Characterization, stability, and formulations of basic fibroblast growth factor

Manufacturing Challenges and Rational Formulation Development for AAV Viral Vectors

Adeno-associated virus (AAV) has emerged as a leading platform for gene delivery for treating various diseases due to its excellent safety profile and efficient transduction to various target tissues. However, the large-scale production and long-term storage of viral vectors is not efficient resulting in lower yields, moderate purity, and shorter shelf-life compared to recombinant protein therapeutics. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of upstream, downstream and formulation unit operation challenges encountered during AAV vector manufacturing, and discusses how desired product quality attributes can be maintained throughout product shelf-life by understanding the degradation mechanisms and formulation strategies. The mechanisms of various physical and chemical instabilities that the viral vector may encounter during its production and shelf-life because of various stressed conditions such as thermal, shear, freeze-thaw, and light exposure are highlighted. The role of buffer, pH, excipients, and impurities on the stability of viral vectors is also discussed. As such, the aim of this review is to outline the tools and a potential roadmap for improving the quality of AAV-based drug products by stressing the need for a mechanistic understanding of the involved processes.

Enhancement of Wound Healing Efficacy by Increasing the Stability and Skin-Penetrating Property of bFGF Using 30Kc19α-Based Fusion Protein

The instability of recombinant basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) is a major disadvantage for its therapeutic use and means frequent applications to cells or tissues are required for sustained effects. Originating from silkworm hemolymph, 30Kc19α is a cell-penetrating protein that also has protein stabilization properties. Herein, it is investigated whether fusing 30Kc19α to bFGF can enhance the stability and skin penetration properties of bFGF, which may consequently increase its therapeutic efficacy. The fusion of 30Kc19α to bFGF protein increases protein stability, as confirmed by ELISA. 30Kc19α-bFGF also retains the biological activity of bFGF as it facilitates the migration and proliferation of fibroblasts and angiogenesis of endothelial cells. It is discovered that 30Kc19α can improve the transdermal delivery of a small molecular fluorophore through the skin of hairless mice. Importantly, it increases the accumulation of bFGF and further facilitates its translocation into the skin through follicular routes. Finally, when applied to a skin wound model in vivo, 30Kc19α-bFGF penetrates the dermis layer effectively, which promotes cell proliferation, tissue granulation, angiogenesis, and tissue remodeling. Consequently, the findings suggest that 30Kc19α improves the therapeutic functionalities of bFGF, and would be useful as a protein stabilizer and/or a delivery vehicle in therapeutic applications.

Influence of polymerization properties of 4-META/MMA-based resin on the activity of fibroblast growth factor-2

Dental adhesive resins based on 4-methacryloxyethyl trimellitate anhydride (4-META)/methyl methacrylate (MMA) have been utilized for root-end filling and the bonding of fractured roots. To increase the success rate of these treatments, it would be beneficial to promote the healing of surrounding tissue by applying growth factors. In this study, the influences of the polymerization properties of 4-META/MMA-based resins on the activity of fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2) were evaluated in vitro. The temperature increase caused by the heat generation during polymerization of the 4-META/MMA-based resin was insufficient to change the structure and function of FGF-2. Unpolymerized monomers released from the cured 4-META/MMA-based resin had no negative influences on the ability of FGF-2 to promote the proliferation of osteoblast-like cells. These findings suggest that it is possible to use FGF-2 in combination with 4-META/MMA-based resins.

Solvent-Free Protein Encapsulation within Biodegradable Polymer Foams

Microporous poly(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide) matrices containing encapsulated proteins were fabricated in a solvent-free manner. Microporous foam was generated by saturating a mixture of polymer and protein particles in supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2), dispersing the protein particles in the polymer melt followed by a rapid evaporation of the CO2 phase. The release rates of protein encapsulated within porous poly(lactide-co-glycolide)(PLGA) constructs produced in SC-CO2 were measured in vitro. Although a substantial amount of protein was released within the first 48 h, results indicated that protein may be dispersed throughout the polymer phase and released over 3 weeks using this solvent-free technique. Basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), known to promote angiogenesis in vivo, was encapsulated within the polymer matrix. In addition, retention of biological activity was measured for bFGF encapsulated within PLGA foams. Encapsulated bFGF was released from the porous constructs for up to 10 days in vitro with little loss of biological activity.

