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West EL, Majunder P, Naeem A, Fernando M, O'Hara-Wright M, Lanning E, Kloc M, Ribeiro J, Ovando-Roche P, Shum IO, Jumbu N, Sampson R, Hayes M, Bainbridge JWB, Georgiadis A, Smith AJ, Gonzalez-Cordero A, Ali RR. Antioxidant and lipid supplementation improve the development of photoreceptor outer segments in pluripotent stem cell-derived retinal organoids. Stem Cell Reports 2022; 17:775-788. [PMID: 35334217 PMCID: PMC9023802 DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2022.02.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2021] [Revised: 02/26/2022] [Accepted: 02/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The generation of retinal organoids from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSC) is now a well-established process that in part recapitulates retinal development. However, hPSC-derived photoreceptors that exhibit well-organized outer segment structures have yet to be observed. To facilitate improved inherited retinal disease modeling, we determined conditions that would support outer segment development in maturing hPSC-derived photoreceptors. We established that the use of antioxidants and BSA-bound fatty acids promotes the formation of membranous outer segment-like structures. Using new protocols for hPSC-derived retinal organoid culture, we demonstrated improved outer segment formation for both rod and cone photoreceptors, including organized stacked discs. Using these enhanced conditions to generate iPSC-derived retinal organoids from patients with X-linked retinitis pigmentosa, we established robust cellular phenotypes that could be ameliorated following adeno-associated viral vector-mediated gene augmentation. These findings should aid both disease modeling and the development of therapeutic approaches for the treatment of photoreceptor disorders. Antioxidants and lipids are required for the formation of organized outer segments Both rod and cone hPSC-derived photoreceptors generate well-formed outer segments Improved conditions provide a robust model of X-linked retinitis pigmentosa type 3 Enhanced segment formation permits the evaluation of therapeutic interventions
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma L West
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, 11-43 Bath Street, London EC1V 9EL, UK
| | - Paromita Majunder
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, 11-43 Bath Street, London EC1V 9EL, UK
| | - Arifa Naeem
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, 11-43 Bath Street, London EC1V 9EL, UK
| | - Milan Fernando
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, 11-43 Bath Street, London EC1V 9EL, UK
| | | | - Emily Lanning
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, 11-43 Bath Street, London EC1V 9EL, UK
| | - Magdalena Kloc
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, 11-43 Bath Street, London EC1V 9EL, UK
| | - Joana Ribeiro
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, 11-43 Bath Street, London EC1V 9EL, UK
| | | | - Ian O Shum
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, 11-43 Bath Street, London EC1V 9EL, UK
| | - Neeraj Jumbu
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, 11-43 Bath Street, London EC1V 9EL, UK
| | - Robert Sampson
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, 11-43 Bath Street, London EC1V 9EL, UK
| | - Matt Hayes
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, 11-43 Bath Street, London EC1V 9EL, UK
| | - James W B Bainbridge
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, 11-43 Bath Street, London EC1V 9EL, UK; NIHR Biomedical Research Centre at Moorfields Eye Hospital NHS Foundation Trust and UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, City Road, London EC1V 2PD, UK
| | | | - Alexander J Smith
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, 11-43 Bath Street, London EC1V 9EL, UK
| | | | - Robin R Ali
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, 11-43 Bath Street, London EC1V 9EL, UK; NIHR Biomedical Research Centre at Moorfields Eye Hospital NHS Foundation Trust and UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, City Road, London EC1V 2PD, UK; Kellogg Eye Center, University of Michigan, 1000 Wall Street, Ann Arbor, MI 48105, USA.
