher proportion of their genes during late infection. We examined 42 published phage transcriptomes and show that they fall into discrete CSR categories according to their expression profiles. We discuss these positions in the context of their biology, which is largely consistent with our predictions of specific phage characteristics. In this opinion article, we suggest a starting point to ascribe phages into different functional types and thus understand them in an ecological framework. We suggest that this may have far-reaching implications for the application of phages in therapy and their exploitation to manipulate bacterial communities. We invite further use of this framework via our online tool; www.PhageCSR.ml.

Programming multi-protein assembly by gene-brush patterns and two-dimensional compartment geometry

The assembly of protein machines in cells is precise, rapid, and coupled to protein synthesis with regulation in space and time. The assembly of natural and synthetic nanomachines could be similarly controlled by genetic programming outside the cell. Here, we present quasi-two-dimensional (2D) silicon compartments that enable programming of protein assembly lines by local synthesis from surface-immobilized DNA brushes. Using this platform, we studied the autonomous synthesis and assembly of a structural complex from a bacteriophage and a bacterial RNA-synthesizing machine. Local synthesis and surface capture of complexes provided high assembly yield and sensitive detection of spatially resolved assembly intermediates, with the 3D geometry of the compartment and the 2D pattern of brushes dictating the yield and mode of assembly steps. Localized synthesis of proteins in a single gene brush enhances their interactions, and displacement of their genes in separated brushes leads to step-by-step surface assembly. This methodology enables spatial regulation of protein synthesis, and deciphering, reconstruction and design of biological machine assembly lines.

The E. coli Global Regulator DksA Reduces Transcription during T4 Infection

Bacteriophage T4 relies on host RNA polymerase to transcribe three promoter classes: early (Pe, requires no viral factors), middle (Pm, requires early proteins MotA and AsiA), and late (Pl, requires middle proteins gp55, gp33, and gp45). Using primer extension, RNA-seq, RT-qPCR, single bursts, and a semi-automated method to document plaque size, we investigated how deletion of DksA or ppGpp, two E. coli global transcription regulators, affects T4 infection. Both ppGpp⁰ and ΔdksA increase T4 wild type (wt) plaque size. However, ppGpp⁰ does not significantly alter burst size or latent period, and only modestly affects T4 transcript abundance, while ΔdksA increases burst size (2-fold) without affecting latent period and increases the levels of several Pe transcripts at 5 min post-infection. In a T4motA^am infection, ΔdksA increases plaque size and shortens latent period, and the levels of specific middle RNAs increase due to more transcription from Pe’s that extend into these middle genes. We conclude that DksA lowers T4 early gene expression. Consequently, ΔdksA results in a more productive wt infection and ameliorates the poor expression of middle genes in a T4motA^am infection. As DksA does not inhibit Pe transcription in vitro, regulation may be indirect or perhaps requires additional factors.

Transcriptome Analysis of a Bloom-Forming Cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa during Ma-LMM01 Phage Infection

Microcystis aeruginosa forms massive blooms in eutrophic freshwaters, where it is constantly exposed to lytic cyanophages. Unlike other marine cyanobacteria, M. aeruginosa possess remarkably abundant and diverse potential antiviral defense genes. Interestingly, T4-like cyanophage Ma-LMM01, which is the sole cultured lytic cyanophage infecting M. aeruginosa, lacks the host-derived genes involved in maintaining host photosynthesis and directing host metabolism that are abundant in other marine cyanophages. Based on genomic comparisons with closely related cyanobacteria and their phages, Ma-LMM01 is predicted to employ a novel infection program that differs from that of other marine cyanophages. Here, we used RNA-seq technology and in silico analysis to examine transcriptional dynamics during Ma-LMM01 infection to reveal host transcriptional responses to phage infection, and to elucidate the infection program used by Ma-LMM01 to avoid the highly abundant host defense systems. Phage-derived reads increased only slightly at 1 h post-infection, but significantly increased from 16% of total cellular reads at 3 h post-infection to 33% of all reads by 6 h post-infection. Strikingly, almost none of the host genes (0.17%) showed a significant change in expression during infection. However, like other lytic dsDNA phages, including marine cyanophages, phage gene dynamics revealed three expression classes: early (host-takeover), middle (replication), and late (virion morphogenesis). The early genes were concentrated in a single ∼5.8-kb window spanning 10 open reading frames (gp054-gp063) on the phage genome. None of the early genes showed homology to the early genes of other T4-like phages, including known marine cyanophages. Bacterial RNA polymerase (σ70) recognition sequences were also found in the upstream region of middle and late genes, whereas phage-specific motifs were not found. Our findings suggest that unlike other known T4-like phages, Ma-LMM01 achieves three sequential gene expression patterns with no change in host promoter activity. This type of infection that does not cause significant change in host transcriptional levels may be advantageous in allowing Ma-LMM01 to escape host defense systems while maintaining host photosynthesis.

Phage T4 endonuclease SegD that is similar to group I intron endonucleases does not initiate homing of its own gene

Homing endonucleases are a group of site-specific endonucleases that initiate homing, a nonreciprocal transfer of its own gene into a new allele lacking this gene. This work describes a novel phage T4 endonuclease, SegD, which is homologous to the GIY-YIG family of homing endonucleases. Like other T4 homing endonucleases SegD recognizes an extended, 16bp long, site, cleaves it asymmetrically to form 3'-protruding ends and digests both unmodified DNA and modified T-even phage DNA with similar efficiencies. Surprisingly, we revealed that SegD cleavage site was identical in the genomes of segD^- and segD⁺ phages. We found that segD gene was expressed during the T4 developmental cycle. Nevertheless, endonuclease SegD was not able to initiate homing of its own gene as well as genetic recombination between phages in its site inserted into the rII locus.

