Soil solution phosphate, root uptake kinetics and nutrient acquisition: implications for a patchy soil environment

Should Root Plasticity Be a Crop Breeding Target?

Root phenotypic plasticity has been proposed as a target for the development of more productive crops in variable environments. However, the plasticity of root anatomical and architectural responses to environmental cues is highly complex, and the consequences of these responses for plant fitness are poorly understood. We propose that root phenotypic plasticity may be beneficial in natural or low-input systems in which the availability of soil resources is spatiotemporally dynamic. Crop ancestors and landraces were selected with multiple stresses, competition, significant root loss and heterogenous resource distribution which favored plasticity in response to resource availability. However, in high-input agroecosystems, the value of phenotypic plasticity is unclear, since human management has removed many of these constraints to root function. Further research is needed to understand the fitness landscape of plastic responses including understanding the value of plasticity in different environments, environmental signals that induce plastic responses, and the genetic architecture of plasticity before it is widely adopted in breeding programs. Phenotypic plasticity has many potential ecological, and physiological benefits, but its costs and adaptive value in high-input agricultural systems is poorly understood and merits further research.

Fine root responses to temporal nutrient heterogeneity and competition in seedlings of two tree species with different rooting strategies

There is little direct evidence for effects of soil heterogeneity and root plasticity on the competitive interactions among plants. In this study, we experimentally examined the impacts of temporal nutrient heterogeneity on root growth and interactions between two plant species with very different rooting strategies: Liquidambar styraciflua (sweet gum), which shows high root plasticity in response to soil nutrient heterogeneity, and Pinus taeda (loblolly pine), a species with less plastic roots. Seedlings of the two species were grown in sandboxes in inter‐ and intraspecific combinations. Nutrients were applied in a patch either in a stable (slow‐release) or in a variable (pulse) manner. Plant aboveground biomass, fine root mass, root allocation between nutrient patch and outside the patch, and root vertical distribution were measured. L. styraciflua grew more aboveground (40% and 27% in stable and variable nutrient treatment, respectively) and fine roots (41% and 8% in stable and variable nutrient treatment, respectively) when competing with P. taeda than when competing with a conspecific individual, but the growth of P. taeda was not changed by competition from L. styraciflua. Temporal variation in patch nutrient level had little effect on the species’ competitive interactions. The more flexible L. styraciflua changed its vertical distribution of fine roots in response to competition from P. taeda, growing more roots in deeper soil layers compared to its roots in conspecific competition, leading to niche differentiation between the species, while the fine root distribution of P. taeda remained unchanged across all treatments. Synthesis. L. styraciflua showed greater flexibility in root growth by changing its root vertical distribution and occupying space of not occupied by P. taeda. This flexibility gave L. styraciflua an advantage in interspecific competition.

A new theory of plant-microbe nutrient competition resolves inconsistencies between observations and model predictions

Terrestrial plants assimilate anthropogenic CO₂ through photosynthesis and synthesizing new tissues. However, sustaining these processes requires plants to compete with microbes for soil nutrients, which therefore calls for an appropriate understanding and modeling of nutrient competition mechanisms in Earth System Models (ESMs). Here, we survey existing plant-microbe competition theories and their implementations in ESMs. We found no consensus regarding the representation of nutrient competition and that observational and theoretical support for current implementations are weak. To reconcile this situation, we applied the Equilibrium Chemistry Approximation (ECA) theory to plant-microbe nitrogen competition in a detailed grassland ¹⁵ N tracer study and found that competition theories in current ESMs fail to capture observed patterns and the ECA prediction simplifies the complex nature of nutrient competition and quantitatively matches the ¹⁵ N observations. Since plant carbon dynamics are strongly modulated by soil nutrient acquisition, we conclude that (1) predicted nutrient limitation effects on terrestrial carbon accumulation by existing ESMs may be biased and (2) our ECA-based approach may improve predictions by mechanistically representing plant-microbe nutrient competition.

Non-destructive quantification of cereal roots in soil using high-resolution X-ray tomography

One key constraint to further understanding plant root development is the inability to observe root growth in situ due to the opaque nature of soil. Of the present non-destructive techniques, computed tomography (CT) is best able to capture the complexities of the edaphic environment. This study compared the accuracy and impact of X-ray CT measurement of in situ root systems with standard technology (soil core washing and WinRhizo analysis) in the context of treatments that differed in the vertical placement of phosphorus fertilizers within the soil profile. Although root lengths quantified using WinRhizo were 8% higher than that observed in the same plants using CT, measurements of root length by the two methodologies were highly correlated. Comparison of scanned and unscanned plants revealed no effect of repeated scanning on plant growth and CT was not able to detect any changes in roots between phosphorus treatments that was observed using WinRhizo. Overall, the CT technique was found to be fast, safe, and able to detect roots at high spatial resolutions. The potential drawbacks of CT relate to the software to digitally segment roots from soil and air, which will improve significantly as automated segmentation algorithms are developed. The combination of very fast scans and automated segmentation will allow CT methodology to realize its potential as a high-throughput technique for the quantification of roots in soils.