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Bermúdez V, Tenconi PE, Giusto NM, Mateos MV. Lipid Signaling in Retinal Pigment Epithelium Cells Exposed to Inflammatory and Oxidative Stress Conditions. Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Degenerative Retinal Diseases. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2019; 1185:289-293. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-27378-1_47] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Zhang Q, Presswalla F, Feathers K, Cao X, Hughes BA, Zacks DN, Thompson DA, Miller JML. A platform for assessing outer segment fate in primary human fetal RPE cultures. Exp Eye Res 2018; 178:212-222. [PMID: 30336126 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2018.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2018] [Revised: 10/01/2018] [Accepted: 10/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The daily shedding and renewal of photoreceptor outer segments (OS) is critical for maintaining vision. This process relies on the efficient uptake, degradation, and sorting of shed OS material by the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). Poor OS degradation has been linked to retinal degenerations such as Stargardt disease and may contribute to macular degeneration. While primary human fetal RPE cultures have emerged as a valuable model of in vivo human RPE function, surprisingly few studies have utilized the model for tracking the degradation and fate of OS components in the RPE. Here, we establish an improved platform for studying this topic by modifying existing protocols and creating new methods. Our human fetal culture model facilitates studies of RPE secretion in response to OS ingestion, preserves RPE differentiation and polarization during live-cell imaging of OS phagocytosis, and minimizes costs. We optimize Mer tyrosine kinase-dependent OS phagocytosis assays specifically in human fetal cultures and provide a simple and accurate method for measuring total OS consumption by the RPE. Finally, we utilize chemical transfection, dextran labeling, and immunocytochemistry to evaluate key players in OS degradation, including lysosomes and autophagy proteins. To facilitate quantification of autophagy vesicles, we develop customized image analysis macros in the Fiji/ImageJ software environment. These protocols will facilitate a broad range of studies in human fetal RPE cultures aimed at determining the ultimate fate of OS components after ingestion, a critical step in understanding the pathogenesis of numerous retinal diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qitao Zhang
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Kellogg Eye Center, Michigan Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Feriel Presswalla
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Kellogg Eye Center, Michigan Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Kecia Feathers
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Kellogg Eye Center, Michigan Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Xu Cao
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Kellogg Eye Center, Michigan Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Bret A Hughes
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Kellogg Eye Center, Michigan Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA; Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - David N Zacks
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Kellogg Eye Center, Michigan Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Debra A Thompson
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Kellogg Eye Center, Michigan Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA; Department of Biological Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Jason M L Miller
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Kellogg Eye Center, Michigan Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
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Agbaga MP, Merriman DK, Brush RS, Lydic TA, Conley SM, Naash MI, Jackson S, Woods AS, Reid GE, Busik JV, Anderson RE. Differential composition of DHA and very-long-chain PUFAs in rod and cone photoreceptors. J Lipid Res 2018; 59:1586-1596. [PMID: 29986998 PMCID: PMC6121944 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m082495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2017] [Revised: 06/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Long-chain PUFAs (LC-PUFAs; C20-C22; e.g., DHA and arachidonic acid) are highly enriched in vertebrate retina, where they are elongated to very-long-chain PUFAs (VLC-PUFAs; C 28) by the elongation of very-long-chain fatty acids-4 (ELOVL4) enzyme. These fatty acids play essential roles in modulating neuronal function and health. The relevance of different lipid requirements in rods and cones to disease processes, such as age-related macular degeneration, however, remains unclear. To better understand the role of LC-PUFAs and VLC-PUFAs in the retina, we investigated the lipid compositions of whole retinas or photoreceptor outer segment (OS) membranes in rodents with rod- or cone-dominant retinas. We analyzed fatty acid methyl esters and the molecular species of glycerophospholipids (phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, and phosphatidylserine) by GC-MS/GC-flame ionization detection and ESI-MS/MS, respectively. We found that whole retinas and OS membranes in rod-dominant animals compared with cone-dominant animals had higher amounts of LC-PUFAs and VLC-PUFAs. Compared with those of rod-dominant animals, retinas and OS membranes from cone-dominant animals also had about 2-fold lower levels of di-DHA (22:6/22:6) molecular species of glycerophospholipids. Because PUFAs are necessary for optimal G protein-coupled receptor signaling in rods, these findings suggest that cones may not have the same lipid requirements as rods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin-Paul Agbaga
- Departments of Ophthalmology University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK; Cell Biology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK; Oklahoma Center for Neuroscience, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK; Harold Hamm Diabetes Center, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK; Dean McGee Eye Institute, Oklahoma City, OK.
