Suramin analogs, divalent cations and ATP gamma S as inhibitors of ecto-ATPase

ATP Inhibits Breast Cancer Migration and Bone Metastasis through Down-Regulation of CXCR4 and Purinergic Receptor P2Y11

Simple Summary

The skeleton is the most frequent metastatic site for advanced breast cancer, and complications resulting from breast cancer metastasis are a leading cause of death in patients. Therefore, the discovery of new targets for the treatment of breast cancer bone metastasis is of great significance. ATP released by bone osteocytes is shown to activate purinergic signaling and inhibit the metastasis of breast cancer cells in the bone. The aim of our study was to unveil the underlying molecular mechanism of ATP and purinergic signaling in inhibiting the bone metastasis of breast cancer cells. We demonstrated that CXCR4 and P2Y11 are key factors in regulating this process, and understanding of this important mechanism will aid in identifying new targets and developing first-in-class therapeutics.

Abstract

ATP released by bone osteocytes is shown to activate purinergic signaling and inhibit the metastasis of breast cancer cells into the bone. However, the underlying molecular mechanism is not well understood. Here, we demonstrate the important roles of the CXCR4 and P2Y11 purinergic receptors in mediating the inhibitory effect of ATP on breast cancer cell migration and bone metastasis. Wound-healing and transwell migration assays showed that non-hydrolysable ATP analogue, ATPγS, inhibited migration of bone-tropic human breast cancer cells in a dose-dependent manner. BzATP, an agonist for P2X7 and an inducer for P2Y11 internalization, had a similar dose-dependent inhibition on cell migration. Both ATPγS and BzATP suppressed the expression of CXCR4, a chemokine receptor known to promote breast cancer bone metastasis, and knocking down CXCR4 expression by siRNA attenuated the inhibitory effect of ATPγS on cancer cell migration. While a P2X7 antagonist A804598 had no effect on the impact of ATPγS on cell migration, antagonizing P2Y11 by NF157 ablated the effect of ATPγS. Moreover, the reduction in P2Y11 expression by siRNA decreased cancer cell migration and abolished the impact of ATPγS on cell migration and CXCR4 expression. Similar to the effect of ATPγS on cell migration, antagonizing P2Y11 inhibited bone-tropic breast cancer cell migration in a dose-dependent manner. An in vivo study using an intratibial bone metastatic model showed that ATPγS inhibited breast cancer growth in the bone. Taken together, these results suggest that ATP inhibits bone-tropic breast cancer cells by down-regulating the P2Y11 purinergic receptor and the down-regulation of CXCR4 expression.

ATP releases ATP or other nucleotides from human peripheral blood leukocytes through purinergic P2 receptors

AIMS

Almost every eukaryotic cell releases ATP under certain conditions. The idea that ATP induces the release of ATP has been scantly investigated.

METHODS

We explored this possibility by assessing the rate of exogenous ATP breakdown (measured by phosphates production) by human peripheral blood leukocytes. The role of P2Y and P2X receptors was evaluated pharmacologically, by patch clamp, or by flow cytometry.

KEY FINDINGS

In mononuclear and/or polymorphonuclear cells, ATP increased phosphates formation in a time- and concentration-dependent manner. Uncoupling of P2Y receptors with N-ethylmaleimide and antagonism of P2Y and P2X receptors through suramin reduced phosphate formation after 500μM ATP, suggesting that part of the phosphate production was due to activation of P2 receptors, with subsequent release of ATP or other nucleotides. Similar results were obtained with UTP and ATPγS. Gadolinium (connexins inhibitor) also significantly reduced the ATP-induced phosphate production. Blockade of P2X receptors with SKF 96365 or NF023 did not modify the phosphate production. In monocytes, 500μM ATP induced inward currents suggestive of P2X1 activation, but higher concentrations (1-5mM) induced inward currents suggestive of P2X7 activation. We discarded a role of adenosine in the ATP-evoked nucleotides release. Flow cytometry identified that almost all mononuclear and polymorphonuclear cells expressed P2Y1,2,4,6,11 receptors.

SIGNIFICANCE

500μM ATP induced the release of ATP or other nucleotides through activation of P2Y2,4,6,11 receptors in human leukocytes, and probably via P2X receptors at higher concentrations. This ATP-induced nucleotides release constitutes a potential mechanism leading to amplification of ATP signaling.

Label-free assay based on immobilized capillary enzyme reactor of Leishmania infantum nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase (LicNTPDase-2-ICER-LC/UV)

Nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase (NTPDase) is an enzyme belonging to the apyrase family that participates in the hydrolysis of the nucleosides di- and triphosphate to the corresponding nucleoside monophosphate. This enzyme underlies the virulence of parasites such as Leishmania. Recently, an NTPDase from Leishmania infantum (LicNTPDase-2) was cloned and expressed and has been considered as a new drug target for the treatment of leishmaniasis. With the intent of developing label-free online screening methodologies, LicNTPDase-2 was covalently immobilized onto a fused silica capillary tube in the present study to create an immobilized capillary enzyme reactor (ICER) based on LicNTPDase-2 (LicNTPDase-2-ICER). To perform the activity assays, a multidimensional chromatographic method was developed employing the LicNTPDase-2-ICER in the first dimension, and an analytical Ascentis C8 column was used in the second dimension to provide analytical separation of the substrates and products. The validated LicNTPDase-2-ICER method provided the following kinetic parameters of the immobilized enzyme: KM of 2.2 and 1.8mmolL(-1) for the ADP and ATP substrates, respectively. Suramin (1mmolL(-1)) was also shown to inhibit 32.9% of the enzymatic activity. The developed method is applicable to kinetic studies and enables the recognition of the ligands. Furthermore, a comparison of the values of LicNTPDase-2-ICER with those obtained with an LC method using free enzyme in solution showed that LicNTPDase-2-ICER-LC/UV was an accurate and reproducible method that enabled automated measurements for the rapid screening of ligands.

