The social behavior of depressed children: an observational study

Depression symptoms, communication and cooperation skills, and friendship: longitudinal associations in young Norwegian children

Introduction

Symptoms of depression in early childhood have been linked to interpersonal difficulties, whereas friendships serve a protective function.

Methods

In the present study, we examined depression symptoms in preschool age (4 years) in relation to social skills (communication and cooperation), and friendships into early school age (Grades 1 and 2) in a large subsample (n = 943) of Norwegian children.

Results

The results indicated that preschool depression symptoms negatively predicted Grade 1 communication skills, which in turn predicted Grade 2 depression symptoms. This pathway suggests that communication skills may be a maintenance factor for depression symptoms in young children. In addition, preschool depression symptoms predicted lower Grade 1 cooperation skills, which in turn predicted lower Grade 2 communication skills, suggesting that preschool depression symptoms may begin a cascade of social skill problems that affect cooperation and communication skills into early school years. Best friendships were negatively related to depression symptoms in preschool and Grade 2.

Discussion

Given that preschool depression symptoms impact the development of social skills and friendships, it is important to attend to depression symptoms in early childhood.

Play and welfare in domestic cats: Current knowledge and future directions

Play and welfare have long been linked within animal research literature, with play considered as both a potential indicator and promoter of welfare. An indicator due to observations that play is exhibited most frequently in times when an animal's fitness is not under threat and when immediate needs such as food, water and adequate space are met. And a promoter, because of observations that animals who play more also have better welfare outcomes. However, limited research has been undertaken to investigate this link, especially in companion animals. The domestic cat ( Felis catus) is one of the most popular companion animals in the world, yet little is known about the impact of play behaviour on cat welfare. We review the current literature on play and welfare in cats. This includes examining the role of cat play in mitigating negative welfare outcomes, such as reducing problem behaviours, one of the leading reasons for guardian dissatisfaction and cat relinquishment to shelters. Play is also discussed as a potential tool to provide environmental enrichment and to improve cat-human relationships. Future areas for research are suggested. We find that further research is needed that uses a multifaceted approach to assess how quantity, type and quality of play impact subsequent cat behaviour and welfare. Future research could also assess cat play needs and preferences as well as investigate the role of play in mitigating threats to cat welfare such as reducing problem behaviour and improving human-cat relationships. If play is an indicator and promoter of welfare, studies into the impact of play may offer an accessible approach for monitoring and improving domestic cat welfare.

Adolescent Internalizing Symptoms and the "Tightknittedness" of Friendship Groups

Adolescents with depression have lower peer status overall, but tend to befriend each other. We examined the "tightknittedness" of their friendship groups by testing whether adolescent friendship groups' average levels of or variability in internalizing symptoms predict group cohesiveness. We used four waves (9th-12th grades) of survey and social network data on 3,013 friendship groups from the PROmoting School-Community-University Partnerships to Enhance Resilience study. Friendship groups with higher average depressive symptoms were less cohesive; groups with higher average anxiety symptoms had greater reciprocity. Groups with greater variability in depressive symptoms had greater density; variability in anxiety symptoms was not consistently associated with cohesion. The friendship groups of depressed adolescents appear less cohesive than the "typical" adolescent friendship group.

The interpersonal context of depression and violent behavior: A social psychological interpretation

Depression is a particularly prevalent form of psychopathology affecting millions of individuals worldwide. It is associated with a variety of adverse social and behavioral outcomes. Numerous observational studies have found that depressed individuals have significantly elevated rates of interpersonal violence. As of now, the social mechanisms that explain the association between depression and violence remain understudied and not well understood. Drawing on the aggression and social psychology literatures, we argue that depressed actors suffer skills deficits and exhibit hostile communication styles that provoke grievances and disputes. We suggest that, because of these interpersonal tendencies, depression increases involvement in verbal disputes, and that frequent participation in verbal disputes foments social contexts where interpersonal violence is more common. Findings from a series of regression models based on a nationally representative sample of 2171 respondents offer support for our assumptions. The study suggests a consideration of interpersonal dynamics, particularly verbal disputes, might unlock clues about the association between depression and violence involvement.

Effect of Morphine Administration on Social andNon-Social Play Behaviour in Calves

Simple Summary

Play can be used as an indicator of welfare in animals, because animals play more when all their basic needs are met. Opioids have a modulatory effect on social play behaviour in rodents and primates, however little is known regarding the central mechanisms involved in play behaviour in ruminants. In ruminants, we need to know more about what factors influence play behaviour, to determine which elements of play may more accurately be used as indicators of positive welfare. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of morphine on social and non-social play behaviour in calves. In an arena test, morphine administration increased the performance of social play events but had no effect on locomotor play in calves. Similar to research in rodents and primates, morphine administration appears to increase social but not non-social elements of play in calves, suggesting that increased social play may be more indicative of a positive affective state.