Comparative Functional Genomic Analysis of Two Vibrio Phages Reveals Complex Metabolic Interactions with the Host Cell

Sequencing and annotation was performed for two large double stranded DNA bacteriophages, φGrn1 and φSt2 of the Myoviridae family, considered to be of great interest for phage therapy against Vibrios in aquaculture live feeds. In addition, phage–host metabolic interactions and exploitation was studied by transcript profiling of selected viral and host genes. Comparative genomic analysis with other large Vibrio phages was also performed to establish the presence and location of homing endonucleases highlighting distinct features for both phages. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that they belong to the “schizoT4like” clade. Although many reports of newly sequenced viruses have provided a large set of information, basic research related to the shift of the bacterial metabolism during infection remains stagnant. The function of many viral protein products in the process of infection is still unknown. Genome annotation identified the presence of several viral open reading frames (ORFs) participating in metabolism, including a Sir2/cobB (sirtuin) protein and a number of genes involved in auxiliary NAD⁺ and nucleotide biosynthesis, necessary for phage DNA replication. Key genes were subsequently selected for detail study of their expression levels during infection. This work suggests a complex metabolic interaction and exploitation of the host metabolic pathways and biochemical processes, including a possible post-translational protein modification, by the virus during infection.

The Last r Locus Unveiled: T4 RIII Is a Cytoplasmic Antiholin

The latent period of phage T4, normally ∼25 min, can be extended indefinitely if the infected cell is superinfected after 5 min. This phenomenon, designated lysis inhibition (LIN), was first described in the 1940s and is genetically defined by mutations in diverse T4 r genes. RI, the main effector of LIN, has been shown to be secreted to the periplasm, where, upon activation by superinfection with a T-even virion, it binds to the C-terminal periplasmic domain of the T4 holin T and blocks its lethal permeabilization of the cytoplasmic membrane. Another r locus, rIII, has been the subject of conflicting reports. In this study, we show that RIII, an 82-amino-acid protein, is also required for LIN in both Escherichia coli B strains and E. coli K-12 strains. In T4ΔrIII infections, LIN was briefly established but was unstable. The overexpression of a cloned rIII gene alone impeded T-mediated lysis temporarily. However, coexpression of rIII and rI resulted in a stable LIN state. Bacterial two-hybrid assays and pulldown assays showed that RIII interacts with the cytoplasmic N terminus of T, which is a critical domain for holin function. We conclude that RIII is a T4 antiholin that blocks membrane hole formation by interacting directly with the holin. Accordingly, we propose an augmented model for T4 LIN that involves the stabilization of a complex of three proteins in two compartments of the cell: RI interacting with the C terminus of T in the periplasm and RIII interacting with the N terminus of T in the cytoplasm.

IMPORTANCE

Lysis inhibition is a unique feature of phage T4 in response to environmental conditions, effected by the antiholin RI, which binds to the periplasmic domain of the T holin and blocks its hole-forming function. Here we report that the T4 gene rIII encodes a cytoplasmic antiholin that, together with the main antiholin, RI, inhibits holin T by forming a complex of three proteins spanning two cell compartments.

Transcriptomic Characterization of an Infection of Mycobacterium smegmatis by the Cluster A4 Mycobacteriophage Kampy

The mycobacteriophages, phages that infect the genus Mycobacterium, display profound genetic diversity and widespread geographical distribution, and possess significant medical and ecological importance. However, most of the majority of functions of mycobacteriophage proteins and the identity of most genetic regulatory elements remain unknown. We characterized the gene expression profile of Kampy, a cluster A4 mycobacteriophage, during infection of its host, Mycobacterium smegmatis, using RNA-Seq and mass spectrometry. We show that mycobacteriophage Kampy transcription occurs in roughly two phases, an early phase consisting of genes for metabolism, DNA synthesis, and gene regulation, and a late phase consisting of structural genes and lysis genes. Additionally, we identify the earliest genes transcribed during infection, along with several other possible regulatory units not obvious from inspection of Kampy's genomic structure. The transcriptional profile of Kampy appears similar to that of mycobacteriophage TM4 but unlike that of mycobacteriophage Giles, a result which further expands our understanding of the diversity of mycobacteriophage gene expression programs during infection.

55.2, a phage T4 ORFan gene, encodes an inhibitor of Escherichia coli topoisomerase I and increases phage fitness

Topoisomerases are enzymes that alter the topological properties of DNA. Phage T4 encodes its own topoisomerase but it can also utilize host-encoded topoisomerases. Here we characterized 55.2, a phage T4 predicted ORF of unknown function. High levels of expression of the cloned 55.2 gene are toxic in E. coli. This toxicity is suppressed either by increased topoisomerase I expression or by partial inactivation of the ATPase subunit of the DNA gyrase. Interestingly, very low-level expression of 55.2, which is non-lethal to wild type E. coli, prevents the growth of a deletion mutant of the topoisomerase I (topA) gene. In vitro, gp55.2 binds DNA and blocks specifically the relaxation of negatively supercoiled DNA by topoisomerase I. In vivo, expression of gp55.2 at low non-toxic levels alters the steady state DNA supercoiling of a reporter plasmid. Although 55.2 is not an essential gene, competition experiments indicate that it is required for optimal phage growth. We propose that the role of gp55.2 is to subtly modulate host topoisomerase I activity during infection to insure optimal T4 phage yield.