Modulation of epithelial sodium channel activity by lipopolysaccharide in alveolar type II cells: involvement of purinergic signaling

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a gram-negative bacterium that causes chronic infection in cystic fibrosis patients. We reported recently that P. aeruginosa modulates epithelial Na(+) channel (ENaC) expression in experimental chronic pneumonia models. For this reason, we tested whether LPS from P. aeruginosa alters ENaC expression and activity in alveolar epithelial cells. We found that LPS induces a approximately 60% decrease of ENaC apical current without significant changes in intracellular ENaC or surface protein expression. Because a growing body of evidence reports a key role for extracellular nucleotides in regulation of ion channels, we evaluated the possibility that modulation of ENaC activity by LPS involves extracellular ATP signaling. We found that alveolar epithelial cells release ATP upon LPS stimulation and that pretreatment with suramin, a P2Y(2) purinergic receptor antagonist, inhibited the effect of LPS on ENaC. Furthermore, ET-18-OCH3, a PLC inhibitor, and Go-6976, a PKC inhibitor, were able to partially prevent ENaC inhibition by LPS, suggesting that the actions of LPS on ENaC current were mediated, in part, by the PKC and PLC pathways. Together, these findings demonstrate an important role of extracellular ATP signaling in the response of epithelial cells to LPS.

Adenosine-containing molecules amplify glucose signaling and enhance txnip expression

Eukaryotic cells sense extracellular glucose concentrations via diverse mechanisms to regulate the expression of genes involved in metabolic control. One such example is the tight correlation between the expression of thioredoxin-interacting protein (Txnip) and extracellular glucose levels. In this report, we show that the transcription of the Txnip gene is induced by adenosine-containing molecules, of which an intact adenosine moiety is necessary and sufficient. Txnip promoter contains a carbohydrate response element, which mediates the induction of Txnip expression by these molecules in a glucose-dependent manner. Max-like protein X and MondoA are transcription factors previously shown to stimulate glucose-dependent Txnip expression and are shown here to convey stimulatory signals from extracellular adenosine-containing molecules to the Txnip promoter. The regulatory role of these molecules may be exerted via amplifying glucose signaling. Hence, this revelation may pave the way for interventions aimed toward metabolic disorders resulting from abnormal glucose homeostasis.

A capillary electrophoresis method for the characterization of ecto-nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolases (NTPDases) and the analysis of inhibitors by in-capillary enzymatic microreaction

A capillary electrophoresis (CE) method for the characterization of recombinant NTPDases 1, 2, and 3, and for assaying NTPDase inhibitors has been developed performing the enzymatic reaction within the capillary. After hydrodynamic injection of plugs of substrate solution with or without inhibitor in reaction buffer, followed by a suspension of an enzyme-containing membrane preparation, and subsequent injection of another plug of substrate solution with or without inhibitor, the reaction took place close to the capillary inlet. After 5 min, the electrophoretic separation of the reaction products was initiated by applying a constant current of -60 muA. The method employing a polyacrylamide-coated capillary and reverse polarity mode provided baseline resolution of substrates and products within a short separation time of less than 7 min. A 50 mM phosphate buffer (pH 6.5) was used for the separations and the products were detected by their UV absorbance at 210 nm. The Michaelis-Menten constants (K (m)) for the recombinant rat NTPDases 1, 2, and 3 obtained with this method were consistent with previously reported data. The inhibition studies revealed pronounced differences in the potency of reactive blue 2, pyridoxalphosphate-6-azophenyl-2',4'-disulfonic acid (PPADS), suramin, and N (6)-diethyl-beta,gamma-dibromomethylene-ATP (ARL67156) towards the NTPDase isoforms. Notably, ARL67156 does not inhibit all NTPDases, having only a minor inhibitory effect on NTPDase2. Dipyridamole is not an inhibitor of the NTPDase isoforms investigated. The new method is fast and accurate, it requires only tiny amounts of material (nanoliter scale), no sample pretreatment and can be fully automated; thus it is clearly superior to the current standard methods.

Role of nucleotide P2 receptors in calcium signaling and prolactin release in pituitary lactotrophs

Anterior pituitary cells express nucleotide-gated G protein-coupled P2 receptors (P2YRs) and cation-conducting channels (P2XRs). However, the identification of P2 receptors subtypes and their native ligands, and the distribution and function of these receptors within the secretory and non-secretory pituitary cells has been incompletely characterized. The focus in this study was on lactotroph subpopulation of cells. ATP and ADP, but not UTP and UDP, triggered calcium signaling in a majority (85%) of lactotrophs and prolactin release in mixed pituitary cells. Consistent with the role of P2 receptors in signaling and secretion, the actions of ATP and ADP were abolished in the presence of apyrase, an ectonucleotidase. Transcripts for Gq-coupled calcium-mobilizing P2Y1R, P2Y2R, P2Y4R, and P2Y6R, as well as Gi-coupled P2Y12R, were identified in mixed anterior pituitary cells. The ligand-selectivity profile of calcium mobilization-dependent signaling and prolactin secretion and the blockade of these responses by pyridoxal 5-phosphate 6-azophenyl-2',4'-disulphonic acid indicated that P2Y1R mediates the stimulatory action of ATP and ADP. Within the channels expressed in anterior pituitary (P2X2R, P2X3R, P2X4R, and P2X7R), the P2X4R subtype provides a major pathway for calcium influx-dependent signaling and prolactin secretion. This conclusion was based on comparison of native to recombinant channels with respect to their ligand preference, sensitivity to pyridoxal 5-phosphate 6-azophenyl-2',4'-disulphonic acid, and the rates of calcium signal desensitization.

Purification and characterization of NTPDase1 (ecto-apyrase) and NTPDase2 (ecto-ATPase) from porcine brain cortex synaptosomes

We purified to homogeneity and characterized NTPDase1 and NTPDase2 from porcine brain cortex synaptosomes. SDS/PAGE and immunoblotting with antibodies specific to these enzymes revealed a molecular mass estimated at 72 kDa for NTPDase1 and 66 for NTPDase2. Both enzymes exhibited kinetic properties typical for all members of the NTPDase family, e.g. low substrate specificity for tri- and diphosphonucleosides, divalent cations dependency and insensitivity towards ATPase inhibitors. The calculated Km value for NTPDase1 in respect to ATP as a substrate (97 microm) was three times lower in comparison to analogous values for NTPDase2 (270 microm). Additionally, NTPDase1 had a three times higher Kcat/Km coefficient than NTPDase2 (860 and 833 micromol product.s(-1), respectively). We have also demonstrated that in spite of differences in the affinity of ATP for both hydrolases, these enzymes have similar molecular activity. Taken together, these results indicate that NTPDase1 would terminate P2 receptor-mediated signal transmission whereas activity of NTPDase2 may contribute to decreasing high (toxic) concentrations of ATP and/or to production of another signal molecule, ADP.