Abstract

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of morphine on social and non-social play behaviour in calves. Twelve calves experienced four treatments in a cross over 2 × 2 factorial design: Calves received an intravenous injection of morphine or saline 10 min prior to being tested individually or in pairs in an arena for 20 min. Play behaviour was continuously recorded in the arena test. Lying times were recorded in the home pen. Cortisol concentrations were measured before and after testing. In the arena test, calves given morphine tended to perform more social play events than calves given saline, however, morphine administration had no effect on locomotor play. Calves given morphine spent less time lying than calves given saline during the first 4 h after returning to the home pen. Cortisol concentrations were suppressed in calves given morphine. Administration of morphine appeared to increase social play but had no effect on locomotor play in calves. This study highlights the importance of investigating different aspects of play behaviour in animals as some may be more indicative of a positive affective state than others. More studies investigating the effects of morphine on play are needed to confirm the results found in this study.

Does Less Optimal Nonverbal Communication with Peers Predict the Development of Depression in Adolescent Boys and Girls?

A Social Skills Deficit Model for depression in adolescence was tested, proposing that less optimal nonverbal behavior elicits negative reactions in peer partners, which in turn result in depressive symptoms. Adolescents (12–17 years of age) participated in videotaped same-sex interactions. Several positive and negative nonverbal behaviors were coded. Two analyses were conducted using longitudinal data collected in four waves. First, the predictive role of nonverbal communication for depressive symptoms was tested in a normative sample of 170 adolescent dyads without (mild) depression at wave 1 (48% girls). Second, in a subsample of 31 adolescents who developed (sub)clinical depression in wave 2–4, behaviors during peer interactions prior to the development of depression were compared with behaviors of 31 matched controls that did not show mild depression in any wave (55% girls). Only gazing behavior showed the expected relationships. In girls, less gazing in targets was related to less gazing in peers, and if this response occurred, it subsequently predicted later depressive symptoms of targets. The importance of gazing behavior was confirmed in the (sub)clinical sample where girls, prior to increases in depressive symptoms, gazed less and boys gazed more as compared to controls. Interaction partners of these girls and boys also responded with less gazing. The findings indicate that nonverbal social skills are related to the development of depression in youth, particularly in girls.

Play and optimal welfare: Does play indicate the presence of positive affective states?

Play is commonly used to assess affective states in both humans and non-human animals. Play appears to be most common when animals are well-fed and not under any direct threats to fitness. Could play and playfulness therefore indicate pre-existing positive emotions, and thence optimal animal welfare? We examine this question by surveying the internal and external conditions that promote or suppress play in a variety of species, starting with humans. We find that negative affective states and poor welfare usually do suppress play (although there are notable exceptions where the opposite occurs). Furthermore, research in children suggests that beyond the frequency or total duration of play, poor welfare may additionally be reflected in qualitative aspects of this heterogeneous behaviour (e.g. display of solitary over social play; and the 'fragmentation' of play bouts) that are often overlooked in animals. There are surprisingly few studies of play in subjects with pre-existing optimal welfare or in unambiguously highly positive affective states, making it currently impossible to determine whether play can distinguish optimal or good welfare from merely neutral welfare. This therefore represents an important and exciting area for future research.

Parental Factors Associated with Rumination Related Metacognitive Beliefs in Adolescence

An increasing number of research studies have suggested that metacognition is associated with individuals' mental health. Specifically, metacognitive beliefs about rumination was proposed to link to the onset and maintenance of depression according to the metacognitive model of depression. The current study aimed to serve as a pilot study exploring how parents' metacognitive beliefs and parenting characteristics are associated with rumination related metacognitive beliefs in adolescents. Eighty-five parent-youth dyads were invited to complete a set of questionnaires examining their metacognitive beliefs about rumination followed by a difficult puzzle task, in which parent-adolescent interaction patterns were recorded to examine the parenting style. Results found that parents' and adolescents' positive metacognitive beliefs about rumination were significantly associated with each other. In addition, parental negativity was significantly associated with adolescents' positive metacognitive beliefs of rumination and parental over-involvement was marginally associated with adolescents' negative metacognitive beliefs of rumination. The findings highlighted the association between parental factors and adolescents' metacognitive beliefs about rumination. Implications on the prevention of adolescent's depression were discussed.