Marine viruses exploit their host's two-component regulatory system in response to resource limitation

Phosphorus (P) availability, which often limits productivity in marine ecosystems, shapes the P-acquisition gene content of the marine cyanobacteria Prochlorococcus [1-4] and its viruses (cyanophages). As in other bacteria, in Prochlorococcus these genes are regulated by the PhoR/PhoB two-component regulatory system that is used to sense and respond to P availability and is typical of signal transduction systems found in diverse organisms. Replication of cyanophage genomes requires a significant amount of P, and therefore these phages could gain a fitness advantage by influencing host P acquisition in P-limited environments. Here we show that the transcription of a phage-encoded high-affinity phosphate-binding protein gene (pstS) and alkaline phosphatase gene (phoA)-both of which have host orthologs-is elevated when the phages are infecting host cells that are P starved, relative to P-replete control cells. We further show that the phage versions of these genes are regulated by the host's PhoR/PhoB system. This not only extends this fundamental signaling mechanism to viruses but is also the first example of regulation of lytic phage genes by nutrient limitation in the host. As such, it reveals an important new dimension of the intimate coevolution of phage, host, and environment in the world's oceans.

55.1, a gene of unknown function of phage T4, impacts on Escherichia coli folate metabolism and blocks DNA repair by the NER

Phage T4, the archetype of lytic bacterial viruses, needs only 62 genes to propagate under standard laboratory conditions. Interestingly, the T4 genome contains more than 100 putative genes of unknown function, with few detectable homologues in cellular genomes. To characterize this uncharted territory of genetic information, we have identified several T4 genes that prevent bacterial growth when expressed from plasmids under inducible conditions. Here, we report on the various phenotypes and molecular characterization of 55.1, one of the genes of unknown function. High-level expression from the arabinose-inducible P(BAD) promoter is toxic to the bacteria and delays the intracellular accumulation of phage without affecting the final burst size. Low-level expression from T4 promoter(s) renders bacteria highly sensitive to UV irradiation and hypersensitive to trimethoprim, an inhibitor of dihydrofolate reductase. The delay in intracellular phage accumulation requires UvsW, a T4 helicase that is also a suppressor of 55.1-induced toxicity and UV sensitivity. Genetic and biochemical experiments demonstrate that gp55.1 binds to FolD, a key enzyme of the folate metabolism and suppressor of 55.1. Finally, we show that gp55.1 prevents the repair of UV-induced DNA photoproducts by the nucleotide excision repair (NER) pathway through interaction with the UvrA and UvrB proteins.

The bacteriophage T4 rapid-lysis genes and their mutational proclivities

Like most phages with double-stranded DNA, phage T4 exits the infected host cell by a lytic process requiring, at a minimum, an endolysin and a holin. Unlike most phages, T4 can sense superinfection (which signals the depletion of uninfected host cells) and responds by delaying lysis and achieving an order-of-magnitude increase in burst size using a mechanism called lysis inhibition (LIN). T4 r mutants, which are unable to conduct LIN, produce distinctly large, sharp-edged plaques. The discovery of r mutants was key to the foundations of molecular biology, in particular to discovering and characterizing genetic recombination in T4, to redefining the nature of the gene, and to exploring the mutation process at the nucleotide level of resolution. A number of r genes have been described in the past 7 decades with various degrees of clarity. Here we describe an extensive and perhaps saturating search for T4 r genes and relate the corresponding mutational spectra to the often imperfectly known physiologies of the proteins encoded by these genes. Focusing on r genes whose mutant phenotypes are largely independent of the host cell, the genes are rI (which seems to sense superinfection and signal the holin to delay lysis), rIII (of poorly defined function), rIV (same as sp and also of poorly defined function), and rV (same as t, the holin gene). We did not identify any mutations that might correspond to a putative rVI gene, and we did not focus on the famous rII genes because they appear to affect lysis only indirectly.

Genomic analysis of oceanic cyanobacterial myoviruses compared with T4-like myoviruses from diverse hosts and environments

T4-like myoviruses are ubiquitous, and their genes are among the most abundant documented in ocean systems. Here we compare 26 T4-like genomes, including 10 from non-cyanobacterial myoviruses, and 16 from marine cyanobacterial myoviruses (cyanophages) isolated on diverse Prochlorococcus or Synechococcus hosts. A core genome of 38 virion construction and DNA replication genes was observed in all 26 genomes, with 32 and 25 additional genes shared among the non-cyanophage and cyanophage subsets, respectively. These hierarchical cores are highly syntenic across the genomes, and sampled to saturation. The 25 cyanophage core genes include six previously described genes with putative functions (psbA, mazG, phoH, hsp20, hli03, cobS), a hypothetical protein with a potential phytanoyl-CoA dioxygenase domain, two virion structural genes, and 16 hypothetical genes. Beyond previously described cyanophage-encoded photosynthesis and phosphate stress genes, we observed core genes that may play a role in nitrogen metabolism during infection through modulation of 2-oxoglutarate. Patterns among non-core genes that may drive niche diversification revealed that phosphorus-related gene content reflects source waters rather than host strain used for isolation, and that carbon metabolism genes appear associated with putative mobile elements. As well, phages isolated on Synechococcus had higher genome-wide %G+C and often contained different gene subsets (e.g. petE, zwf, gnd, prnA, cpeT) than those isolated on Prochlorococcus. However, no clear diagnostic genes emerged to distinguish these phage groups, suggesting blurred boundaries possibly due to cross-infection. Finally, genome-wide comparisons of both diverse and closely related, co-isolated genomes provide a locus-to-locus variability metric that will prove valuable for interpreting metagenomic data sets.