Evaluation of fluorescent compound interference in 4 fluorescence polarization assays: 2 kinases, 1 protease, and 1 phosphatase

With the increasing use of fluorescence-based assays in high-throughput screening (HTS), the possibility of interference by fluorescent compounds needs to be considered. To investigate compound interference, a well-defined sample set of biologically active compounds, LOPAC, was evaluated using 4 fluorescein-based fluorescence polarization (FP) assays. Two kinase assays, a protease assay, and a phosphatase assay were studied. Fluorescent compound interference and light scattering were observed in both mixture- and single-compound testing under certain circumstances. In the kinase assays, which used low levels (1-3 nM) of fluorophore, an increase in total fluorescence, an abnormal decrease in mP readings, and negative inhibition values were attributed to compound fluorescence. Light scattering was observed by an increase in total fluorescence and minimal reduction in mP, leading to false positives. The protease and phosphatase assays, which used a higher concentration of fluorophore (20-1200 nM) than the kinase assays, showed minimal interference from fluorescent compounds, demonstrating that an increase in the concentration of the fluorophore minimized potential fluorescent compound interference. The data also suggests that mixtures containing fluorescent compounds can result in either false negatives that can mask a potential "hit" or false positives, depending on the assay format. Cy dyes (e.g., Cy3B and Cy5 ) excite and emit further into the red region than fluorescein and, when used in place of fluorescein in kinase 1, eliminate fluorescence interference and light scattering by LOPAC compounds. This work demonstrates that fluorescent compound and light scattering interferences can be overcome by increasing the fluorophore concentration in an assay or by using longer wavelength dyes.

Evidence for the involvement of purinergic signalling in the control of respiration

The ventrolateral medulla has a critical role in the generation and patterning of respiration via an extensive network of respiratory neurones. We have investigated the effects of activating purinergic P2 receptors within the ventrolateral medulla of the anaesthetised rat on the overall pattern of respiratory activity. In addition, using immunohistochemical techniques, we have identified the subtypes of P2X receptors in the ventrolateral medulla. Unilateral microinjection of ATP into the ventrolateral medulla reduced in a dose-dependent manner, or abolished, resting phrenic nerve discharge recorded as an indication of central inspiratory drive. ATP also elicited increases in blood pressure and variable changes in heart rate. These effects were mimicked by microinjection of the P2X receptor agonist alpha,beta-methylene ATP into the ventrolateral medulla. Whilst microinjection of suramin, a P2 receptor antagonist, had no effect on resting cardiorespiratory variables it blocked the respiratory and cardiovascular effects of ATP microinjected into the ventrolateral medulla. Immunohistochemical staining using IgG antibodies showed that P2X1, P2X2, P2X5 and P2X6, but not P2X3, P2X4 or receptor subunits were localised in the rostral ventrolateral medulla.Our results indicate that several P2X receptor subtypes are localised within areas of the ventrolateral medulla that are important for cardiorespiratory control (including the pre-Bötzinger and Bötzinger complexes), and that activation of these receptors can have profound effects on both the cardiovascular and the respiratory networks. Our pharmacological data suggest that different P2X subunits in this region may co-assemble to form hetero-oligomeric assemblies as well as homomultimers within this region.

Apoptosis induced by extracellular ATP in the mouse neuroblastoma cell line N1E-115: studies on involvement of P2 receptors and adenosine

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) can be released in large amounts from (damaged) cells, leading to locally high concentrations. In this study, we investigated the effect of such high concentrations of ATP on neuroblastoma cells. ATP (>or=30 microM) induced apoptosis in the mouse neuroblastoma cell line N1E-115. Activation of the ATP receptor P2X(7) is one of the routes via which ATP has been shown to induce apoptosis. Although the P2X(7) receptor was present in N1E-115 cells, both at the protein and mRNA level, studies with the P2X(7) receptor agonist benzoyl-benzoyl ATP showed that this receptor was not involved in ATP-induced apoptosis. It has been shown previously that adenosine induces apoptosis in N1E-115 cells after transport inside the cell. In this study, both dipyridamole, a nucleoside transport protein blocker, and uridine, a substrate for this transporter, were able to block ATP-induced apoptosis. This indicated that ATP had to be broken down to adenosine to induce apoptosis. The ecto-nucleotidase inhibitors 6-N,N-diethyl-beta-dibromomethylene-D-adenosine-5'-triphosphate (ARL67156) and alpha,beta-methylene adenosine 5'-diphosphate (AOPCP) commonly used to slow breakdown of ATP did not inhibit ATP breakdown appreciably, while the ATP antagonist PPADS inhibited the breakdown of AMP to adenosine; PPADS was also the only compound capable of inhibiting ATP-induced apoptosis. We conclude that the main route of ATP-induced apoptosis in N1E-115 cells was via breakdown to adenosine.

Adenosine 5'-triphosphate: a P2-purinergic agonist in the myocardium

ATP, besides an intracellular energy source, is an agonist when applied to a variety of different cells including cardiomyocytes. Sources of ATP in the extracellular milieu are multiple. Extracellular ATP is rapidly degraded by ectonucleotidases. Today ionotropic P2X(1--7) receptors and metabotropic P2Y(1,2,4,6,11) receptors have been cloned and their mRNA found in cardiomyocytes. On a single cardiomyocyte, micromolar ATP induces nonspecific cationic and Cl(-) currents that depolarize the cells. ATP both increases directly via a G(s) protein and decreases Ca(2+) current. ATP activates the inward-rectifying currents (ACh- and ATP-activated K(+) currents) and outward K(+) currents. P2-purinergic stimulation increases cAMP by activating adenylyl cyclase isoform V. It also involves tyrosine kinases to activate phospholipase C-gamma to produce inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate and Cl(-)/HCO(3)(-) exchange to induce a large transient acidosis. No clear correlation is presently possible between an effect and the activation of a given P2-receptor subtype in cardiomyocytes. ATP itself is generally a positive inotropic agent. Upon rapid application to cells, ATP induces various forms of arrhythmia. At the tissue level, arrhythmia could be due to slowing of electrical spread after both Na(+) current decrease and cell-to-cell uncoupling as well as cell depolarization and Ca(2+) current increase. In as much as the information is available, this review also reports analog effects of UTP and diadenosine polyphosphates.