Perceived Domain-Specific Competence and Global Self-Worth of Primary Students in Hong Kong

Self-evaluations on five specific domains of competence or adequacies and on global self-worth were assessed in a sample of 151 Hong Kong Chinese boys and girls (grade 3 to 6) using the Self-Perception Profile for Children (SPPC). Although self-perceptions on the five domains of Scholastic Competence, Social Acceptance, Athletic Competence, Physical Appearance, and Behavioural Conduct could be regarded as articulated and differentiated, these domains did not emerge as independent dimensions of self-evaluations. Hong Kong Chinese children appeared to associate school performance with behavioural conduct, and athletic prowess with physical appearance. Evaluation of the indexes representing the manner in which different specific domains of competence were integrated into global self-worth suggested that the independent assessment of global self-esteem was justified. The use of the SPPC with Chinese children and cross-cultural comparisons are discussed.

Shyness-Sensitivity and Social, School, and Psychological Adjustment in Urban Chinese Children: A Four-Wave Longitudinal Study

This study examined reciprocal contributions between shyness-sensitivity and social, school, and psychological adjustment in urban Chinese children. Longitudinal data were collected once a year from Grade 3 to Grade 6 (ages 9-12 years) for 1,171 children from multiple sources. Shyness-sensitivity positively contributed to social, school, and psychological difficulties over time, with the most consistent effects on peer preference and loneliness. Social and school adjustment negatively contributed to the development of shyness-sensitivity. The initial levels of shyness-sensitivity and social and school adjustment moderated the growth of each other, mainly as a resource-potentiating factor. The results indicate the significance of shyness-sensitivity for adjustment and the role of adjustment in the development of shyness-sensitivity in today's urban Chinese society.

The impact of the Incredible Years parent, child, and teacher training programs on children's co-occurring internalizing symptoms

The Incredible Years (IY) Series includes separate group interventions to improve parenting interactions, teacher classroom management, and child social-emotional regulation. Although originally developed to treat early onset conduct problems, IY targets many of the proposed mechanisms and risk factors for internalizing distress in early childhood. Prior studies have demonstrated the effects of the IY parent intervention on co-occurring depressive symptoms. We attempted to extend these findings by examining the unique and combined effects of IY interventions on children's co-occurring internalizing symptoms. One-hundred and fifty-nine families with children ages 4- to 8-years-old were randomly assigned to parent training (PT); parent plus teacher training (PT + TT); child training (CT); child plus teacher training (CT + TT); parent, child, plus teacher training (PT + CT + TT); or a waiting list control group. Children who received any of the intervention components were more likely to have lower mother-rated internalizing symptoms at posttreatment compared to children in a wait-list control group. Implications for future research and for designing interventions and prevention strategies for children with internalizing symptoms are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record

Depressive symptoms and romantic relationship qualities from adolescence through emerging adulthood: a longitudinal examination of influences

Research has consistently demonstrated the negative consequences of depression on adolescents' functioning in peer and family relationships, but little work has examined how depressive symptoms affect the quality of adolescents' and emerging adults' romantic relationships. Five waves of data on depressive symptoms, romantic relationship conflict, and use of positive problem solving were collected from 188 boys and girls during middle adolescence to emerging adulthood. Latent growth curve models indicated that having more depressive symptoms when 15 years old was associated with both more increase in relationship conflict and less increase in positive problem solving as compared to adolescents with fewer depressive symptoms. These results suggest that depression in middle adolescence may impair subsequent romantic relationship qualities into late adolescence and emerging adulthood.

Relationship quality and depressive symptoms among adolescents: a short-term multiwave investigation of longitudinal, reciprocal associations

This study used a multiwave design to examine the short-term longitudinal and bidirectional associations between depressive symptoms and peer relationship qualities among a sample of early to middle adolescents (N = 350, 6th-10th graders). Youth completed self-report measures of relationship quality and depressive symptoms at three time points spaced about 5 weeks apart. Results indicated that depressive symptoms predicted increases in negative qualities and decreases in positive qualities. However, neither positive nor negative relationship qualities predicted increases in depressive symptoms. Findings inform a developmentally based interpersonal model of depression by advancing knowledge on the longitudinal direction of effects between depressive symptoms and relationship quality in adolescence.

