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Geris R, Pinho MA, Boffo EF, Simpson TJ. Naturally Occurring Partially Reduced Perylenequinones from Fungi. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2022; 85:2236-2250. [PMID: 36098709 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.2c00368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
This Review provides a critical analysis of the literature covering the naturally occurring partially reduced perylenequinones (PQs) from fungi without carbon substituents (which can be named class A perylenequinones) and discusses their structures, stereochemistry, biosynthesis, and biological activities as appropriate. Perylenequinones are natural pigments with a perylene skeleton produced by certain fungi, aphids, some plants, and animal species. These compounds display several biological activities, e.g., antimicrobial, anti-HIV, photosensitizers, cytotoxic, and phytotoxic. It describes 36 fungal PQs and cites 81 references, covering from 1956 to August 2022.
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Affiliation(s)
- Regina Geris
- Laboratório de Biotecnologia e Química de Microrganismos (LBQM), Departamento de Química Orgânica, Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Rua Barão de Jeremoabo S/n, 40170-115 Salvador, Brasil
| | - Matheus A Pinho
- Laboratório de Biotecnologia e Química de Microrganismos (LBQM), Departamento de Química Orgânica, Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Rua Barão de Jeremoabo S/n, 40170-115 Salvador, Brasil
| | - Elisangela F Boffo
- Laboratório de Biotecnologia e Química de Microrganismos (LBQM), Departamento de Química Orgânica, Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Rua Barão de Jeremoabo S/n, 40170-115 Salvador, Brasil
| | - Thomas J Simpson
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock's Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, United Kingdom
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2
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Perylene as a controversial antiviral scaffold. ANNUAL REPORTS IN MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.armc.2022.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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3
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Jeffress S, Arun-Chinnappa K, Stodart B, Vaghefi N, Tan YP, Ash G. Genome mining of the citrus pathogen Elsinoë fawcettii; prediction and prioritisation of candidate effectors, cell wall degrading enzymes and secondary metabolite gene clusters. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0227396. [PMID: 32469865 PMCID: PMC7259788 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0227396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2019] [Accepted: 04/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Elsinoë fawcettii, a necrotrophic fungal pathogen, causes citrus scab on numerous citrus varieties around the world. Known pathotypes of E. fawcettii are based on host range; additionally, cryptic pathotypes have been reported and more novel pathotypes are thought to exist. E. fawcettii produces elsinochrome, a non-host selective toxin which contributes to virulence. However, the mechanisms involved in potential pathogen-host interactions occurring prior to the production of elsinochrome are unknown, yet the host-specificity observed among pathotypes suggests a reliance upon such mechanisms. In this study we have generated a whole genome sequencing project for E. fawcettii, producing an annotated draft assembly 26.01 Mb in size, with 10,080 predicted gene models and low (0.37%) coverage of transposable elements. A small proportion of the assembly showed evidence of AT-rich regions, potentially indicating genomic regions with increased plasticity. Using a variety of computational tools, we mined the E. fawcettii genome for potential virulence genes as candidates for future investigation. A total of 1,280 secreted proteins and 276 candidate effectors were predicted and compared to those of other necrotrophic (Botrytis cinerea, Parastagonospora nodorum, Pyrenophora tritici-repentis, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and Zymoseptoria tritici), hemibiotrophic (Leptosphaeria maculans, Magnaporthe oryzae, Rhynchosporium commune and Verticillium dahliae) and biotrophic (Ustilago maydis) plant pathogens. Genomic and proteomic features of known fungal effectors were analysed and used to guide the prioritisation of 120 candidate effectors of E. fawcettii. Additionally, 378 carbohydrate-active enzymes were predicted and analysed for likely secretion and sequence similarity with known virulence genes. Furthermore, secondary metabolite prediction indicated nine additional genes potentially involved in the elsinochrome biosynthesis gene cluster than previously described. A further 21 secondary metabolite clusters were predicted, some with similarity to known toxin producing gene clusters. The candidate virulence genes predicted in this study provide a comprehensive resource for future experimental investigation into the pathogenesis of E. fawcettii.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Jeffress
- Centre for Crop Health, Institute for Life Sciences and the Environment, Research and Innovation Division, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD, Australia
| | - Kiruba Arun-Chinnappa
- Centre for Crop Health, Institute for Life Sciences and the Environment, Research and Innovation Division, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD, Australia
| | - Ben Stodart
- Graham Centre for Agricultural Innovation, (Charles Sturt University and NSW Department of Primary Industries), School of Agricultural and Wine Sciences, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW, Australia
| | - Niloofar Vaghefi
- Centre for Crop Health, Institute for Life Sciences and the Environment, Research and Innovation Division, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD, Australia