Initiation of bacteriophage T4 DNA replication and replication fork dynamics: a review in the Virology Journal series on bacteriophage T4 and its relatives

Bacteriophage T4 initiates DNA replication from specialized structures that form in its genome. Immediately after infection, RNA-DNA hybrids (R-loops) occur on (at least some) replication origins, with the annealed RNA serving as a primer for leading-strand synthesis in one direction. As the infection progresses, replication initiation becomes dependent on recombination proteins in a process called recombination-dependent replication (RDR). RDR occurs when the replication machinery is assembled onto D-loop recombination intermediates, and in this case, the invading 3' DNA end is used as a primer for leading strand synthesis. Over the last 15 years, these two modes of T4 DNA replication initiation have been studied in vivo using a variety of approaches, including replication of plasmids with segments of the T4 genome, analysis of replication intermediates by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis, and genomic approaches that measure DNA copy number as the infection progresses. In addition, biochemical approaches have reconstituted replication from origin R-loop structures and have clarified some detailed roles of both replication and recombination proteins in the process of RDR and related pathways. We will also discuss the parallels between T4 DNA replication modes and similar events in cellular and eukaryotic organelle DNA replication, and close with some current questions of interest concerning the mechanisms of replication, recombination and repair in phage T4.

Transcriptional control in the prereplicative phase of T4 development

Control of transcription is crucial for correct gene expression and orderly development. For many years, bacteriophage T4 has provided a simple model system to investigate mechanisms that regulate this process. Development of T4 requires the transcription of early, middle and late RNAs. Because T4 does not encode its own RNA polymerase, it must redirect the polymerase of its host, E. coli, to the correct class of genes at the correct time. T4 accomplishes this through the action of phage-encoded factors. Here I review recent studies investigating the transcription of T4 prereplicative genes, which are expressed as early and middle transcripts. Early RNAs are generated immediately after infection from T4 promoters that contain excellent recognition sequences for host polymerase. Consequently, the early promoters compete extremely well with host promoters for the available polymerase. T4 early promoter activity is further enhanced by the action of the T4 Alt protein, a component of the phage head that is injected into E. coli along with the phage DNA. Alt modifies Arg265 on one of the two α subunits of RNA polymerase. Although work with host promoters predicts that this modification should decrease promoter activity, transcription from some T4 early promoters increases when RNA polymerase is modified by Alt. Transcription of T4 middle genes begins about 1 minute after infection and proceeds by two pathways: 1) extension of early transcripts into downstream middle genes and 2) activation of T4 middle promoters through a process called sigma appropriation. In this activation, the T4 co-activator AsiA binds to Region 4 of σ⁷⁰, the specificity subunit of RNA polymerase. This binding dramatically remodels this portion of σ⁷⁰, which then allows the T4 activator MotA to also interact with σ⁷⁰. In addition, AsiA restructuring of σ⁷⁰ prevents Region 4 from forming its normal contacts with the -35 region of promoter DNA, which in turn allows MotA to interact with its DNA binding site, a MotA box, centered at the -30 region of middle promoter DNA. T4 sigma appropriation reveals how a specific domain within RNA polymerase can be remolded and then exploited to alter promoter specificity.

Mobile DNA elements in T4 and related phages

Mobile genetic elements are common inhabitants of virtually every genome where they can exert profound influences on genome structure and function in addition to promoting their own spread within and between genomes. Phage T4 and related phage have long served as a model system for understanding the molecular mechanisms by which a certain class of mobile DNA, homing endonucleases, promote their spread. Homing endonucleases are site-specific DNA endonucleases that initiate mobility by introducing double-strand breaks at defined positions in genomes lacking the endonuclease gene, stimulating repair and recombination pathways that mobilize the endonuclease coding region. In phage T4, homing endonucleases were first discovered as encoded within the self-splicing td, nrdB and nrdD introns of T4. Genomic data has revealed that homing endonucleases are extremely widespread in T-even-like phage, as evidenced by the astounding fact that ~11% of the T4 genome encodes homing endonuclease genes, with most of them located outside of self-splicing introns. Detailed studies of the mobile td intron and its encoded endonuclease, I-TevI, have laid the foundation for genetic, biochemical and structural aspects that regulate the mobility process, and more recently have provided insights into regulation of homing endonuclease function. Here, we summarize the current state of knowledge regarding T4-encoded homing endonucleases, with particular emphasis on the td/I-TevI model system. We also discuss recent progress in the biology of free-standing endonucleases, and present areas of future research for this fascinating class of mobile genetic elements.

Microarray analysis of Paramecium bursaria chlorella virus 1 transcription

Paramecium bursaria chlorella virus 1 (PBCV-1), a member of the family Phycodnaviridae, is a large double-stranded DNA, plaque-forming virus that infects the unicellular green alga Chlorella sp. strain NC64A. The 330-kb PBCV-1 genome is predicted to encode 365 proteins and 11 tRNAs. To monitor global transcription during PBCV-1 replication, a microarray containing 50-mer probes to the PBCV-1 365 protein-encoding genes (CDSs) was constructed. Competitive hybridization experiments were conducted by using cDNAs from poly(A)-containing RNAs obtained from cells at seven time points after virus infection. The results led to the following conclusions: (i) the PBCV-1 replication cycle is temporally programmed and regulated; (ii) 360 (99%) of the arrayed PBCV-1 CDSs were expressed at some time in the virus life cycle in the laboratory; (iii) 227 (62%) of the CDSs were expressed before virus DNA synthesis begins; (iv) these 227 CDSs were grouped into two classes: 127 transcripts disappeared prior to initiation of virus DNA synthesis (considered early), and 100 transcripts were still detected after virus DNA synthesis begins (considered early/late); (v) 133 (36%) of the CDSs were expressed after virus DNA synthesis begins (considered late); and (vi) expression of most late CDSs is inhibited by adding the DNA replication inhibitor, aphidicolin, prior to virus infection. This study provides the first comprehensive evaluation of virus gene expression during the PBCV-1 life cycle.