Identifying trajectories of adolescents' depressive phenomena: an examination of early risk factors

Few studies have examined risk factors of childhood and early adolescent depressive symptomatology trajectories. This study examined self-report depressive symptomatology across a 6-year time period from 2nd to 8th grade to identify latent groups of individuals with similar patterns of depressive phenomena in a sample of 951 children (440 girls, 511 boys). Analyses, using semiparametric group modeling (SGM), identified 5 trajectory groups for girls and boys: low depressed stables, low depressed risers, mildly depressed stables, moderately depressed changers, and moderately depressed risers. Individual risk factors, with the exception of shy/withdrawn behavior, were significantly different across trajectory group membership for boys and girls, as was low-income status for boys. Boys in the low depressed and mildly depressed stable trajectory groups had significantly higher levels of antisocial behavior, attention problems, and lower social competency compared to girls in similar groups. These results suggest that universal prevention programs implemented in early elementary school that target selected risk factors may be helpful in reducing future adolescent mental health problems, specifically depressive symptomatology.

Gene-environment interplay between peer rejection and depressive behavior in children

BACKGROUND

Genetic risk for depressive behavior may increase the likelihood of exposure to environmental stressors (gene-environment correlation, rGE). By the same token, exposure to environmental stressors may moderate the effect of genes on depressive behavior (gene-environment interaction, GxE). Relating these processes to a peer-related stressor in childhood, the present study examined (1) whether genetic risk for depressive behavior in children is related to higher levels of rejection by the peer group (rGE) and (2) whether peer rejection moderates the effect of genetic factors on children's depressive behavior (GxE).

METHODS

The sample comprised 336 twin pairs (MZ pairs = 196, same-sex DZ pairs = 140) assessed in kindergarten (mean age 72.7 months). Peer acceptance/rejection was measured via peer nominations. Depressive behavior was measured through teacher ratings.

RESULTS

Consistent with rGE, a moderate overlap of genetic effects was found between peer acceptance/rejection and depressive behavior. In line with GxE, genetic effects on depressive behavior varied across levels of peer acceptance/rejection.

CONCLUSIONS

An increased genetic disposition for depressive behavior is related to a higher risk of peer rejection (rGE). However, genes play a lesser role in explaining individual differences in depressive behavior in rejected children than in accepted children (GxE).

Aggression, depression, and stressful life events predicting peer rejection in children

This short-term prospective study examined the contribution of aggression and depression, stressful life events, and their interactions to the prediction of peer rejection. Subjects were 497 fifth- and sixth-grade children who completed questionnaires at two time points separated by approximately 3 months. Levels of peer rejection and aggression were assessed by peer nominations; level of depressive symptoms and number of stressful life events were measured by self-report questionnaires. Controlling for sex and baseline level of peer rejection, aggression directly predicted peer rejection. In contrast, depressive symptoms interacted with life stress to predict peer rejection. Examination of the Depression × Stress interaction revealed that depressive symptoms in children who had experienced high levels of life stress were not associated with increased levels of peer rejection, whereas depressive symptoms in children with low levels of stress were predictive of subsequent peer rejection. Several interpretations of these findings and directions for future research are suggested.

The social problem-solving skills of anxious-withdrawn children

The purpose of this investigation was to contrast the social competencies of groups of extremely withdrawn and average children. Fifty-five kindergarten, Grade 2 and Grade 4 children were observed during dyadic play in a laboratory setting. Results indicated that (a) withdrawn children displayed fewer social problem-solving initiations, produced fewer socially assertive strategies, and were less successful in their attempts, compared to their more sociable age-mates; (b) average children experienced fewer failures in meeting their social goals with increasing age but withdrawn children did not; (c) the discrepancy in failure rates for “high cost” social goals between the two target groups increased with increasing age; and (d) withdrawn children were less likely than average children to reinitiate a social problem-solving attempt subsequent to failure.

Sensitivity to emotional distress among intelligent adolescents: A short-term prospective study

In this 6-month prospective study, interactions between intelligence and emotional distress were examined in predicting social competence among 138 inner-city adolescents. The attempt was to extend previous cross-sectional findings obtained with a similar sample of disadvantaged youth. Intelligence was assessed via a nonverbal test of cognitive abilities, and social competence was operationalized based on teacher and peer ratings and school grades. Distress variables examined in interaction with intelligence included internalizing and externalizing symptomatology as well as the more specific internalizing symptoms of depression and anxiety. Interaction effects obtained indicated that intelligent youth who reported high depression and anxiety at Time I showed decreases in social competence over time, whereas those low on initial distress showed improvements in social competence levels. No such associations between initial distress and subsequent social competence were seen among the less intelligent children. Findings are discussed in terms of theoretical issues and empirical evidence in developmental psychopathology, and implications for future research are noted.