Stimulation-dependent release, breakdown, and action of endogenous ATP in mouse hemidiaphragm preparation: the possible role of ATP in neuromuscular transmission

In this study the in vitro mouse phrenic nerve- hemidiaphragm preparation was utilized to study the release and extracellular catabolism of endogenous ATP and its action on the postsynaptic site, i.e. on the contraction force evoked by nerve stimulation. ATP, measured by the luciferin-luciferase assay, was released stimulation-dependently from the mouse hemidiaphragm in response to electrical field stimulation at 10 Hz. Blockade of the Na(+) channel activity by tetrodotoxin inhibited the majority of the release of ATP in response to stimulation, showing that it is related to neuronal activity. The nicotinic receptor antagonists d-tubocurarine, and alpha-bungarotoxin and cooling the bath temperature to 7 degrees C also reduced stimulation-induced ATP outflow, suggesting that nicotinic receptors are responsible for the part of the release of ATP that is released from postsynaptic sites in a carrier-mediated manner. Exogenous ATP (20-500 microM) added to the bath was degraded to ADP and AMP by the action of ectoATPase and ectoATPdiphosphohydrolase; the K(m) and v(max) values of these enzymes were 185.8 microM and 55.16 nmol/min.g respectively. However, the total amount of nucleotides ([ATP+ADP+AMP]) was increased after the addition of ATP, indicating that ATP itself promoted further adenine nucleotide release. Twitch contractions of the rat hemidiaphragm preparation evoked by low frequency electrical stimulation was blocked concentration-dependently by the non-depolarizing muscle relaxants d-tubocurarine and pancuronium. Suramin (100 microM-1 mM) reversed neuromuscular blockade by d-tubocurarine and pancuronium; i.e., it shifted their concentration-response curves to the right Taken together our data, that endogenous ATP is released by stimulation and subsequently catabolized in the hemidiaphragm preparation and that suramin inhibits ecto-ATPase activity could be interpreted as meaning that suramin prolongs the action of endogenous ATP to elicit twitch contraction, which points to a new, undefined role of ATP in neuromuscular transmission. The source of ATP is partly postsynaptic, released from the muscle in response to activation of nicotinic ACh receptors expressed on the muscle.

Inhibitory effects of some purinergic agents on ecto-ATPase activity and pattern of stepwise ATP hydrolysis in rat liver plasma membranes

Inhibitory effects of various purinergic compounds on the Mg(2+)-dependent enzymatic hydrolysis of [(3)H]ATP in rat liver plasma membranes were evaluated. Rat liver enzyme ecto-ATPase has a broad nucleotide-hydrolyzing activity, displays Michaelis-Menten kinetics with K(m) for ATP of 368+/-56 microM and is not sensitive to classical inhibitors of the ion-exchange and intracellular ATPases. P2-antagonists and diadenosine tetraphosphate (Ap(4)A) progressively and non-competitively inhibited ecto-ATPase activity with the following rank order of inhibitory potency: suramin (pIC(50), 4.570)>Reactive blue 2 (4.297)&z.Gt;Ap(4)A (3. 268)>pyridoxalphosphate-6-azophenyl-2',4'-disulfonic acid (PPADS) (2. 930). Slowly hydrolyzable P2 agonists ATPgammaS, ADPbetaS, alpha, beta-methylene ATP and beta,gamma-methylene ATP as well as the diadenosine polyphosphates Ap(3)A and Ap(5)A did not exert any inhibitory effects on the enzyme activity at concentration ranges of 10(-4)-10(-3) M. Thin-layer chromatography analysis of the formation of [(3)H]ATP metabolites indicated the presence of other enzyme activities on liver surface (ecto-ADPase and 5'-nucleotidase), participating in concert with ecto-ATPase in the nucleotide hydrolysis through the stepwise reactions ATP-->ADP-->AMP-->adenosine. A similar pattern of sequential [(3)H]ATP dephosphorylation still occurs in the presence of ecto-ATPase inhibitors suramin, Ap(4)A and PPADS, but the appearance of the ultimate reaction product, adenosine, was significantly delayed. In contrast, hydrolysis of [(3)H]ATP in the presence of Reactive blue 2 only followed the pattern ATP-->ADP, with formation of the subsequent metabolites AMP and adenosine being virtually eliminated. These data suggest that although nucleotide-binding sites of ecto-ATPase are distinct from those of P2 receptors, some purinergic agonists and antagonists can potentiate cellular responses to extracellular ATP through non-specific inhibition of the ensuing pathways of purine catabolism.

Inhibition of rat parotid ecto-ATPase activity

The inhibitory profile of several known and suspected ecto-ATPase inhibitors was compared on ecto-ATPase activity in rat parotid plasma membranes. Those chemicals with high IC50 (above 130 microM) were the nucleotides alpha,beta-methylene ATP, beta,gamma-methylene ATP, 2-methylthio ATP, inosine triphosphate, 5'-p-fluorosulphonylbenzoyladenosine, the sulphonates, 1-amino-2-naphthol-4-sulphonic acid, Coomassie brilliant blue G, and the stilbene disulphonates, DIDS and SITS. Those agents with low IC50 were: Coomassie brilliant blue R (114 microM), ATPgammaS (49 microM), suramin (72 microM) and Reactive blue 2 (28 microM). The last three inhibitors have similar potencies as inhibitors of ATP hydrolysis by whole parotid acinar cells. ARL67156, a selective inhibitor of ecto-ATPase, had an IC50 of approx. 120 microM. Suramin displayed non-competitive inhibition of ecto-ATPase whereas the inhibitory effects of ATPgammaS and Reactive blue 2 were curvilinear on Dixon plots. These results define the effects of various agents on ecto-ATPase in an exocrine tissue that has been shown to respond to extracellular ATP.

Novel ligands for P2 receptor subtypes in innervated tissues

Among suramin analogues, the properties of P2 receptor subtype blockade and ecto-nucleotidase inhibition appear to be controlled by different structural parameters (Fig. 1 and 2, Table 1; Van Rhee et al., 1994; Beukers et al., 1995; Bültmann et al., 1996; Damer et al., 1998a, 1998b; and this study): the molecular size of the compounds, the position of the sulfonic acid residues in the naphthalene rings, the substitution pattern of the benzoyl moieties and the 3'- or 4'-aminobenzoyl-linkages of the phenyl rings "1" and "2". As a result, compounds with different receptor selectivity profiles were obtained. A maximum in potency at and selectivity for P2X1 receptors is reached in NF279, which is a specific P2 receptor antagonist and the compound with the highest P2X1 vs. P2Y receptor and ecto-nucleotidase selectivity presently available.