| | - Dana K Merriman
- McPherson Eye Research Institute, University of Wisconsin Oshkosh, Oshkosh, WI
| | - Richard S Brush
- Departments of Ophthalmology University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK; Dean McGee Eye Institute, Oklahoma City, OK
| | - Todd A Lydic
- Department of Physiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI
| | - Shannon M Conley
- Cell Biology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK
| | - Muna I Naash
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, TX
| | - Shelley Jackson
- National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program Structural Biology Unit, Baltimore, MD
| | - Amina S Woods
- National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program Structural Biology Unit, Baltimore, MD
| | - Gavin E Reid
- School of Chemistry and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Julia V Busik
- Department of Physiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI
| | - Robert E Anderson
- Departments of Ophthalmology University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK; Cell Biology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK; Oklahoma Center for Neuroscience, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK; Harold Hamm Diabetes Center, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK; Dean McGee Eye Institute, Oklahoma City, OK
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Retinal Pigment Epithelium and Photoreceptor Preconditioning Protection Requires Docosanoid Signaling. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2017; 38:901-917. [PMID: 29177613 PMCID: PMC5882642 DOI: 10.1007/s10571-017-0565-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2017] [Accepted: 11/03/2017] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are necessary for functional cell integrity. Preconditioning (PC), as we define it, is an acquired protection or resilience by a cell, tissue, or organ to a lethal stimulus enabled by a previous sublethal stressor or stimulus. In this study, we provide evidence that the omega-3 fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and its derivatives, the docosanoids 17-hydroxy docosahexaenoic acid (17-HDHA) and neuroprotectin D1 (NPD1), facilitate cell survival in both in vitro and in vivo models of retinal PC. We also demonstrate that PC requires the enzyme 15-lipoxygenase-1 (15-LOX-1), which synthesizes 17-HDHA and NPD1, and that this is specific to docosanoid signaling despite the concomitant release of the omega-6 arachidonic acid and eicosanoid synthesis. These findings advocate that DHA and docosanoids are protective enablers of PC in photoreceptor and retinal pigment epithelial cells.
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Wickremasinghe SS, Chong EWT, Guymer RH. Lifestyle and age-related macular degeneration. EXPERT REVIEW OF OPHTHALMOLOGY 2014. [DOI: 10.1586/17469899.4.1.79] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Yu M, Benham A, Logan S, Brush RS, Mandal MNA, Anderson RE, Agbaga MP. ELOVL4 protein preferentially elongates 20:5n3 to very long chain PUFAs over 20:4n6 and 22:6n3. J Lipid Res 2012; 53:494-504. [PMID: 22158834 PMCID: PMC3276472 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m021386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
We hypothesized that reduction/loss of very long chain PUFAs (VLC-PUFAs) due to mutations in the ELOngase of very long chain fatty acid-4 (ELOVL4) protein contributes to retinal degeneration in autosomal dominant Stargardt-like macular dystrophy (STGD3) and age-related macular degeneration; hence, increasing VLC-PUFA in the retina of these patients could provide some therapeutic benefits. Thus, we tested the efficiency of elongation of C20-C22 PUFA by the ELOVL4 protein to determine which substrates are the best precursors for biosynthesis of VLC-PUFA. The ELOVL4 protein was expressed in pheochromocytoma cells, while green fluorescent protein-expressing and nontransduced cells served as controls. The cells were treated with 20:5n3, 22:6n3, and 20:4n6, either individually or in equal combinations. Both transduced and control cells internalized and elongated the supplemented FAs to C22-C26 precursors. Only ELOVL4-expressing cells synthesized C28-C38 VLC-PUFA from these precursors. In general, 20:5n3 was more efficiently elongated to VLC-PUFA in the ELOVL4-expressing cells, regardless of whether it was in combination with 22:6n3 or with 20:4n6. In each FA treatment group, C34 and C36 VLC-PUFAs were the predominant VLC-PUFAs in the ELOVL4-expressing cells. In summary, 20:5n3, followed by 20:4n6, seems to be the best precursor for boosting the synthesis of VLC-PUFA by ELOVL4 protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Man Yu
- Departments of Ophthalmology and Cell Biology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK; Ophthalmic Laboratories and Department of Ophthalmology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, P. R. China
| | - Aaron Benham
- Departments of Ophthalmology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK; Dean McGee Eye Institute, Oklahoma City, OK; and
| | - Sreemathi Logan
- Departments of Ophthalmology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK; Departments of Ophthalmology and Cell Biology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK; Dean McGee Eye Institute, Oklahoma City, OK; and
| | - R Steven Brush
- Departments of Ophthalmology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK; Dean McGee Eye Institute, Oklahoma City, OK; and
| | - Md Nawajes A Mandal
- Departments of Ophthalmology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK; Dean McGee Eye Institute, Oklahoma City, OK; and
| | - Robert E Anderson
- Departments of Ophthalmology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK; Departments of Ophthalmology and Cell Biology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK; Dean McGee Eye Institute, Oklahoma City, OK; and
| | - Martin-Paul Agbaga
- Departments of Ophthalmology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK; Dean McGee Eye Institute, Oklahoma City, OK; and.