Cognition, competence, and coping in child and adolescent depression: Research findings, developmental concerns, therapeutic implications

Findings of the few psychotherapy outcome studies with depressed children and adolescents raise questions about whether or not treatments are sufficiently sensitive to developmental factors. Here we review the outcome data, then survey potentially relevant research on the cognitions, competencies, and coping behavior of depressed youngsters. Much of the work in each domain is both procedurally and theoretically adevelopmental, and the psychotherapy research does not appear to be well informed by research in the other domains. To help remedy this situation, for each domain we suggest key developmental questions that need to be answered, and we discuss implications for psychotherapy. We also propose a three-way partnership involving basic developmental research linked with research on relations between depression and various cognitive and behavioral processes, with both lines of inquiry informing the development and refinement of interventions.

Depressed mood and peer rejection in childhood

The purpose of the present study was to compare the depression profile of four subtypes of peer-rejected children and a group of neglected children to a normative sample and evaluate whether or not these subgroups showed distinctive patterns. A total of 140 children were selected on the basis of peer status and peer assessment of social behavior. Depressed mood was evaluated by self-reports and peer assessments. As expected, withdrawn-rejected children expressed stronger feelings of depression, both generally (i.e., higher Child Depression Inventory [CDI] scores) and specifically (i.e., energy/interest), as well as more loneliness and social dissatisfaction than the normative group. They were also seen by their peers as being sadder. The aggressive-withdrawn-rejected children displayed results that were very similar to those of withdrawn-rejected children. They manifested stronger feelings of depression both generally (i.e., higher CDI scores) and specifically (i.e., mood/affect) and expressed more loneliness and social dissatisfaction than the normative group. They were also nominated more often as getting their feelings hurt easily and as being usually sad. Contrary to expectations, aggressive-rejected children were also found to differ from the normative children but only on a general index of depression, not on the more specific measures nor on loneliness and social dissatisfaction. Also, they did not differ from the normative sample on the peer assessment items. The neglected children did not differ from the normative sample on any of the self-report or peer assessment measures. The results concerning withdrawn-rejected and aggressive-withdrawn-rejected children suggest that peer rejection could play a mediating role with respect to feelings of distress and confirm that these children are at risk for internalizing problems. The pattern of results for aggressive-rejected children suggests that peer rejection may not play such a role.

Mother-child dynamics in early-onset depression and childhood schizophrenia spectrum disorders

Family interaction patterns were compared for children with depressive disorders and children with schizophrenia spectrum disorders (SSD). Results indicated that compared to SSD children, depressed children were less positive and more negative when interacting with their mothers. Additionally, depressed children did not significantly reciprocate positive or negative statements initiated by their mothers, whereas reciprocity of both positiveness and negativeness was a significant characteristic of the SSD children. While no between group differences were found in the base rates of mothers' positive and negative responses, mothers of SSD children were more likely than mothers of depressed children to reciprocate child negativeness. Maternal reciprocity of positive statements, while not discriminating diagnostic groups, was a significant characteristic only of mothers of depressed children. The implications of these results for theories of developmental psychopathology are discussed.

Social neuroscience of child and adolescent depression

The social neuroscience of child and adolescent depression is inherently multidisciplinary. Depressive disorders beginning early in life can have serious developmental and functional consequences. Psychopathology research has described depression's defining clinical and contextual features, and intervention research has characterized its response to treatment and prevention programs. Neuroendocrine, electrophysiological, and neuroimaging studies have identified core neurobiological aspects of early-onset mood disorders. These areas are reviewed using a developmental social neuroscience perspective for integrating disparate observations. The paper introduces a dynamic adaptive systems framework, and it discusses hedonic capacity, stress sensitivity, ruminative self-focus, and attentional impairments as fundamental components of mood disorders.

Friendship interactions in children with and without depressive symptoms: observation of emotion during game-playing interactions and post-game evaluations

This observational study supplements the strong and consistent link found between childhood depression and deficits in interpersonal functioning by examining the relationship between a high versus low score on the Children's Depression Inventory (CDI) and children's emotions when interacting with their best friends. High-CDI and low-CDI target children (n=86) were paired for videotaped game-playing with self-reported best friends. Researchers found that although high-CDI target children were not distinguishable from low-CDI peers in their displays of positive and negative emotion. However, the partners of high-CDI target children displayed significantly more negative emotion during the competitive task and significantly less positive emotion during the cooperative task than did partners of low-CDI target children. In addition, high-CDI target children and their partners reported less enjoyment of their interactions than low-CDI target children and their partners. This combination of findings suggests that depressive symptoms were associated with a relative lack of success achieving an optimal friendship interaction even under highly favorable conditions.