| | - Yu Pei Tan
- Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Queensland Government, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Gavin Ash
- Centre for Crop Health, Institute for Life Sciences and the Environment, Research and Innovation Division, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD, Australia
- Graham Centre for Agricultural Innovation, (Charles Sturt University and NSW Department of Primary Industries), School of Agricultural and Wine Sciences, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW, Australia
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4
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Zhao DL, Cao F, Wang CY, Yang LJ, Shi T, Wang KL, Shao CL, Wang CY. Alternatone A, an Unusual Perylenequinone-Related Compound from a Soft-Coral-Derived Strain of the Fungus Alternaria alternata. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2019; 82:3201-3204. [PMID: 31659905 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.9b00905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
A novel perylenequinone-related compound, alternatone A (1), with an unprecedented tricyclo[6.3.1.02,7] dodecane skeleton, together with three known perylenequinones, altertoxin I (2), stemphyperylenol (3), and alterperylenol (4), was isolated from the soft-coral-derived fungus Alternaria alternata L3111'. Their structures including absolute configurations were elucidated on the basis of comprehensive spectroscopic analysis, electronic circular dichroism calculations, and X-ray diffraction data. Compound 4 showed cytotoxicity against A-549, HCT-116, and HeLa cell lines with IC50 values of 2.6, 2.4, and 3.1 μM, respectively. A possible biosynthetic pathway of 1 was proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong-Lin Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, The Ministry of Education of China, School of Medicine and Pharmacy , Ocean University of China , Qingdao 266003 , People's Republic of China
- Marine Agricultural Research Center , Tobacco Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Qingdao 266101 , People's Republic of China
| | - Fei Cao
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Hebei University , Baoding 071002 , People's Republic of China
| | - Chao-Yi Wang
- Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, The Ministry of Education of China, School of Medicine and Pharmacy , Ocean University of China , Qingdao 266003 , People's Republic of China
| | - Lu-Jia Yang
- Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, The Ministry of Education of China, School of Medicine and Pharmacy , Ocean University of China , Qingdao 266003 , People's Republic of China
| | - Ting Shi
- Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, The Ministry of Education of China, School of Medicine and Pharmacy , Ocean University of China , Qingdao 266003 , People's Republic of China
| | - Kai-Ling Wang
- Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, The Ministry of Education of China, School of Medicine and Pharmacy , Ocean University of China , Qingdao 266003 , People's Republic of China
| | - Chang-Lun Shao
- Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, The Ministry of Education of China, School of Medicine and Pharmacy , Ocean University of China , Qingdao 266003 , People's Republic of China
- Laboratory for Marine Drugs and Bioproducts , Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology , Qingdao 266237 , People's Republic of China
| | - Chang-Yun Wang
- Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, The Ministry of Education of China, School of Medicine and Pharmacy , Ocean University of China , Qingdao 266003 , People's Republic of China
- Laboratory for Marine Drugs and Bioproducts , Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology , Qingdao 266237 , People's Republic of China
- Institute of Evolution & Marine Biodiversity , Ocean University of China , Qingdao 266003 , People's Republic of China
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5
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Jiao W, Liu L, Zhou R, Xu M, Xiao D, Xue C. Elsinochrome phytotoxin production and pathogenicity of Elsinoë arachidis isolates in China. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0218391. [PMID: 31194853 PMCID: PMC6564019 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0218391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2019] [Accepted: 06/01/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Peanut scab caused by Elsinoë arachidis is found throughout China's peanut-growing areas. Elsinochrome produced by E. arachidis is a perylenequinone photosensitive mycotoxin vital to the pathogenic process of the pathogen. In this study, the complex mechanism underlying the regulation of elsinochrome biosynthesis by E. arachidis was investigated based on various nutritional and environmental factors. The initiation of elsinochrome biosynthesis depends on light. E. arachidis produced substantially more quantities of elsinochrome when grown on a semi-synthetic medium (PDA) than when grown on synthetic media with defined ingredients in the presence of light. Elsinochrome accumulation decreased when adjusted with either citrate or phosphate buffers and changing pH suppressed the radical growth. At temperatures ranging from 10°C to 25°C, the production of elsinochrome increased, peaking at 28°C, and it decreased slightly at 30°C. 63 field-collected isolates from China were assessed for the level of elsinochrome production, and pathogenicity analysis was conducted by selecting 12 strains from each 3 of the 4 groups with different levels of elsinochrome production. A direct correlation was observed between elsinochrome production and pathogenicity among the isolates. The results showed elsinochrome biosynthesis to be controlled by E. arachidis and showed elsinochrome to be a vital virulence factor of E. arachidis, required for disease severity.