Effects of suramin on hippocampal apyrase activity and inhibitory avoidance learning of rats

The action of suramin on apyrase activity in hippocampal synaptosomes and its effects on retention of inhibitory avoidance learning were evaluated. Suramin, a P2-purinoceptor antagonist, significantly inhibited in a noncompetitive manner the ATP and ADP hydrolysis promoted by apyrase in hippocampal synaptosomes of adult rats. The Ki values obtained were 72.8 and 109 microM for ATP and ADP hydrolysis, respectively. Intrahippocampal infusion of suramin (0.01, 0.1, 1, and 10 microg) immediately posttraining, in a dose-dependent effect, significantly reduced the response latency during the retention test applied 24 h after the rats received step-down inhibitory avoidance training. The amnesic effects promoted by suramin probably occur by its antagonist action on hippocampal P2-purinoceptors and NMDA receptors. In view of the fact that ATP-metabolizing enzymes and P2-purinoceptors have similar binding domains, these results suggest that suramin can either alter ATP degradation and/or block purinergic neurotransmission.

Interstitial ATP level and degradation in control and postmyocardial infarcted rats

With the aim of estimating interstitial levels and the breakdown process of ATP, cardiac microdialysis was performed in the left ventricular wall of in situ control and postinfarcted as well as of isolated, Langendorff-perfused rat hearts. With the use of a bioluminescence technique for dialysate ATP measurement, the baseline interstitial fluid ATP concentration in in situ hearts was estimated to be 38 +/- 8 nM. Regional ischemia induced an early peak increase in interstitial fluid ATP to 373 +/- 73 nM that correlates with the maximal incidence of ventricular arrhythmias. During continuous infusion of individual adenine nucleotides (50 microM ATP, ADP, or AMP), the dialysate samples were analyzed for adenine nucleotides, nucleosides, and bases using HPLC with ultraviolet detection. The patterns of catabolites were consistent with the major pathway of metabolism, that is, sequential dephosphorylation catalyzed by a chain of separate ecto-nucleotidases. In in situ postinfarcted hearts as well as in perfused hearts, a reduced catabolism rate of extracellular adenine nucleotides was observed. In conclusion, in in situ rat hearts, ATP can be released in substantial amounts in the interstitium where it readily undergoes enzymatic degradation. Dephosphorylation occurs sequentially and faster in in situ control hearts than in in situ postinfarcted or in perfused hearts.

Peripheral adenosine 5'-triphosphate enhances nociception in the formalin test via activation of a purinergic p2X receptor

The pronociceptive effects of adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) were examined in the low concentration formalin model (0.5%) by coadministration of ATP, ATP analogs (alpha,beta-methylene-ATP and 2-methylthio-ATP) and antagonists (suramin, pyridoxalphosphate-6-azophenyl-2',4'-disulfonic acid) with formalin and determining effects on the expression of flinching behaviours. Coadministration of ATP (5-500 nmol) with formalin enhanced phase 2 (12-60 min after injection) but not phase 1 (0-10 min after injection) responses. alpha,beta-methylene-ATP (0.5-50 nmol) but not 2-methylthio-ATP (50-500 nmol) produced a similar enhancement of activity, generating an order of potency of alpha,beta-methylene-ATP, ATP >> 2-methylthio-ATP. This enhancement was primarily expressed in the latter part of phase 2, 30-60 min after injection. Coadministration of suramin 50-500 nmol, a non-selective P2X and P2Y purinoceptor antagonist and pyridoxalphosphate-6-azophenyl-2',4'-disulfonic acid 5-500 nmol, a selective P2X purinoceptor antagonist, dose-dependently inhibited the augmentation of the formalin response by ATP 50 nmol, but did not reduce the response to formalin itself. Pretreatment for 30 min with higher doses of suramin inhibited the response to formalin (0.5%, 1.5%) and this appeared to be by a systemically mediated action as it was seen following administration into the contralateral paw. The results of this study provide evidence in support of a P2X purinoceptor mediated augmentation of the pain signal by ATP. The delayed time-course of the effect suggests that it may occur in concert with other mediators that are recruited by the inflammatory process, rather than reflecting a direct depolarization of sensory nerves. Other behavioural paradigms may be required to examine the fast onset, direct effect. Suramin appears to exert both local and systemic effects on the expression of pain behaviours in response to formalin.

Diadenosine polyphosphate hydrolase from presynaptic plasma membranes of Torpedo electric organ

The diadenosine polyphosphate hydrolase present in presynaptic plasma membranes from the Torpedo electric organ has been characterized using fluorogenic substrates of the form di-(1, N6-ethenoadenosine) 5',5'''-P1,Pn-polyphosphate. The enzyme hydrolyses diadenosine polyphosphates (ApnA, where n=3-5), producing AMP and the corresponding adenosine (n-1) 5'-phosphate, Ap(n-1). The Km values of the enzyme were 0.543+/-0.015, 0.478+/-0.043 and 0. 520+/-0.026 microM, and the Vmax values were 633+/-4, 592+/-18 and 576+/-45 pmol/min per mg of protein, for the etheno derivatives of Ap3A (adenosine 5',5'''-P1,P3-triphosphate), Ap4A (adenosine 5',5"'-P1,P4-tetraphosphate) and Ap5A (adenosine 5',5'''-P1,P5-pentaphosphate) respectively. Ca2+, Mg2+ and Mn2+ are enzyme activators, with EC50 values of 0.86+/-0.11, 1.35+/-0.24 and 0.58+/-0.10 mM respectively. The fluoride ion is an inhibitor with an IC50 value of 1.38+/-0.19 mM. The ATP analogues adenosine 5'-tetraphosphate and adenosine 5'-[gamma-thio]triphosphate are potent competitive inhibitors and adenosine 5'-[alpha,beta-methylene]diphosphate is a less potent competitive inhibitor, the Ki values being 0.29+/-0.03, 0.43+/-0.05 and 7.18+/-0.8 microM respectively. The P2-receptor antagonist pyridoxal phosphate 6-azophenyl-2',4'-disulphonic acid behaves as a non-competitive inhibitor with a Ki value of 29.7+/-3.1 microM, and also exhibits a significant inhibitory effect on Torpedo apyrase activity. The effect of pH on the Km and Vmax values, together with inhibition by diethyl pyrocarbonate, strongly suggests the presence of functional histidine residues in Torpedo diadenosine polyphosphate hydrolase. The enzyme from Torpedo shows similarities with that of neural origin from neurochromaffin cells, and significant differences compared with that from endothelial vascular cells.