Being admired or being liked: classroom social status and depressive problems in early adolescent girls and boys

This study investigates associations between depressive problems and classroom social status in a large population cohort of Dutch early adolescents (N = 1046, age 13.52 ± 0.51, 52.4% girls). Depressive problems were assessed by parent and self-reports and classroom status by peer nominations. We assessed peer status with respect to both achievement-related (being a good learner, being good at sports, being good-looking) and affection-related (being liked, being disliked, being best friend) areas. In boys, depressive problems were most strongly associated with not being good at sports, while in girls the association was strongest for not being liked. The risk of a low status in one area could largely be compensated by a high status in another area.

Gender-specific development of nonverbal behaviours and mild depression in adolescence

BACKGROUND

Individual differences in depressive symptoms have been linked with social skill deficits in adults and children, yet empirical studies on adolescents are lacking. The present research examines age and gender differences in nonverbal behaviour between mildly depressed and nondepressed (pre-) adolescents during conversations with an adult (study 1) and a same-aged peer (study 2). Both studies also examine whether conversation partners respond differently to mildly depressed versus nondepressed (pre)adolescents.

METHODS

Study 1 reports on observations of conversations of 9-15-year-old children (n = 122) with a female adult partner. Study 2 reports findings of observations of 12-17-year-old adolescents (n = 154) in conversation with same-age, same-sex peers.

RESULTS

Both studies show gender and/or age effects in gazing, smiling and backchannel behaviours that indicate that as adolescents mature they increasingly behave according to gender-specific display rules. While talking to an adult, depressed (pre-)adolescents and the adult partner differed in backchannel behaviours. While talking to peers, only depressed adolescent girls showed less gazing towards the partner during listening. Moreover, adolescents smiled less often towards depressed than nondepressed partners.

CONCLUSIONS

Gender-specific development of nonverbal behaviour may help to understand the development of gender differences in depression in adolescence. Females who fail to exhibit other-oriented social skills may be particularly at risk for depressive symptoms.

The contribution of peers to monthly variation in adolescent depressed mood: a short-term longitudinal study with time-varying predictors

This study examined peer predictors of variation and growth in depressed mood among high-risk adolescents, using child and parent reports of monthly symptoms. One hundred seventy-six parents and their 10- to 14-year-old children separately took part in a series of up to nine monthly interviews. Multilevel growth models examined both time-varying peer predictors of parent and child reports of the child's depressive symptoms, controlling for age, gender, and treatment status. Deviant peer affiliation significantly predicted elevated depressive symptoms in the monthly child-report of depressed mood, especially for younger adolescents. Children's level of delinquency was significantly related to parent-reported depressive symptoms, and to child-reported symptoms in older adolescents only. As expected, depressed mood was higher for girls and more prevalent among older adolescents. The results suggest that peer processes may be linked in time to the development of depression, especially among high-risk adolescents.

The structure of child and adolescent psychopathology: generating new hypotheses

To begin to resolve conflicts among current competing taxonomies of child and adolescent psychopathology, the authors developed an interview covering the symptoms of anxiety, depression, inattention, and disruptive behavior used in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.; DSM-IV; American Psychiatric Association, 1994), the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10; World Health Organization, 1992), and several implicit taxonomies. This interview will be used in the future to compare the internal and external validity of alternative taxonomies. To provide an informative framework for future hypothesis-testing studies, the authors used principal factor analysis to induce new testable hypotheses regarding the structure of this item pool in a representative sample of 1,358 children and adolescents ranging in age from 4 to 17 years. The resulting hypotheses differed from the DSM-IV, particularly in suggesting that some anxiety symptoms are part of the same syndrome as depression, whereas separation anxiety, fears, and compulsions constitute a separate anxiety dimension.