A second dimension to the leaf economics spectrum predicts edaphic habitat association in a tropical forest

BACKGROUND

Strong patterns of habitat association are frequent among tropical forest trees and contribute to the maintenance of biodiversity. The relation of edaphic differentiation to tradeoffs among leaf functional traits is less clear, but may provide insights into mechanisms of habitat partitioning in these species rich assemblages.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

We quantify the leaf economics spectrum (LES) for 16 tree species within a Bornean forest characterized by highly pronounced habitat specialization. Our findings suggest that the primary axis of trait variation in light-limited, lowland tropical forests was identical to the LES and corresponds with the shade tolerance continuum. There was no separation with respect to edaphic variation along this primary axis of trait variation. However, a second orthogonal axis determined largely by foliar P concentrations resulted in a near-perfect separation of species occupying distinct soil types within the forest.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

We suggest that this second axis of leaf trait variation represents a "leaf edaphic habitat spectrum" related to foliar P and potentially other nutrients closely linked to geological substrate, and may generally occur in plant communities characterized by strong edaphic resource gradients.

Plant behavioural ecology: dynamic plasticity in secondary metabolites

Behaviour is in part the ability to respond rapidly and reversibly in response to environmental stimuli during the lifetime of an individual. Plants and animals both exhibit behaviour, but plant behaviour is most often examined in the context of morphologically plastic growth. Rapid and reversible secondary metabolite production and release is also a key mechanism by which plants behave. Here, we review plant biochemical plasticity as plant behaviour, and explicitly focus on evidence for responses that display rapid induction, reversibility and ecological relevance. Rapid induction and attenuation of plant secondary metabolites occur as chemically mediated root foraging, plant defence, allelochemistry and to regulate mutualistic relationships. We describe a wealth of information on the induction of various plant biochemical responses to environmental stimuli but found a limited body of literature on the reversibility of induced biochemical responses. Understanding the full cycle of dynamic plasticity in secondary metabolites is an important niche for future research. Biochemical behaviours extend beyond the plant kingdom; however, they clearly illustrate the capacity for plants to behave in ways that closely mirror the classic definitions and research approaches applied to behaviour in animals.

Root proliferation of Norway spruce and Scots pine in response to local magnesium supply in soil

Nutrient sources in soils are often heterogeneously distributed. Although many studies have examined the root responses to local N and P enrichments in the soil, less research was conducted on root responses to Mg patches. New roots of pre-grown Mg-insufficient and Mg-sufficient plants of Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) seedlings were allowed to grow into four other pots of equal size, which were placed under the tree-bearing pot. Soils in the lower pots were either unfertilised, or supplied with Mg, or NPK or a mixture of NPKMg sources. Plants were harvested after 9 months of growth. Compared to the corresponding controls (Mg versus unfertilised and NPKMg versus NPK), Mg additions did not have a significant effect on either root dry matter, total root length (TRL) or specific root length (SRL), irrespective of tree species and plant Mg nutritional status. In contrast, NPK and NPKMg additions significantly increased the root dry matter and TRL in the nutrient-rich soil patch, and decreased SRL in Norway spruce. However, the observed root morphological changes did not occur in Scots pine. Root Mg concentrations were increased in Mg-rich soil patches, but those accumulations varied with tree species. Mg accumulation in a marked patch was measured only in newly grown roots of Mg-sufficient Norway spruce, whereas a more homogenous distribution of Mg concentration was observed for all newly grown roots in Mg-insufficient trees in the four soil treatments. In Scots pine, Mg accumulations occurred in both Mg-insufficient and Mg-sufficient plants. These results suggest that Mg patches in the soil may not lead to a local increase in root growth, but to Mg uptake and root Mg accumulation. Tree roots react differently to Mg patches in comparison to their response to N or P patches in the soil.

Conventional detection methodology is limiting our ability to understand the roles and functions of fine roots

We lack a thorough conceptual and functional understanding of fine roots. Studies that have focused on estimating the quantity of fine roots provide evidence that they dominate overall plant root length. We need a standard procedure to quantify root length/biomass that takes proper account of fine roots. Here we investigated the extent to which root length/biomass may be underestimated using conventional methodology, and examined the technical reasons that could explain such underestimation. Our discussion is based on original X-ray-based measurements and on a literature review spanning more than six decades. We present evidence that root-length recovery depends strongly on the observation scale/spatial resolution at which measurements are carried out; and that observation scales/resolutions adequate for fine root detection have an adverse impact on the processing times required to obtain precise estimates. We conclude that fine roots are the major component of root systems of most (if not all) annual and perennial plants. Hence plant root systems could be much longer, and probably include more biomass, than is widely accepted.