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The retinal pigment epithelium: something more than a constituent of the blood-retinal barrier--implications for the pathogenesis of diabetic retinopathy. J Biomed Biotechnol 2010; 2010:190724. [PMID: 20182540 PMCID: PMC2825554 DOI: 10.1155/2010/190724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 305] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2009] [Revised: 09/28/2009] [Accepted: 11/16/2009] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is an specialized epithelium lying in the interface between the neural retina and the choriocapillaris where it forms the outer blood-retinal barrier (BRB). The main functions of the RPE are the following: (1) transport of nutrients, ions, and water, (2) absorption of light and protection against photooxidation, (3) reisomerization of all-trans-retinal into 11-cis-retinal, which is crucial for the visual cycle, (4) phagocytosis of shed photoreceptor membranes, and (5) secretion of essential factors for the structural integrity of the retina. An overview of these functions will be given. Most of the research on the physiopathology of diabetic retinopathy has been focused on the impairment of the neuroretina and the breakdown of the inner BRB. By contrast, the effects of diabetes on the RPE and in particular on its secretory activity have received less attention. In this regard, new therapeutic strategies addressed to modulating RPE impairment are warranted.
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Tanito M, Brush RS, Elliott MH, Wicker LD, Henry KR, Anderson RE. High levels of retinal membrane docosahexaenoic acid increase susceptibility to stress-induced degeneration. J Lipid Res 2008; 50:807-19. [PMID: 19023138 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m800170-jlr200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The fat-1 gene cloned from C. elegans encodes an n-3 fatty acid desaturase that converts n-6 to n-3 PUFA. Mice carrying the fat-1 transgene and wild-type controls were fed an n-3-deficient/n-6-enriched diet [fat-1- safflower oil (SFO) and wt-SFO, respectively]. Fatty acid profiles of rod outer segments (ROS), cerebellum, plasma, and liver demonstrated significantly lower n-6/n-3 ratios and higher docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels in fat-1-SFO compared with wt-SFO. When mice were exposed to light stress: 1) the outer nuclear layer (ONL) thickness was reduced; 2) amplitudes of the electroretinogram (ERG) were lower; 3) the number of apoptotic photoreceptor cells was greater; and 4) modification of retinal proteins by 4-hydroxyhexenal (4-HHE), an end-product of n-3 PUFA oxidation was increased in both fat-1-SFO and wt mice fed a regular lab chow diet compared with wt-SFO. The results indicate a positive correlation between the level of DHA, the degree of n-3 PUFA lipid peroxidation, and the vulnerability of the retina to photooxidative stress. In mice not exposed to intense light, the reduction in DHA resulted in reduced efficacy in phototransduction gain steps, while no differences in the retinal morphology or retinal biochemistry. These results highlight the dual roles of DHA in cellular physiology and pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaki Tanito
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA
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Ford DA, Monda JK, Brush RS, Anderson RE, Richards MJ, Fliesler SJ. Lipidomic analysis of the retina in a rat model of Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome: alterations in docosahexaenoic acid content of phospholipid molecular species. J Neurochem 2007; 105:1032-47. [PMID: 18182048 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2007.05203.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome (SLOS) is a complex hereditary disease caused by an enzymatic defect in the last step of cholesterol biosynthesis. Progressive retinal degeneration occurs in an AY9944-induced rat model of SLOS, with biochemical and electroretinographic hallmarks comparable with the human disease. We evaluated alterations in the non-sterol lipid components of the retina in this model, compared with age-matched controls, using lipidomic analysis. The levels of 16:0-22:6 and 18:0-22:6 phosphatidylcholine molecular species in retinas were less by > 50% and > 33%, respectively, in rats treated for either 2 or 3 months with AY9944. Relative to controls, AY9944 treatment resulted in > 60% less di-22:6 and > 15% less 18:0-22:6 phosphatidylethanolamine molecular species. The predominant phosphatidylserine (PS) molecular species in control retinas were 18:0-22:6 and di-22:6; notably, AY9944 treatment resulted in > 80% less di-22:6 PS, relative to controls. Remarkably, these changes occurred in the absence of n3 fatty acid deficiency in plasma or liver. Thus, the retinal lipidome is globally altered in the SLOS rat model, relative to control rats, with the most profound changes being less phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, and PS molecular species containing docosahexaenoic acid (22:6). These findings suggest that SLOS may involve additional metabolic compromise beyond the primary enzymatic defect in the cholesterol pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Ford