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Affiliation(s)
- WenLi Jiao
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Lu Liu
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - RuJun Zhou
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
- * E-mail:
| | - MengXue Xu
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Di Xiao
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Caiyun Xue
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
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6
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Ebert MK, Spanner RE, de Jonge R, Smith DJ, Holthusen J, Secor GA, Thomma BPHJ, Bolton MD. Gene cluster conservation identifies melanin and perylenequinone biosynthesis pathways in multiple plant pathogenic fungi. Environ Microbiol 2019; 21:913-927. [PMID: 30421572 PMCID: PMC7379194 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.14475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2018] [Accepted: 11/05/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Perylenequinones are a family of structurally related polyketide fungal toxins with nearly universal toxicity. These photosensitizing compounds absorb light energy which enables them to generate reactive oxygen species that damage host cells. This potent mechanism serves as an effective weapon for plant pathogens in disease or niche establishment. The sugar beet pathogen Cercospora beticola secretes the perylenequinone cercosporin during infection. We have shown recently that the cercosporin toxin biosynthesis (CTB) gene cluster is present in several other phytopathogenic fungi, prompting the search for biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) of structurally similar perylenequinones in other fungi. Here, we report the identification of the elsinochrome and phleichrome BGCs of Elsinoë fawcettii and Cladosporium phlei, respectively, based on gene cluster conservation with the CTB and hypocrellin BGCs. Furthermore, we show that previously reported BGCs for elsinochrome and phleichrome are involved in melanin production. Phylogenetic analysis of the corresponding melanin polyketide synthases (PKSs) and alignment of melanin BGCs revealed high conservation between the established and newly identified C. beticola, E. fawcettii and C. phlei melanin BGCs. Mutagenesis of the identified perylenequinone and melanin PKSs in C. beticola and E. fawcettii coupled with mass spectrometric metabolite analyses confirmed their roles in toxin and melanin production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malaika K. Ebert
- Red River Valley Agricultural Research CenterUSDA Agricultural Research ServiceFargoNDUSA,Department of Plant PathologyNorth Dakota State UniversityFargoNDUSA,Laboratory of PhytopathologyWageningen UniversityWageningenThe Netherlands
| | - Rebecca E. Spanner
- Red River Valley Agricultural Research CenterUSDA Agricultural Research ServiceFargoNDUSA,Department of Plant PathologyNorth Dakota State UniversityFargoNDUSA
| | - Ronnie de Jonge
- Plant‐Microbe Interactions, Department of BiologyScience4Life, Utrecht UniversityUtrechtThe Netherlands,Department of Plant Biotechnology and BioinformaticsGhent UniversityGhentBelgium,VIB Center for Plant Systems BiologyGhentBelgium
| | - David J. Smith
- Red River Valley Agricultural Research CenterUSDA Agricultural Research ServiceFargoNDUSA
| | - Jason Holthusen
- Red River Valley Agricultural Research CenterUSDA Agricultural Research ServiceFargoNDUSA
| | - Gary A. Secor
- Department of Plant PathologyNorth Dakota State UniversityFargoNDUSA
| | | | - Melvin D. Bolton
- Red River Valley Agricultural Research CenterUSDA Agricultural Research ServiceFargoNDUSA,Department of Plant PathologyNorth Dakota State UniversityFargoNDUSA
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7
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Mastrangelopoulou M, Grigalavicius M, Berg K, Ménard M, Theodossiou TA. Cytotoxic and Photocytotoxic Effects of Cercosporin on Human Tumor Cell Lines. Photochem Photobiol 2018; 95:387-396. [PMID: 30107033 DOI: 10.1111/php.12997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2018] [Accepted: 08/02/2018] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Cercosporin is a naturally occurring perylenequinone. Although other perylenequinones have been extensively studied as photosensitizers in photodynamic therapy of cancer (PDT), cercosporin has been studied in this light only within the remits of phytopathology. Herein, we investigated the photocytotoxicity of cercosporin against two glioblastoma multiforme (T98G and U87) and one