Requirement for neurogenesis to proceed through the division of neuronal progenitors following differentiation of epidermal growth factor and fibroblast growth factor-2-responsive human neural stem cells

Epidermal growth factor (EGF)- and fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2)-responsive human neural stem cells may provide insight into mechanisms of neural development and have applications in cell-based therapeutics for neurological disease. However, their biology after expansion in vitro is currently poorly understood. Cells grown in either EGF or FGF-2 or a combination of both mitogens displayed characteristically similar levels of transcriptional activation and comparable proliferative profiles with linear cell-cycle kinetics and possessed similar neuronal differentiation capabilities. These data support the view that human neurospheres at later stages of expansion (>10 weeks) are comprised overwhelmingly of a single type of stem cell responsive to both EGF and FGF-2. After mitogen withdrawal and neurosphere plating, bromodeoxyuridine pulse-chase experiments revealed that the stem cells did not undergo differentiation directly into neurons. Instead, most immature neurons arose via the division of emerging progenitor cells in the absence of exogenous EGF or FGF-2. Neurogenesis was abolished by application of high concentrations of either EGF/FGF-2 or the mitotic inhibitor cytosine-b-arabinofuranoside, suggesting that there is an obligatory requirement for at least one round of cell division in the absence of mitogens as a prelude to terminal neuronal differentiation. The differentiation of human neurospheres provides a useful model of human neurogenesis, and the data presented indicate that it proceeds through the division of committed neuronal progenitor cells rather than directly from the neural stem cell.

Protein aggregation and its inhibition in biopharmaceutics

Protein aggregation is arguably the most common and troubling manifestation of protein instability, encountered in almost all stages of protein drug development. Protein aggregation, along with other physical and/or chemical instabilities of proteins, remains to be one of the major road barriers hindering rapid commercialization of potential protein drug candidates. Although a variety of methods have been used/designed to prevent/inhibit protein aggregation, the end results are often unsatisfactory for many proteins. The limited success is partly due to our lack of a clear understanding of the protein aggregation process. This article intends to discuss protein aggregation and its related mechanisms, methods characterizing protein aggregation, factors affecting protein aggregation, and possible venues in aggregation prevention/inhibition in various stages of protein drug development.

Growth factor delivery for bone tissue engineering

Bone is a dynamic tissue that undergoes significant turnover during the life cycle of an individual. Despite having a significant regenerative capability, trauma and other pathological scenarios commonly require therapeutic intervention to facilitate the healing process. Bone tissue engineering, where cellular and biological processes at a site are deliberately manipulated for a therapeutic outcome, offers a viable option for the treatment of skeletal diseases. In this review paper, we aim to provide a brief synopsis of cellular and molecular basis of bone formation that are pertinent to current efforts of bone healing. Different approaches for engineering bone tissue were presented with special emphasis on the use of soluble (diffusible) therapeutic agents to accelerate bone healing. The latter agents have been used for both local bone repair (i.e. introduction of agents directly to a site of repair) as well as systemic bone regeneration (i.e. delivery for regeneration throughout the skeletal system). Critical drug delivery and targeting issues pertinent for each mode of bone regeneration are provided. In addition, future challenges and opportunities in bone tissue engineering are proposed from the authors' perspective.

Active growth factor delivery from poly(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide) foams prepared in supercritical CO(2)

A method for the production of microporous poly(D, L-lactide-co-glycolide) foams containing encapsulated proteins using supercritical carbon dioxide is described. Foams generated as aqueous protein emulsions in a polymer-solvent solution were saturated with carbon dioxide at supercritical conditions, and then suddenly supersaturated at ambient conditions causing bubble nucleation and precipitation of the polymer. Proteins contained in the water phase of the emulsion were encapsulated within the foams, including basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), an angiogenic factor of interest in tissue engineering applications. The release and activity of bFGF from these foams was determined in vitro and compared with similar porous scaffolds prepared by traditional solvent casting-salt leaching techniques. Total protein release rate was greater from structures made in CO(2) than those made by the salt leaching technique, however a large initial burst of bFGF was released from the salt leached structures. This initial burst was not observed from the polymer foams processed in CO(2) and active bFGF was released at a relatively constant rate. Residual methylene chloride levels were measured in the foams made with CO(2) and were found to be above the limits imposed by the US Pharmacopoeia implying that further solvent removal would be required prior to in vivo use.