Inhibition of ecto-ATPase by the P2 purinoceptor agonists, ATPgammaS, alpha,beta-methylene-ATP, and AMP-PNP, in endothelial cells

Ecto-ATPase is a plasma membrane-bound enzyme that sequentially dephosphorylates extracellular nucleotides such as ATP. This breakdown of ATP and other nucleotides makes it difficult to characterize and classify P2 purinoceptors. We have previously shown that the P2 purinergic antagonists, PPADS, suramin and reactive blue, act as ecto-ATPase inhibitors in various cell lines. Here, we show that the P2 purinergic agonists, ATPgammaS, alpha,beta-methylene ATP (alpha,beta-MeATP) and AMP-PNP, inhibit the ecto-ATPase of bovine pulmonary artery endothelial cells (CPAE), with pIC50 values of 5.2, 4.5 and 4.0, respectively. In CPAE, FPL67156, a selective ecto-ATPase inhibitor, also inhibits ecto-ATPase activity, with a pIC50 value of 4.0. In addition, alpha,beta-MeATP (3-100 microM), which itself does not induce phosphoinositide (PI) turnover, left-shifted the agonist-concentration effect (E/[A]) curves for ATP, 2MeS-ATP and UTP by approximate 100-300 fold, while those for ATPgammaS and AMP-PNP were only shifted approximately 2-3 fold. Moreover, in the presence of alpha,beta-MeATP, not only was the potentiation effect of PPADS on the UTP response lost, but a slight inhibition of the UTP response by PPADS was also seen. Thus, we conclude that the action of ATPgammaS, alpha,beta-MeATP and AMP-PNP as ecto-ATPase inhibitors account for their high agonist potency, and also provide information for the development of ecto-ATPase inhibitors of high selectivity and potency.

Nonadrenergic contractile response of guinea pig portal vein to electrical field stimulation mimics response to UTP but not to ATP

Transmural electrical field stimulation (EFS, 4-32 Hz) produced a biphasic contractile response consisting of a rapid and transient contraction (first phase) followed by a slow contraction (second phase) in ring preparations of guinea pig portal veins. Both contractions were enhanced by the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME, 30 microM). In the presence of L-NAME, tetrodotoxin (1 microM) and guanethidine (3 microM) inhibited both contractions and phentolamine (10 microM), and reserpine treatment abolished the first-phase contraction without affecting the second-phase contraction. These results suggest that the first-phase contraction is caused by norepinephrine released from the perivascular nerves. In the presence of phentolamine and L-NAME, the second-phase contraction was inhibited by the nonselective P2-purinoceptor antagonist suramin (30-300 microM) and the P(2Y)-purinoceptor antagonist reactive blue 2 (RB2; 10-100 microM). alpha,beta-Methylene-adenosine triphosphate (alpha,beta-mATP; 3-30 microM), which desensitizes P(2X)-purinoceptors, and the P(2X)-purinoceptor antagonist 4,4'-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2,2'-disulphonate (DIDS; 1-10 microM) had a little effect. Exogenous ATP (0.1-3 mM) and UTP (0.1-3 mM) in the presence of L-NAME produced contractions in a concentration-dependent manner. The ATP-induced contraction was enhanced by suramin, RB2, and DIDS but unaltered by alpha,beta-mATP. The UTP-induced contraction was inhibited by suramin and RB2 but unaltered by alpha,beta-mATP and DIDS. These results indicate that in the guinea pig portal vein, the classic P(2X)-purinoceptors do not contribute to the nonadrenergic component of sympathetic neurotransmission. Furthermore, the pharmacology of the nonadrenergic component of neurotransmission resembles that of vasoconstrictor responses to exogenous UTP rather than to ATP.

Characterization of the correlation between ATP-dependent aminophospholipid translocation and Mg2+-ATPase activity in red blood cell membranes

Pseudosubstrates and inhibitors of ATPases were studied with respect to their capability to modulate the kinetic behavior of Mg2+-ATPase and aminophospholipid translocation in red blood cell ghosts. ATP was substituted by the pseudosubstrates of P-type ATPases acetyl phosphate and p-nitrophenyl phosphate. With both pseudosubstrates, aminophospholipid translocation from the outer to the inner leaflets of resealed erythrocyte ghosts could be observed, although with a significantly decreased velocity compared to that in presence of ATP, both with respect to phosphate hydrolysis and translocation. Similarly, the apparent affinities for the pseudosubstrates were much lower than for ATP. Among the inhibitors studied, suramin acted as a competitive inhibitor of ATP towards both Mg2+-ATPase activity and aminophospholipid translocation. However, the inhibition of translocation occurred at a higher inhibitor concentration than the inhibition of Mg2+-ATPase activity. With elaiophylin, only a partial inhibition of Mg2+-ATPase activity could be detected, but translocation of labeled phosphatidylserine was almost completely abolished. With eosin Y, an almost complete inhibition of both Mg2+-ATPase activity and translocation could be achieved. The observed responses of aminophospholipid translocation to ATPase inhibitors strongly suggest that a P-type ATPase, part of which displays a Mg2+-ATPase activity, is involved in aminophospholipid translocation.

Inhibition of ecto-ATPase by PPADS, suramin and reactive blue in endothelial cells, C6 glioma cells and RAW 264.7 macrophages

1. Previous studies have shown that bovine pulmonary artery endothelium (CPAE) has P2Y and P2U purinoceptors, rat C6 glioma cells have P2U purinoceptors and mouse RAW 264.7 cells have pyrimidinoceptors, all of which are coupled to phosphoinositide-specific phospholipase C (PI-PLC). The dual actions of PPADS, suramin and reactive blue as antagonists of receptor subtypes and ecto-ATPase inhibitors were studied in these three cell types. 2. In CPAE, suramin, at 3-100 microM, competitively inhibited the PI responses induced by 2MeSATP and UTP, with pA2 values of 5.5 +/- 0.3 and 4.4 +/- 0.4, respectively. Reactive blue, at 1-3 microM, produced shifts to the right of the 2MeSATP and UTP curves, but no further right shift at 10 microM. PPADS, at 10 microM, caused a 3 fold right shift of the 2MeSATP curve, but no further shift at concentrations up to 100 microM. In contrast, a dose-dependent shift to the left of the UTP curve and a weak inhibition of the ATP response were seen with PPADS. 3. In RAW 264.7 cells, suramin and reactive blue, but not PPADS, competitively inhibited the UTP response, with pA2 values of 4.8 +/- 0.5 and 5.8 +/- 0.7, respectively. 4. In C6 glioma cells, although suramin and reactive blue inhibited the ATP response, a potentiation effect on ATP and UTP responses was seen with PPADS. 5. The ecto-ATPase inhibitory activity of these three receptor antagonists were determined. All three inhibited ecto-ATPase present in CPAE, C6 and RAW 264.7 cells, with IC50 values of 4, 4.8 and 4.7 for PPADS, 4, 4.4 and > > 4 for suramin, and 4.5, 4.7 and 4.7 for reactive blue. 6. This study indicates that PPADS, suramin and reactive blue ar ecto-ATPase inhibitors. This property, combined with their antagonistic selectivity for receptor subtypes, can result in inhibition of, potentiation of, or lack of effect on agonist-mediated PI responses. Reactive blue is a more potent antagonist than suramin on P2Y, P2U and pyrimidinoceptors, and PPADS is a weak antagonist for P2Y receptors.