The HU regulon is composed of genes responding to anaerobiosis, acid stress, high osmolarity and SOS induction

BACKGROUND

The Escherichia coli heterodimeric HU protein is a small DNA-bending protein associated with the bacterial nucleoid. It can introduce negative supercoils into closed circular DNA in the presence of topoisomerase I. Cells lacking HU grow very poorly and display many phenotypes.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

We analyzed the transcription profile of every Escherichia coli gene in the absence of one or both HU subunits. This genome-wide in silico transcriptomic approach, performed in parallel with in vivo genetic experimentation, defined the HU regulon. This large regulon, which comprises 8% of the genome, is composed of four biologically relevant gene classes whose regulation responds to anaerobiosis, acid stress, high osmolarity, and SOS induction.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

The regulation a large number of genes encoding enzymes involved in energy metabolism and catabolism pathways by HU explains the highly pleiotropic phenotype of HU-deficient cells. The uniform chromosomal distribution of the many operons regulated by HU strongly suggests that the transcriptional and nucleoid architectural functions of HU constitute two aspects of a unique protein-DNA interaction mechanism.

Oligonucleotide microarrays for bacteriophage expression studies

Gene expression microarrays offer the ability to monitor the expression of all phage genes over an infection cycle. However, there are relatively few reports to date of microarrays being used to investigate phage biology. This chapter aims to provide an overview of how to design and implement a microarray experiment to investigate phage biology. Given the nature of microarrays being specific to an organism, each will provide a number of unique issues. In this chapter, we outline the basic theory behind microarrays and provide details on how to implement a microarray experiment from the design of oligonucleotide probes through to the hybridisation of microarrays. The matter of designing oligonucleotide probes will be discussed with regards to how probe length, secondary structure, free energy, probe orientation and amplification all have to be taken into account. As means of an example, the conditions used for the hybridisation of an array designed to be specific to the cyanophage S-PM2 is detailed.

RNA processing and decay in bacteriophage T4

Bacteriophage T4 is the archetype of virulent phage. It has evolved very efficient strategies to subvert host functions to its benefit and to impose the expression of its genome. T4 utilizes a combination of host and phage-encoded RNases and factors to degrade its mRNAs in a stage-dependent manner. The host endonuclease RNase E is used throughout the phage development. The sequence-specific, T4-encoded RegB endoribonuclease functions in association with the ribosomal protein S1 to functionally inactivate early transcripts and expedite their degradation. T4 polynucleotide kinase plays a role in this process. Later, the viral factor Dmd protects middle and late mRNAs from degradation by the host RNase LS. T4 codes for a set of eight tRNAs and two small, stable RNA of unknown function that may contribute to phage virulence. Their maturation is assured by host enzymes, but one phage factor, Cef, is required for the biogenesis of some of them. The tRNA gene cluster also codes for a homing DNA endonuclease, SegB, responsible for spreading the tRNA genes to other T4-related phage.

Quantification of host and phage mRNA expression during infection using real-time PCR

Real-time, or quantitative PCR, is a valuable technique useful in bacteriophage research to quantify the abundance of phage or host gene transcripts. It can be used during the infection cycle both to monitor the expression of individual viral transcripts and to compare relative gene expression levels throughout the infection cycle. It is fairly economical to conduct and is useful in bacteria-phage systems where obtaining high yields of RNA is problematic. To perform real-time PCR, it is simply necessary to know the DNA sequence of the genes to be monitored, to have accurately quantified mRNA good quality cDNA, and access to a light-cycler. Although this chapter briefly reviews the basic principles of real-time PCR, the emphasis is on aspects of technique that are specific to the study of bacteriophage transcriptomics. These include (1) the selection of the target gene, (2) the choice of calibrator and reference genes, (3) RNA isolation for cDNA synthesis and (4) subsequent analysis of samples. This chapter should also be useful to those wishing to amplify genes from other types of templates such as metagenomic DNA or RNA extracted either from filtered samples or from agarose gels.

Transcriptome analysis of infection of the archaeon Sulfolobus solfataricus with Sulfolobus turreted icosahedral virus

Microarray analysis of infection by Sulfolobus turreted icosahedral virus (STIV) revealed insights into the timing and extent of virus transcription, as well as differential regulation of host genes. Using a microarray containing genes from both the host and the virus, the infection cycle of STIV was studied. Following infection of Sulfolobus solfataricus strain 2-2-12 with STIV, transcription of virus genes was first detected at 8 h postinfection (p.i.), with a peak at 24 h p.i. Lysis of cells was first detected at 32 h p.i. There was little temporal control of the transcription of virus genes, although the three open reading frames on the noncoding strand were transcribed later in the infection process. During the infection, 177 host genes were determined to be differentially expressed, with 124 genes up-regulated and 53 genes down-regulated. The up-regulated genes were dominated by genes associated with DNA replication and repair and those of unknown function, while the down-regulated genes, mostly detected at 32 h p.i., were associated with energy production and metabolism. Examination of infected cells by transmission electron microscopy revealed alterations in cell ultrastructure consistent with the microarray analysis. The observed patterns of transcription suggest that up-regulated genes are likely used by the virus to reprogram the cell for virus replication, while the down-regulated genes reflect the imminent lysis of the cells.

Phage T4 SegB protein is a homing endonuclease required for the preferred inheritance of T4 tRNA gene region occurring in co-infection with a related phage

Homing endonucleases initiate nonreciprocal transfer of DNA segments containing their own genes and the flanking sequences by cleaving the recipient DNA. Bacteriophage T4 segB gene, which is located in a cluster of tRNA genes, encodes a protein of unknown function, homologous to homing endonucleases of the GIY-YIG family. We demonstrate that SegB protein is a site-specific endonuclease, which produces mostly 3′ 2-nt protruding ends at its DNA cleavage site. Analysis of SegB cleavage sites suggests that SegB recognizes a 27-bp sequence. It contains 11-bp conserved sequence, which corresponds to a conserved motif of tRNA TψC stem-loop, whereas the remainder of the recognition site is rather degenerate. T4-related phages T2L, RB1 and RB3 contain tRNA gene regions that are homologous to that of phage T4 but lack segB gene and several tRNA genes. In co-infections of phages T4 and T2L, segB gene is inherited with nearly 100% of efficiency. The preferred inheritance depends absolutely on the segB gene integrity and is accompanied by the loss of the T2L tRNA gene region markers. We suggest that SegB is a homing endonuclease that functions to ensure spreading of its own gene and the surrounding tRNA genes among T4-related phages.