- E. A. Doisy Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, Missouri, USA
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Silva MH, Silva MTC, Brandão SC, Gomes JC, Peternelli LA, Franceschini SDC. Fatty acid composition of mature breast milk in Brazilian women. Food Chem 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2004.09.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Abstract
Located between vessels of the choriocapillaris and light-sensitive outer segments of the photoreceptors, the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) closely interacts with photoreceptors in the maintenance of visual function. Increasing knowledge of the multiple functions performed by the RPE improved the understanding of many diseases leading to blindness. This review summarizes the current knowledge of RPE functions and describes how failure of these functions causes loss of visual function. Mutations in genes that are expressed in the RPE can lead to photoreceptor degeneration. On the other hand, mutations in genes expressed in photoreceptors can lead to degenerations of the RPE. Thus both tissues can be regarded as a functional unit where both interacting partners depend on each other.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olaf Strauss
- Bereich Experimentelle Ophthalmologie, Klinik und Poliklinik fuer Augenheilkunde, Universitaetsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Martinistrasse 52, 20246 Hamburg, Germany.
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Zhou D, Zaiger G, Ghebremeskel K, Crawford MA, Reifen R. Vitamin A deficiency reduces liver and colon docosahexaenoic acid levels in rats fed high linoleic and low alpha-linolenic acid diet. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2004; 71:383-9. [PMID: 15519497 DOI: 10.1016/j.plefa.2004.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2004] [Accepted: 07/29/2004] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Studies indicate that the transcription factor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) regulate the activity of delta-6 and -5 desaturases and several key enzymes of peroxisomal beta-oxidation, including acyl-CoA oxidase. These enzymes are vital for the synthesis of docosahexaenoic (22:6 omega 3; DHA) and osbond (22:5 omega 6, OA) acids. An activated PPAR must form a hetrodimer with the obligate cofactor retinoid X receptor (RXR) to interact with a peroxisome proliferator responsive element (PPRE) of a target gene and to regulate transcriptional expression. The vitamin A metabolite, 9-cis retinoic acid, is the most potent ligand of RXR. We have tested the possibility that deficiency of vitamin A would compromise tissue levels of both DHA and OA in rats. Two groups of male Wistar rats were randomly distributed to receive vitamin A deficient (VAD) or sufficient (VAS) diet. After seven weeks of feeding, the rats were killed and colon and liver tissues removed for the analysis of fatty acids and antioxidant status. The VAD compared to the VAS rats had elevated levels of arachidonic (AA, P<0.001), adrenic acid (22:4 omega 6, P<0.005) and OA (P<0.0001) and reduced proportions of eicosapentaenoic (EPA, docosapentaenoic (DPA), DHA and total omega 3 fatty (P<0.0001) in colon choline phosphoglycerides (CPG). Similarly, liver CPG of the VAD rats had higher AA and adrenic acid and OA (P<0.0001), and lower EPA, DPA and DHA (P<0.0001) than the VAS rats. There was a similar fatty acid pattern in ethanolamine phosphoglycerides of the colon and liver tissues. These differences could not be explained by the conventional microsomal-peroxisomal pathway of the synthesis of the long-chain omega 6 and omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. We postulate that deficiency of dietary vitamin A and the consequential depletion of retinoids inhibits DHA, and enhances OA, synthesis by differential effects on the independent synthetic pathways of the two fatty acids in the mitochondria. Various studies have documented that both DHA and vitamin A are vital for optimal visual and neural development and function. There is a need for further investigations to elucidate how vitamin A deficiency reduces membrane DHA level, and to delineate the synergistic effect of the two nutrients on vision, learning and memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Zhou
- Institute of Brain Chemistry and Human Nutrition, London Metropolitan University, 166-220 Holloway Road, London N7 8DB, UK.