Attachment-based family therapy for depressed adolescents: programmatic treatment development

Few effective psychosocial treatment models for depressed adolescents have been developed, let alone ones that use the developmentally potent context of the family as the focus of intervention. Attachment-based family therapy (ABFT) is a brief, manualized treatment model tailored to the specific needs of depressed adolescents and their families. Attachment theory serves as the main theoretical framework to guide the process of repairing relational ruptures and rebuilding trustworthy relationships. Empirically supported risk factors for depression are the primary problem states that therapists target with specific treatment strategies or tasks. Parent problem states include criticism/hostility, personal distress, parenting skills, and disengagement. Adolescent problem states include motivation, negative self-concept, poor affect regulation, and disengagement. Intervention tasks include relational reframing, building alliances with the adolescent and with the parent, addressing attachment failures, and building competency. A small, randomized clinical trial provides initial support for the model. Several process research studies, using both qualitative and quantitative methods, have helped refine the clinical guidelines for each treatment task. ABFT is a promising new treatment for depressed adolescents and more research on it is warranted.

Efficacy of the RECAP intervention program for children with concurrent internalizing and externalizing problems

The authors evaluated the efficacy of RECAP, a psychosocial intervention developed to treat concurrent internalizing and externalizing problems in children. Participants included 93 4th-grade children assigned to the treatment group or a no-treatment control group. The school-based program, which lasts the 9-month academic year, provides individual, group, classroom, teacher, and parent training in the RECAP skills-development curriculum, which was derived from empirically supported treatment programs for nonconcurrent internalizing and externalizing problems. Outcome assessments included parent-, teacher-, self-, and peer reports. A mixed hierarchical linear models analysis indicated that, overall, treatment children's rate of improvement in both internalizing and externalizing problems was significantly greater than that for control participants.

Assessing aggressive and depressed children's social relations with classmates and friends: a matter of perspective

This study examined aggressive, depressed, and aggressive-depressed children's peer relations from the children's own and from their peers' perspective. Participants were 819 fourth through sixth graders (50.2% girls) who were assessed twice during the same school year. Measures included children's aggression and depression, self-rated and peer-rated social acceptance, number of reciprocal friends, and self-rated and friend-rated friendship quality. Analyses revealed different patterns, depending on the perspective considered. Depression but not aggression was significantly related to difficulties with the peer group and with dyadic friends from the children's own perspective, whereas the opposite pattern was found according to the peers' view. The co-occurrence of aggression and depression entailed significant difficulties with peers regardless of perspective. The implications of these results for the links between children's aggression and depression and their interpersonal relationships are discussed.

Early Onset Dysthymic Disorder in Children and Adolescents: Clinical Implications and Future Directions

Early onset dysthymic disorder (EODD) is a serious psychiatric disorder that is associated with impaired social and relationship functioning, comorbid psychiatric conditions, a chronic course and increased risk for adult affective disorders. Unlike major depressive disorder (MDD) in childhood, which has been the focus of ongoing research, EODD has been relatively neglected in clinical practice and research. This paper reviews and evaluates EODD research findings and outlines pertinent clinical and research implications.

The separateness of social and emotional loneliness in childhood

BACKGROUND

Much of the childhood loneliness research is misleading because it confounds objective and subjective measures of loneliness. The overall aim of this research was to examine the relationship between social isolation and emotional loneliness.

METHOD

Three extreme groups were identified in a sample of 640 4-9-year-old children. There were two ('rejected' [N=60] and 'lonely' [N=146]) in which social and emotional loneliness were unrelated. The first were socially isolated (rejected) but they did not feel lonely. The second group felt lonely but they were not socially isolated. The third group ('rejected/ lonely') consisted of 61 children who were rejected and also felt lonely.

RESULTS

Felt loneliness and social rejection were experienced together by 61 children, but 206 children experienced either one or the other, but not both. The fourth and largest group [N=374] were neither rejected nor lonely. Differences between the groups were found on direct observation measures of solitariness, sociability, and aggression; peer reports of shyness, aggression, prosocial behaviour, disruptive behaviour and inability to take teasing; self-reports of self-worth and competence, self-reports of supportive relationships; and measures of language use.

CONCLUSIONS

The results indicate that it is loneliness and not rejection that co-occurs with emotional problems.

Specificity of relations between children's control-related beliefs and internalizing and externalizing psychopathology

The authors examined the specificity of the relation between 3 types of control-related beliefs and internalizing and externalizing psychopathology in a sample of 290 clinic-referred children aged 7 to 17 years. Self-reported beliefs about control (the capacity to cause an intended outcome), contingency (the degree to which a desired outcome can be controlled by a relevant behavior), and competence (an individual's ability to produce the relevant behavior) across 3 domains (academic, behavioral, and social) showed more specific relations with psychopathology than have been previously reported. Among children with externalizing psychopathology, internalizing psychopathology may be specifically associated with increased self-critical awareness about their conduct; externalizing psychopathology may attenuate the specific negative relation between internalizing psychopathology and control-related beliefs in the social domain.