Origin activation requires both replicative and accessory helicases during T4 infection

The bacteriophage T4 has served as an in vitro model for the study of DNA replication for several decades, yet less is known about this process during infection. Recent work has shown that viral DNA synthesis is initiated from at least five origins of replication distributed across the 172 kb chromosome, but continued synthesis is dependent on recombination. Two proteins are predicted to facilitate loading of the hexameric 41 helicase at the origins, the Dda accessory helicase and the 59 loading protein. Using a real time, genome-wide assay to monitor replication during infections, it is shown here that dda mutant viruses no longer preferentially initiate synthesis near the origins, implying that the Dda accessory helicase has a fundamental role in origin selection and activation. In contrast, at least two origins function efficiently without the 59 loading protein, indicating that other factors load the 41 helicase at these loci. Hence, normal T4 replication includes two mechanistically distinct classes of origins, one requiring the 59 helicase loader, and a second that does not. Since both mechanisms require an additional factor, repEB, for sustained activation, normal T4 origin function appears to include at least three common elements, origin selection and initial activation, replisome loading, and persistence.

Global transcriptional responses of Pseudomonas aeruginosa to phage PRR1 infection

The infectious cycles of viruses are known to cause dramatic changes to host cell function. The development of microarray technology has provided means to monitor host cell responses to viral infection at the level of global changes in mRNA levels. We have applied this methodology to investigate gene expression changes caused by a small, icosahedral, single-stranded-RNA phage, PRR1 (a member of the Leviviridae family), on its host, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, at different times during its growth cycle. Viral infection in this system resulted in changes in expression levels of <4% of P. aeruginosa genes. Interestingly, the number of genes affected by viral infection was significantly lower than the number of genes affected by changes in growth conditions during the experiment. Compared with a similar study that focused on the complex, double-stranded-DNA bacterial virus PRD1, it was evident that there were no universal responses to viral infection. However, in both cases, translation was affected in infected cells.

Multiple controls regulate the expression of mobE, an HNH homing endonuclease gene embedded within a ribonucleotide reductase gene of phage Aeh1

Mobile genetic elements have the potential to influence the expression of genes surrounding their insertion site upon invasion of a genome. Here, we examine the transcriptional organization of a ribonucleotide reductase operon (nrd) that has been invaded by an HNH family homing endonuclease, mobE. In Aeromonas hydrophila phage Aeh1, mobE has inserted into the large-subunit gene (nrdA) of aerobic ribonucleotide reductase (RNR), splitting it into two smaller genes, nrdA-a and nrdA-b. This gene organization differs from that in phages T4, T6, RB2, RB3, RB15, and LZ7, where mobE is inserted in the nrdA-nrdB intergenic region. We present evidence that the expression of Aeh1 mobE is regulated by transcriptional, posttranscriptional, and translational controls. An Aeh1-specific late promoter drives expression of mobE, but strikingly the mobE transcript is processed internally at an RNase E-like site. We also identified a putative stem-loop structure upstream of mobE that sequesters the mobE ribosome binding site, presumably acting to down regulate MobE translation. Moreover, our transcriptional analyses indicate that the surrounding nrd genes of phage Aeh1 are expressed by a different strategy than are the corresponding phage T4 genes and that transcriptional readthrough is the only mechanism by which the promoterless Aeh1 nrdB gene is expressed. We suggest that the occurrence of multiple layers of control to limit the expression of mobE to late in the Aeh1 infection cycle is an adaptation of Aeh1 to reduce any effects on expression of the surrounding nrd genes early in phage infection when RNR function is critical.

Middle promoters constitute the most abundant and diverse class of promoters in bacteriophage T4

The temporally regulated transcription program of bacteriophage T4 relies upon the sequential utilization of three classes of promoters: early, middle and late. Here we show that middle promoters constitute perhaps the largest and the most diverse class of T4 promoters. In addition to 45 T4 middle promoters known to date, we mapped 13 new promoters, 10 of which deviate from the consensus MotA box, with some of them having no obvious match to it. So, 30 promoters of 58 identified now deviate from the consensus sequence deduced previously. In spite of the differences in their sequences, the in vivo activities of these T4 middle promoters were demonstrated to be dependent on both activators, MotA and AsiA. Traditionally, the MotA box was restricted to a 9 bp sequence with the highly conserved motif TGCTT. New logo based on the sequences of currently known middle promoters supports the conclusion that the consensus MotA box is comprised of 10 bp with the highly conserved central motif GCT. However, some apparently good matches to the consensus of middle promoters do not produce transcripts either in vivo or in vitro, indicating that the consensus sequence alone does not fully define a middle promoter.

Transcriptional profiling of bacteriophage BFK20: Coexpression interrogated by “guilt-by-association” algorithm

Global gene expression profiling of bacteriophage BFK20 infecting the industrial L-lysine producer Brevibacterium flavum CCM 251 was performed using DNA microarray. The relative gene expressions were measured in fourteen time samples collected during phage development. Phage genes were classified as early, middle, late or unassigned based on complex expression patterns during infection. Temporal classification of BFK20 genes was in concordance with previous predictions. However, proposed late regulatory genes were reclassified and new functional assignments for ORF55 were strongly suggested. Furthermore, we consider possible functions of other genes and their products regarding coexpression pattern by using "guilt-by-association" algorithm. Microarray results were validated using real-time RT-PCR. The detailed description of phage BFK20 transcriptional profile can answer the basic questions of its life cycle and it also can help to prevent phage contamination during industrial fermentation. In addition, this work presents the first complete microarray time course study of gene expression utilizing loop design.