breast adenocarcinoma (MCF7) human cell lines. Cercosporin was found to be a potent singlet oxygen producer upon 532 nm excitation, while its cell loading was similar for MCF7 and U87, but approximately threefold higher for T98G cells. The subcellular localization of cercosporin was in all cases in both mitochondria and the endoplasmic reticulum. Light irradiation of cercosporin-incubated cells around 450 nm showed that T98G cells were more susceptible to cercosporin PDT, mainly due to their higher cercosporin uptake. Metabolic studies before and 1 h following cercosporin PDT showed that cercosporin PDT instigated a bioenergetic collapse in both the respiratory and glycolytic activities of all cell lines. In the dark, cercosporin exhibited a synergistic cytotoxicity with copper only in the most respiratory cell lines (MCF7 and T98G). Cercosporin is a potent photosensitizer, but with a short activation wavelength, mostly suitable for superficial PDT treatments, especially when it is necessary to avoid perforations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Mastrangelopoulou
- Department of Radiation Biology, Institute of Cancer Research, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Mantas Grigalavicius
- Department of Radiation Biology, Institute of Cancer Research, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Kristian Berg
- Department of Radiation Biology, Institute of Cancer Research, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Mathilde Ménard
- Department of Radiation Biology, Institute of Cancer Research, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Theodossis A Theodossiou
- Department of Radiation Biology, Institute of Cancer Research, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
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8
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Fazio AT, Adler MT, Parnmen S, Lücking R, Maier MS. Production of the bioactive pigment elsinochrome A by a cultured mycobiont strain of the lichen Graphis elongata. Mycol Prog 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s11557-017-1374-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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9
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Wakeham SG, Canuel EA. Biogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in sediments of the San Joaquin River in California (USA), and current paradigms on their formation. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2016; 23:10426-10442. [PMID: 26403247 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-015-5402-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2015] [Accepted: 09/09/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Biogenic perylene and higher plant pentacyclic triterpenoid-derived alkylated and partially aromatized tetra- and pentacyclic derivatives of chrysene (3,4,7-trimethyl- and 3,3,7-trimethyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrochrysene, THC) and picene (1,2,9-trimethyl- and 2,2,9-trimethyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydropicene, THP) were two- to four-fold more abundant than pyrogenic PAH in two sediment cores from the San Joaquin River in Northern California (USA). In a core from Venice Cut (VC), located in the river, PAH concentrations varied little downcore and the whole-core PAH concentration (biogenics + pyrogenics) was 250.6 ± 73.7 ng g(-1) dw; biogenic PAH constituted 67 ± 4 % of total PAH. THC were 26 ± 9 % of total biogenic PAH, THP were 36 ± 7 %, and perylene was 38 ± 7 %. PAH distributions in a core from Franks Tract (FT), a former wetland that was converted to an agricultural tract in the late 1800s and flooded in 1938, were more variable. Surface sediments were dominated by pyrogenic PAH so that biogenic PAH were only ~30 % of total PAH. Deeper in the core, biogenic PAH constituted 60-93 % of total PAH; THC, THP and perylene were 31 ± 28 %, 24 ± 32 %, and 45 ± 36 % of biogenic PAH. At 100-103 cm depth, THP constituted 80 % of biogenic PAH and at 120-123 cm perylene was 95 % of biogenic PAH. Current concepts related to precursors and transformation processes responsible for the diagenetic generation of perylene and triterpenoid-derived PAH are discussed. Distributions of biogenic PAH in VC and FT sediments suggest that they may not form diagenetically within these sediments but rather might be delivered pre-formed from the river's watershed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart G Wakeham
- Skidaway Institute of Oceanography, The University of Georgia, 10 Ocean Science Circle, Savannah, GA, 31411, USA.