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Jeffrey BG, Mitchell DC, Hibbeln JR, Gibson RA, Chedester AL, Salem N. Visual acuity and retinal function in infant monkeys fed long-chain PUFA. Lipids 2002; 37:839-48. [PMID: 12458618 DOI: 10.1007/s11745-002-0969-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Previous randomized clinical trials suggest that supplementation of the human infant diet with up to 0.35% DHA may benefit visual development. The aim of the current study was to assess the impact of including arachidonic acid (AA) and a higher level of DHA in the postnatal monkey diet on visual development. Infant rhesus monkeys were fed either a control diet (2.0% alpha-linolenic acid as the sole n-3 FA) or a supplemented diet (1.0% DHA and 1.0% AA) from birth. Visual evoked potential acuity was measured at 3 mon of age. Rod and cone function were assessed in terms of parameters describing phototransduction. Electroretinogram (ERG) amplitudes and implicit times were recorded over a wide intensity range (-2.2 to 4.0 log scot td-sec) and assessed in terms of intensity response functions. Plasma DHA and AA were significantly increased (P < 0.001) in the diet-supplemented monkeys compared with the control monkeys. There was an approximately equal effect of diet for the rod phototransduction parameters, sensitivity, and capacitance but in the opposite directions. Diet-supplemented monkeys had significantly shorter b-wave implicit times at low retinal illuminances (<-0.6 log scot td-sec). There were no significant effects of diet for visual acuity or the other 23 ERG parameters measured. The results suggest that supplementation of the infant monkey diet with 1.0% DHA and 1.0% AA neither harms nor provides substantial benefit to the development of visual acuity or retinal function in the first four postnatal months.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brett G Jeffrey
- Department of Paediatrics and Child Health, Flinders Medical Centre, The Flinders University of South Australia, Bedford Park, Adelaide, SA 5042, Australia
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15
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Dunbar BL, Bauer JE. Metabolism of dietary essential fatty acids and their conversion to long-chain polyunsaturated metabolites. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2002; 220:1621-6. [PMID: 12051499 DOI: 10.2460/javma.2002.220.1621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Brent L Dunbar
- Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, College of Veterinary Medicine, Texas A&M University, College Station 77843-4474, USA
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Abstract
An important role for docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) within the retina is suggested by its high levels and active conservation in this tissue. Animals raised on n-3-deficient diets have large reductions in retinal DHA levels that are associated with altered retinal function as assessed by the electroretinogram (ERG). Despite two decades of research in this field, little is known about the mechanisms underlying altered retinal function in n-3-deficient animals. The focus of this review is on recent research that has sought to elucidate the role of DHA in retinal function, particularly within the rod photoreceptor outer segments where DHA is found at its highest concentration. An overview is also given of human infant studies that have examined whether a neonatal dietary supply of DHA is required for the normal development of retinal function.