Multiple origins of replication contribute to a discontinuous pattern of DNA synthesis across the T4 genome during infection

Chromosomes provide a template for a number of DNA transactions, including replication and transcription, but the dynamic interplay between these activities is poorly understood at the genomic level. The bacteriophage T4 has long served as a model for the study of DNA replication, transcription, and recombination, and should be an excellent model organism in which to integrate in vitro biochemistry into a chromosomal context. As a first step in characterizing the dynamics of chromosomal transactions during T4 infection, we have employed a unique set of macro array strategies to identify the origins of viral DNA synthesis and monitor the actual accumulation of nascent DNA across the genome in real time. We show that T4 DNA synthesis originates from at least five discrete loci within a single population of infected cells, near oriA, oriC, oriE, oriF, and oriG, the first direct evidence of multiple, active origins within a single population of infected cells. Although early T4 DNA replication is initiated at defined origins, continued synthesis requires viral recombination. The relationship between these two modes of replication during infection has not been well understood, but we observe that the switch between origin and recombination-mediated replication is dependent on the number of infecting viruses. Finally, we demonstrate that the nascent DNAs produced from origin loci are regulated spatially and temporally, leading to the accumulation of multiple, short DNAs near the origins, which are presumably used to prime subsequent recombination-mediated replication. These results provide the foundation for the future characterization of the molecular dynamics that contribute to T4 genome function and evolution and may provide insights into the replication of other multi origin chromosomes.

Analysis of the temporal expression of Trichoplusia ni single nucleopolyhedrovirus genes following transfection of BT1-Tn-5B1-4 cells

Trichoplusia ni single nucleopolyhedrovirus (TnSNPV), a 134,394-bp double-stranded DNA group II Nucleopolyhedrovirus, is pathogenic to the lepidopteran T. ni. TnSNPV transcription is temporally regulated and divided into three promoter sequence-dependent classes (early, late and very late genes). A viral oligonucleotide DNA microarray containing all potential (144) viral genes of TnSNPV was designed to investigate global viral gene expression during cell infection. Total BT1-Tn-5B1-4 cellular mRNAs extracted between 0 and 72 h posttransfection with TnSNPV genomic DNA were hybridized to the microarray. Initial average expression of early genes was detected between 12 and 24 h posttransfection while late genes were mainly detected between 24 and 72 h posttransfection. The microarray expression profiling data verified many computer predicted promoter assignments. K-means clustering was used to sort the 144 genes based on their temporal expression pattern similarities. This clustering resulted in the confirmation and temporal class assignment of previously unidentified genes and promoters.

Global changes in cellular gene expression during bacteriophage PRD1 infection

Virus-induced changes in cellular gene expression and host physiology have been studied extensively. Still, there are only a few analyses covering the entire viral replication cycle and whole-host gene pool expression at the resolution of a single gene. Here we report changes in Escherichia coli gene expression during bacteriophage PRD1 infection using microarray technology. Relative mRNA levels were systematically measured for over 99% of the host open reading frames throughout the infection cycle. Although drastic modifications could be detected in the expression of individual genes, global changes at the whole-genome level were moderate. Notably, the majority of virus-induced changes took place only after the synthesis of virion components, indicating that there is no major reprogramming of the host during early infection. The most highly induced genes encoded chaparones and other stress-inducible proteins.

Transcription of a 'photosynthetic' T4-type phage during infection of a marine cyanobacterium

The transcription of S-PM2 phage following infection of Synechococcus sp. WH7803, a marine cyanobacterium, was analysed by quantitative real-time PCR. Unlike the distantly related coliphage T4, there were only two (early and late) instead of three (early, middle and late) classes of transcripts during the developmental cycle of the phage. This difference is consistent with the absence from the S-PM2 genome of T4-like middle mode promoter sequences and the transcription factors associated with their recognition. Phage S-PM2 carries the 'photosynthetic' genes psbA and psbD that encode homologues of the host photosystem II proteins D1 and D2. Transcripts of the phage psbA gene appeared soon after infection and remained at high levels until lysis. Throughout the course of infection, the photosynthetic capacity of the cells remained constant. A considerable transient increase in the abundance of the host psbA transcripts occurred shortly after infection, suggesting that the host responds to the trauma of phage infection in a similar way as it does to a variety of other environmental stresses. The very substantial transcription of the phage psbA gene during the latter phase of phage infection suggests that S-PM2 has acquired this cellular gene to ensure that D1 levels and thus photosynthesis are fully maintained until the infected cell finally lyses. Unexpectedly, transcripts of a phage-encoded S-layer protein gene were among the earliest and most abundant detected, suggesting that this partial homologue of a host protein plays an important role in the S-PM2 infection process.

Transcription and RNA processing during expression of genes preceding DNA ligase gene 30 in T4-related bacteriophages

Early gene expression in bacteriophage T4 is controlled primarily by the unique early promoters, while T4-encoded RegB endoribonuclease promotes degradation of many early messages contributing to the rapid shift of gene expression from the early to middle stages. The regulatory region for the genes clustered upstream of DNA ligase gene 30 of T4 was known to carry two strong early promoters and two putative RegB sites. Here, we present the comparative analysis of the regulatory events in this region of 16 T4-type bacteriophages. The regulatory elements for control of this gene cluster, such as rho-independent terminator, at least one early promoter, the sequence for stem-loop structure, and the RegB cleavage sites have been found to be conserved in the phages studied. Also, we present experimental evidence that the initial cleavage by RegB of phages TuIa and RB69 enables degradation of early phage mRNAs by the major Escherichia coli endoribonuclease, RNase E.