Rapid, highly sensitive gradient narrow-bore high-performance liquid chromatographic determination of suramin and its analogues

A high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method for the determination of suramin, its precursors and analogues in aqueous solutions and in plasma samples with advantages compared to earlier methods is described. Due to the method's high sensitivity (detection limit of suramin in plasma samples: 7 ng/ml; in aqueous solutions: 5 ng/ml) and selectivity (suramin tR: 7.05 min, precursor amine 2 tR: 4.68 min), it is possible to analyze degradation products, impurities and possible metabolites of suramin besides suramin. Tetrabutylammonium hydrogensulfate (TBAHS) (5 mM) is used as ion-pairing reagent in a mixture of 36% methanol and 0.02 M phosphate buffer pH 6.5 is used as the mobile phase. After sample injection, a linear gradient from 36 to 62.9% methanol is run. A C8 stationary phase (100 x 2.1 mm I.D.) is used and ultraviolet (UV) detection at 238 nm is applied. Plasma extraction is performed with tetrabutylammonium bromide (pH 8.0) and acetonitrile. This procedure allows the determination of suramin and its precursor amine 2 in the range of 0.05-400 micrograms/ml with high precision [relative standard deviation of peak areas at 0.05 microgram/ml: 2.10% (n = 5)] and nearly complete recovery (> 96.5%). Because of the high flexibility of the chromatographic system and subsequently the universality of the method, the analysis of a broad range of suramin analogues is possible. The result of the purity check of two suramin analogues is given.

P2-purinoceptor antagonists: III. Blockade of P2-purinoceptor subtypes and ecto-nucleotidases by compounds related to suramin

Effects of suramin and five analogs or fragments of suramin were studied on contractions of the rat vas deferens elicited by alpha, beta-methylene ATP (alpha, beta-MeATP; mediated by P2X-purinoceptors), relaxations of the carbachol-precontracted guinea-pig taenia coli elicited by adenosine 5'-O-(2-thiodiphosphate) (ADP beta S; mediated by P2Y-purinoceptors), and the degradation of ATP by rat vas deferens tissue. One compound, NF023, differed from suramin by removal of two p-methylbenzamido groups, whereas another, BSt101, differed from NF023 by additional removal of the three sulphonate residues from one of the terminal naphthalene rings. The compounds all shifted the concentration-response curve of alpha, beta-MeATP in the rat vas deferens to the right and simultaneously increased the maximum of the curve. Where three concentrations were tested, the Arunlakshana-Schild regression was linear, and the slope did not differ from 1. The apparent Kd values were between 1 and 3672 microM. In the guinea-pig taenia coli, the compounds shifted the concentration-response curve of ADP beta S to the right in a parallel manner, but in the one case where three concentrations were tested, the slope of the Arunlakshana-Schild regression was lower than 1. Apparent Kd values were between 10 and 786 microM. The removal of ATP from the medium by vas deferens tissue was decreased only by suramin, NF023 and BSt101, with IC25% values between 170 and 590 microM.

P2-purinoceptor antagonists: I. Blockade of P2-purinoceptor subtypes and ecto-nucleotidases by small aromatic isothiocyanato-sulphonates

Effects of eight small aromatic isothiocyanato-sulphonates, of the aliphatic 2-isothiocyanatoethene-1-sulphonate (IES), and of the parent amines were studied on contractions of the rat vas deferens elicited by alpha, beta-methylene ATP (alpha, beta-MeATP; mediated by P2X-purinoceptors), relaxations of the carbachol-precontracted guinea-pig taenia coli elicited by adenosine 5'-O-(2-thiodiphosphate) (ADP beta S; mediated by P2Y-purinoceptors), and the degradation of ATP by rat vas deferens tissue. The aromatic isothiocyanato-sulphonates all reduced contractions of the rat vas deferens elicited by alpha, beta-methylene ATP. The antagonism was non-competitive, with depression of the maximum of the concentration-response curve of alpha, beta-MeATP and incomplete reversibility. The IC50 values were between 11 and 54 microM. In the guinea pig taenia coli, the aromatic compounds shifted the concentration-response curve of ADP beta S to the right in a surmountable manner (one exception), and where three concentrations were tested, the Arunlakshana-Schild regression was linear and its slope did not differ from 1. The apparent Kd values were between 10 and 214 microM. The removal of ATP from the medium by vas deferens tissue was decreased by the aromatic isothiocyanates with IC25% values between 25 and 464 microM. IES and the parent amines were inactive or almost inactive (parent amines not tested on ATP breakdown). The results indicate that the isothiocyanato residue as well as the aromatic core are essential for P2-purinoceptor blockade. At the P2X-purinoceptor, potency increases with the size of the molecules but is independent of the position of the isothiocyanato and sulphonate substituents. No simple structure-activity relationship for the P2Y-purinoceptor and the ATP-degrading ecto-nucleotidases can be derived beyond the apparent lack of a major influence of the position of the substituents. 2-Isothiocyanatonaphthalene-1-sulphonate (beta-INS) seems to be interesting because of relatively high P2X-selectivity versus both the P2Y-purinoceptor and ecto-nucleotidases.

Suramin--a powerful inhibitor of neural ecto-diadenosine polyphosphate hydrolase

The neural ecto-diadenosine polyphosphate hydrolase (ecto-ApnAase) from plasma membranes of Torpedo synaptic terminals is inhibited by suramin. This study was carried out by discontinuous h.p.l.c. and continuous fluorometric methods. The concentration-dependence studies showed a non-competitive mechanism for suramin in the Dixon plot, with a Ki value of 1.79 +/- 0.03 microM with respect to epsilon-(Ap3A) as the substrate and 1.69 +/- 0.05 microM and 1.86 +/- 0.06 microM for epsilon-(Ap4A) and epsilon-(Ap5A) respectively. These results indicate that suramin could be a base compound inhibiting ecto-ApnAase and providing an alternative way of studying the pharmacology of diadenosine polyphosphate receptors.