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Affiliation(s)
- B G Jeffrey
- Department of Paediatrics and Child Health, Flinders Medical Centre, The Flinders University of South Australia, Bedford Park, Adelaide, South Australia 5042, Australia
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Knox E, VanderJagt DJ, Shatima D, Huang YS, Chuang LT, Glew RH. Nutritional status and intermediate chain-length fatty acids influence the conservation of essential fatty acids in the milk of northern Nigerian women. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2000; 63:195-202. [PMID: 11049694 DOI: 10.1054/plef.2000.0206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The milk of 89 women in northern Nigeria was analyzed for the fatty acid composition of the total milk lipids, and assessed for the effect nutritional status has on the conservation of essential and non-essential fatty acids when the proportions of C(10)-C(14)fatty acids are increased. The women were stratified on the basis of their body mass index, and calculations were made to estimate the effects of a 3.3-fold increase in the proportion of C(10)-C(14)fatty acids on the proportion of alpha-linolenic acid, docosahexaenoic acid, linoleic acid and arachidonic in total milk lipids. In the well-nourished group (group III, body mass index >23 kg/m(2)), the critical n-3 and n-6 fatty acids were not conserved, while in poorly nourished women (group I, body mass index <19 kg/m(2)), marked conservation of alpha-linolenic acid, docosahexaenoic acid, arachidonic acid, and palmitic acid was seen. Poor nutritional status of the mother appears to promote selective retention of critical essential and non-essential fatty acids in the milk lipid fraction.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Knox
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, University of New Mexico Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
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18
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Schmeits BL, VanderJagt DJ, Okolo SN, Huang YS, Glew RH. Selective retention of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids in human milk lipids in the face of increasing proportions of medium chain-length (C10-14) fatty acids. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 1999; 61:219-24. [PMID: 10574645 DOI: 10.1054/plef.1999.0093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
This paper reports the results of our analysis of the impact high levels of de novo fatty acids have on the proportions of essential and non-essential fatty acids in human milk lipids. The data for seven fatty acids (linoleic, alpha-linolenic, arachidonic (AA), docosahexaenoic (DHA), palmitic, stearic and oleic) were derived from several studies conducted in Nigeria. The proportion by weight of each of these fatty acids was plotted versus the proportion of C10-14 fatty acids. As the proportion of C10-14 fatty acids increased from 15 to 65%, there was not a proportional decrease in the percentages of all seven fatty acids, but, instead, preferential incorporation of the essential fatty acids, AA and DHA into the triacylglycerol component of the milk. At the same time, the proportions of stearic and oleic acid declined by 69% and 86%, respectively. However, the proportions of linoleic acid, palmitic acid, DHA, AA and alpha-linolenic acid, in milk lipids decreased by only 44%, 40%, 39%, 28% and 2.3%, respectively. These observations indicate that as the contribution of C10-14 fatty acids increases, essential fatty acids are preferentially incorporated into milk triacylglycerols at the expense of oleic acid and stearic acid.
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Affiliation(s)
- B L Schmeits
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque 87131, USA
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19
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Schmeits BL, Cook JA, VanderJagt DJ, Magnussen MA, Bhatt SK, Bobik EG, Huang YS, Glew RH. Fatty acid composition of the milk lipids of women in Nepal. Nutr Res 1999. [DOI: 10.1016/s0271-5317(99)00091-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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20
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Schmeits BL, Okolo SN, VanderJagt DJ, Huang YS, Chuang LT, Mata JR, Tsin AA, Glew RH. Content of lipid nutrients in the milk of Fulani women. J Hum Lact 1999; 15:113-20. [PMID: 10578786 DOI: 10.1177/089033449901500208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Little is known about the nutrition of the infants of the Fulani, migratory nomads of the western Sahel of Africa. Milk was collected from 18 Fulani women 10 to 30 days postpartum and the fatty acid compositions of the triacylglycerol and phospholipid fractions were determined by capillary gas-liquid chromatography. De novo fatty acids (10:0-14:0) comprised 36.3 +/- 12.7% of fatty acids of the triacylglycerols. Compared to the milk of various populations worldwide, the milk of the Fulani women contained adequate proportions of alpha-linolenic acid (0.50 +/- 0.16%) and arachidonic acid (0.42 +/- 0.22%), but relatively low amounts of linoleic acid (9.95 +/- 2.13%) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) (0.15 +/- 0.08%). In addition, the milk of the Fulani women contained adequate concentrations of beta-carotene (1.58 +/- 0.69 micrograms/dl) and vitamin A (42.7 +/- 40.3 micrograms/dl), but very low levels of vitamin E (0.11 +/- 0.10 mg/dl). These data indicate that exclusively breasted infants of Fulani women were receiving relatively low amounts of critical fatty acids and vitamin E.