| | - Elizabeth A Canuel
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, School of Marine Science, College of William and Mary, Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA, 23062, USA
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10
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Daub ME, Herrero S, Chung KR. Reactive oxygen species in plant pathogenesis: the role of perylenequinone photosensitizers. Antioxid Redox Signal 2013; 19:970-89. [PMID: 23259634 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2012.5080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Reactive oxygen species (ROS) play multiple roles in interactions between plants and microbes, both as host defense mechanisms and as mediators of pathogenic and symbiotic associations. One source of ROS in these interactions are photoactivated, ROS-generating perylenequinone pigments produced via polyketide metabolic pathways in plant-associated fungi. These natural products, including cercosporin, elsinochromes, hypocrellins, and calphostin C, are being utilized as medicinal agents, enzyme inhibitors, and in tumor therapy, but in nature, they play a role in the establishment of pathogenic associations between fungi and their plant hosts. RECENT ADVANCES Photoactivated perylenequinones are photosensitizers that use light energy to form singlet oxygen (¹O₂) and free radical oxygen species which damage cellular components based on localization of the perylenequinone molecule. Production of perylenequinones during infection commonly results in lipid peroxidation and membrane damage, leading to leakage of nutrients from cells into the intercellular spaces colonized by the pathogen. Perylenequinones show almost universal toxicity against organisms, including plants, mice, bacteria, and most fungi. The producing fungi are resistant, however, and serve as models for understanding resistance mechanisms. CRITICAL ISSUES Studies of resistance mechanisms by perylenequinone-producing fungi such as Cercospora species are leading to an understanding of cellular resistance to ¹O₂ and oxidative stress. Recent studies show commonalities between resistance mechanisms in these fungi with extensive studies of ¹O₂ and oxidative stress responses in photosynthetic organisms. FUTURE DIRECTIONS Such studies hold promise both for improved medical use and for engineering crop plants for disease resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margaret E Daub
- Department of Plant Biology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA.
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11
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O'Brien EM, Morgan BJ, Mulrooney CA, Carroll PJ, Kozlowski MC. Perylenequinone natural products: total synthesis of hypocrellin A. J Org Chem 2010; 75:57-68. [PMID: 19894741 DOI: 10.1021/jo901386d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
An efficient and stereoselective total synthesis of the perylenequinone natural product hypocrellin A (1) is described. The key features include a potentially biomimetic 1,8-diketone aldol cyclization to set the centrochiral C7,C7'-stereochemistry, bis(trifluoroacetoxy)iodobenzene mediated oxygenation, a palladium-catalyzed decarboxylation, and an enantioselective catalytic oxidative 2-naphthol coupling to establish the biaryl axial chirality. The helical stereochemistry is formed from an axial chiral intermediate and is then utilized in a dynamic stereochemical transfer to dictate the stereochemistry of the C7,C7'-seven membered ring formed during the aldol cyclization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin M O'Brien
- Department of Chemistry, Roy and Diana Vagelos Laboratories, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6323, USA
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12
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O'Brien EM, Li J, Carroll PJ, Kozlowski MC. Synthesis of the cores of hypocrellin and shiraiachrome: diastereoselective 1,8-diketone aldol cyclization. J Org Chem 2010; 75:69-73. [PMID: 19894740 DOI: 10.1021/jo9018914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Intramolecular 1,8-diketone aldol reactions were studied as a tool for the construction of the seven-membered rings of hypocrellin and shiraiachrome. Conditions were identified to obtain the relative stereochemistries present in the two natural products with excellent diastereoselectivity. In addition, a nine-membered ring congener, which has yet to be observed in nature, formed with high selectivity when a hindered amine was used in conjunction with silazide bases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin M O'Brien
- Department of Chemistry, Roy and Diana Vagelos Laboratories, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA
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13