Phosphorus uptake by arbuscular mycorrhizal hyphae does not increase when the host plant grows under atmospheric CO2 enrichment

• We conducted an experiment to test whether phosphorus (P) uptake by mycorrhizal hyphae could be enhanced by growing the host plant under [CO₂ ] enrichment and whether any response to [CO₂ ] was dependent on C source-sink relationships. • Plant C assimilation, mass allocation, growth and P uptake were measured in pea (Pisum sativum) plants inoculated with 0, 1 or 5% of a mixture of three Glomus spp. Intra- and extra-radical mycorrhizal development was followed and hyphal ³³ P uptake from a root-exclusion compartment was measured. • Total P and ³³ P content measurements indicated that root, not hyphal, P uptake was increased by elevated [CO₂ ] in the mycorrhizal treatments and that hyphal P uptake was actually reduced by elevated [CO₂ ] after 57 d. Neither intra- nor extraradical mycorrhizal development was related to this response. • Plant and fungal measurements suggested positive interactions in plant growth and P uptake only when C source-sink relationships were balanced; high C source (enhanced assimilation at elevated [CO₂ ]) and high C sink (increasing mycorrhizal development). The results also indicated that enhanced plant C supply does not alter growth or function of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi.

Morphological responses of plant roots to heterogeneity of soil resources

• Root morphological response to experimentally induced soil heterogeneity is reported here on three grassland species (Luzula campestris, Poa angustifolia and Plantago lanceolata) under field conditions. • Nutrient application was combined with suppression of mycorrhizal infection and with substrate structure modification in experimental patches. For each isolated root, we determined five dimensional characteristics and two topological parameters, including a newly introduced topological index (dichotomous branching index). • Nonmycorrhizal L. campestris responded little to nutrient application, but strongly to benomyl application, in all characteristics measured. Mycorrhizal P. angustifolia produced the longest, most branched roots but exhibited limited sensitivity to nutrients and benomyl application. Strongly mycorrhizal P. lanceolata was the most sensitive to nutrient application, but showed little response to benomyl application. It was the only one among the species studied with root characteristics influenced (negatively) by increased production of total root biomass in the patches. Substrate structure influenced dimensional characteristics of Poa and Luzula roots, but not the topological indices. • Results indicate different exploitation of soil microsites by L. campestris, P. angustifolia and P. lanceolata. Root topology seems to play a limited role in this process.

Uptake of cations under two different water regimes in a boreal scots pine forest

There is still much to find out about how trees react to changing nutrient conditions. In this cation uptake study, 134Cs and 22Na were injected between the humus and the mineral soil, and into a 20-cm depth in the mineral soil, respectively. Half of the experimental site was subjected to desiccation in 1995 and 1996, while the other half was subjected to irrigation in 1995, and desiccation in 1996. One month after the injections, the concentration of 134Cs in the xylem sap was higher in the irrigated plots (ID) than in the desiccated plots (DD). In August 1995, the difference in the 134Cs concentration in the xylem sap was even higher between the treatments. In 1995, 22Na was also higher in the xylem sap on the ID plots than on the DD plots, but not significantly. Exponential relationships were found between the amount of 134Cs and 22Na in the xylem sap; the relative water uptake from humus and 0-10-cm mineral soil (134Cs); and 10-25-cm mineral soil (22Na) in July 1995, when the tracers had not yet reached the top of the boles. The relative uptake of injected 22Na was larger than that of injected 134Cs, probably due to low exchangeability of Cs in the soil. One year after the injection (1996), more 134Cs was found in the wood, bark, needles and cones on the plots irrigated in 1995 than on the desiccated plots. The content of 134Cs in the stem wood and stump amounted to nearly 80% of the total uptake in the trees. The Cs distribution 1 year after the Chernobyl accident was dominated by Cs on/in needles and bark. After 10 years of redistribution, the Chernobyl Cs content of the different parts of the trees approached that of K.

The demography of fine roots in response to patches of water and nitrogen

Fine root demography was quantified in response to patches of increased water and nitrogen availability in a natural, second-growth, mixed hardwood forest in northern Michigan, USA. As expected, the addition of water and water plus nitrogen resulted in a significant overall increase in the production of new fine roots. New root production was much greater in response to water plus nitrogen when compared with water alone, and the duration of new root production was related to the length of resource addition in the water plus nitrogen treatments; the average difference in new root length between the 20 vs. 40 d additions of water plus nitrogen amounted to almost 600%. Roots produced in response to the additions of water and water plus nitrogen lived longer than roots in the control treatments. Thus, additions of water and water plus nitrogen influenced both the proliferation of new roots and their longevity, with both proliferation and longevity related to the type and duration of resource supply. Results suggest that root longevity and mortality may be plastic in response to changes in soil resource availability, as is well known for root proliferation.