Biochemistry, localization and functional roles of ecto-nucleotidases in the nervous system

Nucleotides such as ATP, ADP, UTP or the diadenosine polyphosphates and possibly even NAD+ are extracellular signaling substances in the brain and in other tissues. Enzymes located on the cell surface catalyze the hydrolysis of these compounds and thus limit their spatio-temporal activity. As a final hydrolysis product they generate the nucleoside and phosphate. The paper discusses the biochemical properties, cellular localization and functional properties of surface-located enzymes that hydrolyse nucleotides released from nervous tissue. This is preceded by a brief discussion of nucleotide receptors, cellular storage and mechanisms of nucleotide release. In nervous tissue nucleoside 5'-triphosphates are hydrolysed by ecto-ATP-diphosphohydrolase and possibly in addition also by ecto-nucleoside triphosphatase and ecto-nucleoside diphosphatase. The molecular identity of the ATP-diphosphohydrolase has now been revealed. The hydrolysis of nucleoside 5'-monophosphates is catalysed by 5'-nucleotidase whose biochemical properties and molecular structure have been studied in detail. Little is known about the molecular properties of the diadenosine polyphosphatases. Surface located enzymes for the extracellular hydrolysis of NAD+ and also ecto-protein kinases are discussed briefly. The cellular localization of the ecto-nucleotidases is only partly defined. Whereas in adult mammalian brain activity for hydrolysis of ATP and ADP may be associated with nerve cells or glial cells 5'-nucleotidase appears to have a preferential glial allocation in the adult mammal. The extracellular hydrolysis of the nucleotides is of functional importance not only during synaptic transmission where it functions in signal elimination. It plays a crucial role also for the survival and differentiation of neural cells in vitro and presumably during neuronal development in vivo.

Action of suramin upon ecto-apyrase activity and synaptic depression of Torpedo electric organ

1. The role of ATP, which is co-released with acetylcholine in synaptic contacts of Torpedo electric organ, was investigated by use of suramin. Suramin [8-(3-benzamido-4-methylbenzamido)naphthalene-1,3,5-trisulphoni c acid], a P2 purinoceptor antagonist, potently inhibited in a non-competitive manner the ecto-apyrase activity associated with plasma membrane isolated from cholinergic nerve terminals of Torpedo electric organ. The Ki was 30 microM and 43 microM for Ca(2+)-ADPase and Ca(2+)-ATPase respectively. 2. In Torpedo electric organ, repetitive stimulation decreased the evoked synaptic current by 51%. However, when fragments of electric organ were incubated with suramin the evoked synaptic current declined by only 14%. Fragments incubated with the selective A1 purinoceptor antagonist, DPCPX, showed 5% synaptic depression. 3. The effects of suramin and DPCPX on synaptic depression were not addictive. Synaptic depression may thus be linked to endogenous adenosine formed by dephosphorylation of released ATP by an ecto-apyrase. The final effector in synaptic depression, adenosine, acts via the A1 purinoceptor. 4. ATP hydrolysis is prevented in the presence of suramin. It slightly increased (20%) the mean amplitude of spontaneous miniature endplate currents. The frequency distribution of the amplitude of spontaneous events was shifted to the right, indicating that ATP, when not degraded, may modulate the activation of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors activated by the quantal secretion of acetycholine.

Characterization of vascular P2 purinoceptors in the rat isolated perfused kidney

In isolated, constant-pressure perfused rat kidneys at basal vascular tone, injected P2 purinoceptor agonists evoked vasoconstriction (alpha, beta-methylene ATP > beta, gamma-methylene ATP > ATP-gamma-S > 2-methylthio ATP > ATP > ADP = UTP). In kidneys with raised tone, the nucleotides produced vasodilatation at low doses (2-methylthio ATP > ADP = ATP = ATP-gamma-S > UTP; alpha, beta-methylene ATP and beta, gamma-methylene ATP, inactive), and constriction at high doses (alpha, beta-methylene ATP > beta, gamma-methylene ATP > ATP-gamma-S > 2-methylthio ATP > ADP = ATP > UTP). Removal of the endothelium abolished the dilator responses to the agonists. NG-Nitro-L-arginine methylester (L-NAME, 5 x 10(-5) M) abolished vasorelaxation in response to 2-methylthio ATP, a response which could be restored by additional L-arginine (3 x 10(-3) M). Both vasodilatation and constriction due to the nucleotides remained unaffected by indomethacin (3 x 10(-6) M), S-(p-nitrobenzyl)-6-thioinosine (3 x 10(-5) M) and 8-phenyltheophylline (3 x 10(-6) M). Pyridoxalphosphate-6-azophenyl-2',4'-disulphonic acid (PPADS, 1-3 x 10(-6) M), inhibited vasoconstriction caused by alpha, beta-methylene ATP, 2-methylthio ATP and UTP, but not by ATP. Suramin (3 x 10(-5) M) caused a rightward shift of the dose-response curves for constriction caused by alpha, beta-methylene ATP (27-fold) and 2-methylthio ATP (5-fold), whereas the ATP curve was shifted to the left (20-fold). With Evans blue (10(-5) M), vasodilatation due to the nucleotides was abolished and the dose-response curves for vasoconstriction caused by ATP and UTP were shifted left more than 100-fold, the effect to both could not be antagonized by PPADS (3 x 10(-6) M). These results suggest: (1) the different rank orders of P2 purinoceptor agonist potencies for constrictor and dilator responses in perfused rat kidney are consistent with mediation via P2x and P2Y purinoceptors, respectively; (2) P2X purinoceptors, selectively sensitive to blockade by PPADS, are located on vascular smooth muscle; (3) endothelial P2Y purinoceptor stimulation results in vasodilatation involving NO synthesis but not release of prostanoids; (4) Evans blue, which appears to combine selective P2Y purinoceptor blockade and strong inhibition of ecto-nucleotidases, potentiates vasoconstriction in response to the degradable nucleotides, ATP, 2-methylthio ATP and UTP; (5) additionally, Evans blue unmasks a PPADS-insensitive P2U purinoceptor where the nearly equipotent nucleotides, ATP and UTP, can produce vasoconstriction.