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Morgan BJ, Mulrooney CA, O’Brien EM, Kozlowski MC. Perylenequinone natural products: total syntheses of the diastereomers (+)-phleichrome and (+)-calphostin D by assembly of centrochiral and axial chiral fragments. J Org Chem 2010; 75:30-43. [PMID: 19894745 PMCID: PMC2798900 DOI: 10.1021/jo901384h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The first total synthesis of (+)-calphostin D and the total synthesis of (+)-phleichrome are outlined. The convergent syntheses utilize an enantiopure biaryl common intermediate, which is formed via an enantioselective catalytic biaryl coupling. The established axial chirality is transferred to the perylenequinone helical stereochemistry with good fidelity. Additionally, efforts focused on the installation of the stereogenic C7,C7'-2-hydroxypropyl groups. Three routes were evaluated to establish the C7,C7'-stereochemistry, in which the successful route involved a double epoxide alkylation with a complex axial chiral biscuprate. This strategy not only allowed the synthesis of the unnatural isomers of calphostin D and phleichrome for assessment in biological systems but also provided valuable information for the syntheses of the more complex cercosporin and hypocrellin A.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara J. Morgan
- Department of Chemistry, Roy and Diana Vagelos Laboratories, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6323
| | - Carol A. Mulrooney
- Department of Chemistry, Roy and Diana Vagelos Laboratories, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6323
| | - Erin M. O’Brien
- Department of Chemistry, Roy and Diana Vagelos Laboratories, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6323
| | - Marisa C. Kozlowski
- Department of Chemistry, Roy and Diana Vagelos Laboratories, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6323
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14
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Morgan BJ, Dey S, Johnson SW, Kozlowski MC. Design, synthesis, and investigation of protein kinase C inhibitors: total syntheses of (+)-calphostin D, (+)-phleichrome, cercosporin, and new photoactive perylenequinones. J Am Chem Soc 2009; 131:9413-25. [PMID: 19489582 DOI: 10.1021/ja902324j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The total syntheses of the PKC inhibitors (+)-calphostin D, (+)-phleichrome, cercosporin, and 10 novel perylenequinones are detailed. The highly convergent and flexible strategy developed employed an enantioselective oxidative biaryl coupling and a double cuprate epoxide opening, allowing the selective syntheses of all the possible stereoisomers in pure form. In addition, this strategy permitted rapid access to a broad range of analogues, including those not accessible from the natural products. These compounds provided a powerful means for evaluation of the perylenequinone structural features necessary to PKC activity. Simpler analogues were discovered with superior PKC inhibitory properties and superior photopotentiation in cancer cell lines relative to the more complex natural products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara J Morgan
- Department of Chemistry, Roy and Diana Vagelos Laboratories, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA
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15
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Kozlowski MC, Morgan BJ, Linton EC. Total synthesis of chiral biaryl natural products by asymmetric biaryl coupling. Chem Soc Rev 2009; 38:3193-207. [PMID: 19847351 DOI: 10.1039/b821092f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 648] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
This tutorial review highlights the use of catalytic asymmetric 2-naphthol couplings in total synthesis. The types of chirality, chiral biaryl natural products, prior approaches to chiral biaryl natural products, and other catalytic asymmetric biaryl couplings are outlined. The three main categories of chiral catalysts for 2-naphthol coupling (Cu, V, Fe) are described with discussion of their limitations and advantages. Applications of the copper catalyzed couplings in biomimetic syntheses are discussed including nigerone, hypocrellin, calphostin D, phleichrome, and cercosporin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marisa C Kozlowski
- Department of Chemistry, Roy and Diana Vagelos Laboratoies, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6323, USA.
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16
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Liao HL, Chung KR. Cellular toxicity of elsinochrome phytotoxins produced by the pathogenic fungus, Elsinoë fawcettii causing citrus scab. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2007; 177:239-250. [PMID: 17953652 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.02234.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Elsinochromes are the red/orange pigments produced by many Elsinoë fungal species and are structurally similar to the phytotoxin, cercosporin. Here, pigments were extracted from cultures of a citrus pathogen, Elsinoë fawcettii and tested for cellular toxicity. On irradiation with light, elsinochromes rapidly killed suspension cultured citrus and tobacco cells. The toxicity was decreased by adding the singlet oxygen ((1)O(2)) quenchers (bixin (carotenoid carboxylic acid), DABCO (1, 4-diazabicyco octane), ascorbate or reduced glutathione). Application of elsinochromes onto rough lemon leaves resulted in necrotic lesions, whereas lesion development was inhibited by the addition of bixin, DABCO or ascorbate, but not a-tocopherol. Incubation of rough lemon leaf discs with elsinochromes in the light induced a steady increase of electrolyte leakage. Compared with two photosensitizing compounds, hematoporphyrin and cercosporin, the accumulation of (1)O(2) induced by elsinochromes after irradiation was indicated by successful detection of the cholesterol oxidation product, 5a-hydroperoxide. Addition of a potent quencher, beta-carotene prevented 5alpha-hydroperoxide production. Elsinochromes generated superoxide ions (O(2)(*-)), whereas accumulation of O(2)(*-)was blocked by addition of the superoxide dismutase, a scavenger of O(2)(*-), but not the (1)O(2)-quencher, DABCO. Our study indicated that elsinochromes are functioning as photosensitizing compounds that produce (1)O(2)and O(2)(*-), and exert toxicity to plant cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui-Ling Liao