Global gene expression analysis of two Streptococcus thermophilus bacteriophages using DNA microarray

A custom microarray was developed to study the temporal gene expression of the two groups of phages infecting the Gram-positive lactic acid bacterium Streptococcus thermophilus. The complete genomic sequence of the virulent cos-type phage DT1 (34,815 bp) and the pac-type phage 2972 (34,704 bp) were used for the construction of the microarray. Gene expression was measured at nine time intervals (0, 2, 7, 12, 17, 22, 27, 32 and 37 min) during phage infection and an expression curve was determined for each gene. Each phage gene was then classified into one of the three traditional transcription classes and these data were used to generate the complete transcriptional map of DT1 and 2972. Phage DT1 possesses 18 early genes, 12 middle genes and 12 late-expressed genes whereas 2972 has 16 early, 11 middle and 14 late genes. The trends of the phage gene expression profiles were also confirmed by slot blot hybridizations. Significant differences were observed when comparing the transcriptional maps of DT1 and 2972 with those already available for the S. thermophilus phages Sfi19 and Sfi21. To our knowledge, this report presents the first complete transcription analysis of bacteriophages infecting Gram-positive bacteria using the DNA microarray technology.

Gene-expression profiling of White spot syndrome virus in vivo

White spot syndrome virus, type species of the genus Whispovirus in the family Nimaviridae, is a large, double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) virus that infects crustaceans. The genome of the completely sequenced isolate WSSV-TH encodes 184 putative open reading frames (ORFs), the functions of which are largely unknown. To study the transcription of these ORFs, a DNA microarray was constructed, containing probes corresponding to nearly all putative WSSV-TH ORFs. Transcripts of 79 % of these ORFs could be detected in the gills of WSSV-infected shrimp (Penaeus monodon). Clustering of the transcription profiles of the individual genes during infection showed two major classes of genes: the first class reached maximal expression at 20 h post-infection (p.i.) (putative early) and the other class at 2 days p.i. (putative late). Nearly all major and minor structural virion-protein genes clustered in the latter group. These data provide evidence that, similar to other large, dsDNA viruses, the WSSV genes at large are expressed in a coordinated and cascaded fashion. Furthermore, the transcriptomes of the WSSV isolates WSSV-TH and TH-96-II, which have differential virulence, were compared at 2 days p.i. The TH-96-II genome encodes 10 ORFs that are not present in WSSV-TH, of which at least seven were expressed in P. monodon as well as in crayfish (Astacus leptodactylus), suggesting a functional but not essential role for these genes during infection. Expression levels of most other ORFs shared by both isolates were similar. Evaluation of transcription profiles by using a genome-wide approach provides a better understanding of WSSV transcription regulation and a new tool to study WSSV gene function.

Transcription regulation by bacteriophage T4 AsiA

Bacteriophage T4 AsiA, a strong inhibitor of bacterial RNA polymerase, was the first antisigma protein to be discovered. Recent advances that made it possible to purify large amounts of this highly toxic protein led to an increased understanding of AsiA function and structure. In this review, we discuss how the small 10-KDa AsiA protein plays a key role in T4 development through its ability to both inhibit and activate bacterial RNA polymerase transcription.

The genome of S-PM2, a "photosynthetic" T4-type bacteriophage that infects marine Synechococcus strains

Bacteriophage S-PM2 infects several strains of the abundant and ecologically important marine cyanobacterium Synechococcus. A large lytic phage with an isometric icosahedral head, S-PM2 has a contractile tail and by this criterion is classified as a myovirus (1). The linear, circularly permuted, 196,280-bp double-stranded DNA genome of S-PM2 contains 37.8% G+C residues. It encodes 239 open reading frames (ORFs) and 25 tRNAs. Of these ORFs, 19 appear to encode proteins associated with the cell envelope, including a putative S-layer-associated protein. Twenty additional S-PM2 ORFs have homologues in the genomes of their cyanobacterial hosts. There is a group I self-splicing intron within the gene encoding the D1 protein. A total of 40 ORFs, organized into discrete clusters, encode homologues of T4 proteins involved in virion morphogenesis, nucleotide metabolism, gene regulation, and DNA replication and repair. The S-PM2 genome encodes a few surprisingly large (e.g., 3,779 amino acids) ORFs of unknown function. Our analysis of the S-PM2 genome suggests that many of the unknown S-PM2 functions may be involved in the adaptation of the metabolism of the host cell to the requirements of phage infection. This hypothesis originates from the identification of multiple phage-mediated modifications of the host's photosynthetic apparatus that appear to be essential for maintaining energy production during the lytic cycle.

Host gene expression changes and DNA amplification during temperate phage induction

Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium LT2 harbors four temperate prophages. The lytic cycle of these phages was induced with hydrogen peroxide or mitomycin C. Microarray analysis was used to monitor the increase in phage genome copy number and the changes in RNA expression. Phage gene transcription was classified temporally, and host genes that responded to hydrogen peroxide, mitomycin C, or phage induction were also identified. A region of the serovar Typhimurium LT2 host genome encompassing hundreds of genes, flanking the Fels-1 lambdoid prophage, was amplified manyfold during lytic induction, presumably due to Fels-1 runoff replication prior to excision, a phenomenon termed escape replication. An excisionase (xis) mutant of Fels-1 also induced escape replication but did not get packaged. Gifsy-1, a lambdoid prophage that does not normally produce escape replication, did so after deletion of either its integrase or excisionase genes. Escape replication is probably widespread; large regions of host genome amplification were also observed after phage induction in serovar Typhimurium strains SL1344 and 14028s at the suspected integration site of prophage genomes.