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21
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Craig-Schmidt MC, Stieh KE, Lien EL. Retinal fatty acids of piglets fed docosahexaenoic and arachidonic acids from microbial sources. Lipids 1996; 31:53-9. [PMID: 8649234 DOI: 10.1007/bf02522411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3) and arachidonic acid (AA, 20:4n-6) serve important roles in perinatal visual and neural development. A neonatal pig model was used to determine if dietary supplementation with DHA and AA at slightly greater concentrations than normally found in human milk would influence fatty acid accretion in retina. One-day-old piglets were assigned to one of four diets (n = 5/group): (i) STD, standard diet containing fat similar to infant formula; (ii) STD + DHA, 0.7% of fatty acids as DHA; (iii) STD + AA, 0.9% as AA; and (iv) STD + BOTH, 0.8% as DHA plus 1.0% as AA. After 25 d, fatty acids in retina phosphatidylcholine (PC) and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) were determined. Supplementation with DHA resulted in approximately twofold increases (P < 0.05) in PC-DHA (4.88% in STD vs. 10.03% in STD + DHA and 9.47% in STD + BOTH). Similarly, AA supplementation increased PC-AA 1.3-1.4-fold (4.47% in STD vs. 6.19% in STD + AA and 5.70% in STD + BOTH). For PE, supplementation with either fatty acid or in combination resulted in no significant increases, except for a 1.2-fold increase in DHA for STD + BOTH (32.66%) vs. STD (28.38%). Thus, PC responded to dietary supplementation, with addition of DHA, AA, or BOTH, resulting in increases in respective fatty acids; PE was less responsive, with only STD + BOTH resulting in increased DHA. No significant competition between DHA and AA in incorporation into phospholipids was observed. In conclusion, consumption of a combination of DHA and AA by neonatal pigs supported accretion of DHA in retina phospholipids, while simultaneously supplying the AA necessary for membrane phospholipids and eicosanoid biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- M C Craig-Schmidt
- Department of Nutrition and Food Science, Aubum University, Alabama 36849, USA
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22
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Chen H, Anderson RE. Comparison of uptake and incorporation of docosahexaenoic and arachidonic acids by frog retinas. Curr Eye Res 1993; 12:851-60. [PMID: 8261796 DOI: 10.3109/02713689309020390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Vertebrate retinas, especially photoreceptor cellular membranes, contain high levels of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and relatively low levels of arachidonic acid (AA). The present study was designed to test the hypothesis that DHA enrichment in the retina is the result of preferential uptake and incorporation relative to other fatty acids. Frog retinas were incubated in vitro with [3H]DHA or [3h]AA for up to 6 h, and the amounts of label in retinal lipids were quantitated. The incorporation of DHA into total lipids, triglycerides, phosphatidylcholine, and phosphatidylethanolamine was similar to that of AA when each was presented as the only substrate, and was linear with fatty acid concentration and incubation time. The addition of excess, unlabeled AA reduced the uptake and incorporation of DHA into retinal lipids. A slightly greater inhibition was noted for the uptake and incorporation of AA in the presence of unlabeled DHA. There was about 2-3 fold greater incorporation of DHA into phosphatidic acid, diglycerides, and phosphatidylinositol compared with AA, whereas the reverse was found for phosphatidylserine. The different levels of DHA and AA in retinal phospholipids cannot be explained by different rates of uptake and incorporation of these fatty acids into lipids, although some slight enrichment of DHA may be possible by this mechanism. The linear incorporation with fatty acid concentration suggests that the difference could be accomplished by controlling the amount and type of fatty acids delivered to the retina by the adjacent pigment epithelium.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Chen
- Biochemistry Department, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030
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