- Citrus Research and Education Center, and Department of Plant Pathology, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS), University of Florida, 700 Experiment Station Road, Lake Alfred, Florida 33850, USA
| | - Kuang-Ren Chung
- Citrus Research and Education Center, and Department of Plant Pathology, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS), University of Florida, 700 Experiment Station Road, Lake Alfred, Florida 33850, USA
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17
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Funa N, Funabashi M, Ohnishi Y, Horinouchi S. Biosynthesis of hexahydroxyperylenequinone melanin via oxidative aryl coupling by cytochrome P-450 in Streptomyces griseus. J Bacteriol 2005; 187:8149-55. [PMID: 16291687 PMCID: PMC1291289 DOI: 10.1128/jb.187.23.8149-8155.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA) melanins formed from tyrosine by tyrosinases are found in microorganisms, plants, and animals. Most species in the soil-dwelling, gram-positive bacterial genus Streptomyces produce DOPA melanins and melanogenesis is one of the characteristics used for taxonomy. Here we report a novel melanin biosynthetic pathway involving a type III polyketide synthase (PKS), RppA, and a cytochrome P-450 enzyme, P-450mel, in Streptomyces griseus. In vitro reconstitution of the P-450mel catalyst with spinach ferredoxin-NADP(+) reductase/ferredoxin revealed that it catalyzed oxidative biaryl coupling of 1,3,6,8-tetrahydroxynaphthalene (THN), which was formed from five molecules of malonyl-coenzyme A by the action of RppA to yield 1,4,6,7,9,12-hexahydroxyperylene-3,10-quinone (HPQ). HPQ readily autopolymerized to generate HPQ melanin. Disruption of either the chromosomal rppA or P-450mel gene resulted in abolishment of the HPQ melanin synthesis in S. griseus and a decrease in the resistance of spores to UV-light irradiation. These findings show that THN-derived melanins are not exclusive in eukaryotic fungal genera but an analogous pathway is conserved in prokaryotic streptomycete species as well. A vivid contrast in THN melanin biosynthesis between streptomycetes and fungi is that the THN synthesized by the action of a type III PKS is used directly for condensation in the former, while the THN synthesized by the action of type I PKSs is first reduced and the resultant 1,8-dihydroxynaphthalene is then condensed in the latter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nobutaka Funa
- Department of Biotechnology, Graduate School of Agriculture and Life Sciences, University of Tokyo, Japan
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18
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Daub ME, Ehrenshaft M. The Photoactivated Cercospora Toxin Cercosporin: Contributions to Plant Disease and Fundamental Biology. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2000; 38:461-490. [PMID: 11701851 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.phyto.38.1.461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 172] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Plant pathogenic fungi in eight genera produce light-activated perylenequinone toxins that are toxic to plants via the generation of activated oxygen species, particularly singlet oxygen. Studies on the cercosporin toxin produced by Cercospora species have documented an important role for this toxin in pathogenesis of host plants. Cercosporin-generated active oxygen species destroy the membranes of host plants, providing nutrients to support the growth of these intercellular pathogens. Resistance of Cercospora species to the toxic effects of their own toxin has allowed these organisms to be used as a model for understanding the cellular basis of resistance to singlet oxygen and to general oxidative stress. In particular, the recent discovery that pyridoxine (vitamin B6) quenches singlet oxygen has led to the understanding of a novel role for this vitamin in cells as well as the discovery of a novel pathway of biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margaret E Daub
- Department of Plant Pathology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695-7616; e-mail:
| | - Marilyn Ehrenshaft
- Department of Plant Pathology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695-7616; e-mail:
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19
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Etzlstorfer C, Falk H. Tautomerism and stereochemistry of isohypericin, bromohypericines, and gymnochromes: Force field investigations. MONATSHEFTE FUR CHEMIE 1993. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00814149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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20
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Aminian-Saghafi T, Nasini G, Caronna T, Braun AM, Oliveros E. Quantum Yields of Singlet-Oxygen Production by Some Natural Quinoid Fungal Metabolites and Derivatives. Helv Chim Acta 1992. [DOI: 10.1002/hlca.19920750213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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