Conceptions of relationships in children with depressive and aggressive symptoms: social-cognitive distortion or reality?

This research tested skill-deficit and cognitive-distortion models of depression and aggression in 615 fifth- and sixth-grade children. Children completed a measure of their generalized conceptions of relationships in the peer domain and their level of depressive symptoms. Teachers completed measures of social competence, social status, and aggression. As anticipated, children with higher levels of depressive symptoms, either alone or in combination with aggression, demonstrated more negative conceptions of both self and peers than did nonsymptomatic children. Conceptions of relationships did not differentiate between aggressive and nonsymptomatic children. Children with depressive symptoms and children with aggressive symptoms displayed unique profiles of social competence deficits and problematic status in the peer group. Analysis of the accuracy of children's conceptions of relationships revealed support for both skill-deficit and cognitive-distortion models. Consistent with a skill-deficit model, children with depressive and depressive-aggressive symptoms were sensitive to actual differences in their social status. In contrast, aggressive children showed an insensitivity to social cues. Consistent with a cognitive-distortion model, children with depressive and depressive-aggressive symptoms had more negative conceptions than would be expected given their social status, whereas aggressive-unpopular children demonstrated a self-enhancement bias. These findings indicate the importance of integrated cognitive-interpersonal models of depression and aggression that incorporate multiple pathways among social-cognitive, interpersonal, and emotional functioning.

Open trial of interpersonal therapy in adolescents with moderate to severe major depression: effectiveness of novice IPT therapists

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the effectiveness of interpersonal therapy (IPT) implemented by well-supervised, novice IPT therapists in treating adolescents with moderate to severe mood disorders of lengthy duration.

METHOD

Twenty-five adolescents with moderate to severe major depression, lasting an average of 8 months, received 12 weeks of IPT. All participants were assessed with the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children-Present and Lifetime Version, the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (HRSD), and the Children's Global Assessment Scale (C-GAS) at baseline and follow-up.

RESULTS

The majority of participants improved substantially on the BDI, the HRSD, and the C-GAS; 84% met remission criteria on the HRSD (score < 7); and 80% met remission criteria on the BDI (score < 10).

CONCLUSIONS

Results demonstrate that IPT is effective in treating moderately to severely depressed adolescents, that IPT is effective with depression lasting several months, and that IPT can be effectively implemented by well-supervised clinicians with no prior training in IPT.

Social skills deficits associated with depression

This article reviews the empirical evidence of impaired social skills associated with depression. Conceptualizations of social skills are examined followed by evidence from self-report, observer-rating, and behavioral assessments of depressed people's social skills. Evidence of social skills deficits in children with depression and in people with bipolar disorder is also examined. The effectiveness of social skills training as a treatment of depression is evaluated. Three different theoretical relationships between disrupted social skills and depression are described and evaluated, including poor social skills as a cause of depression, depression as a cause of poor social skills, and poor social skills as a vulnerability factor in the development of depression. Currently, there is some evidence to support each of these conceptualizations, as the relationship between poor social skills and depression can take a variety of forms.

Depressivität und Aggressivität im Jugendalter

Zusammenfassung. In einer Stichprobe von 579 16- bis 19jährigen Jugendlichen werden Zusammenhänge zwischen Depressivität und Aggressivität untersucht. Jugendliche mit hohen Depressivitäts- und gleichzeitig auch hohen Aggressivitätsscores (‘gemischte Symptomatik’) werden mit Jugendlichen, die in nur einer Dimension Depressivität oder Aggressivität hohe Scores aufweisen, in den Variablen wahrgenommene Lebensbelastung in verschiedenen Bereichen, Copingverhalten und die Anzahl unterstützender und konflikthafter sozialer Beziehungen verglichen. Zwischen Depressivitäts- und Aggressivitätssores konnten positive Korrelationen gefunden werden. Für verschiedene Lebensbelastungsdimensionen fanden sich geschlechtsspezifische Unterschiede; höhere Lebensbelastung erhöht bei Mädchen das Risiko spezifisch für Depressivität, bei Jungen hingegen unspezifisch sowohl für Aggressivität als auch für Depressivität. Für beide Geschlechter scheint ein hohes Ausmaß an problemmeidenden Copingstrategien ein depressionsspezifisches Merkmal zu sein; ein höheres Ausmaß konflikthafter Beziehungen hingegen ein aggressionsspezifisches Charakteristikum. Die psychosozialen Charakteristika von Jugendlichen mit einer gemischten Symptomatik können als additive Effekte der beiden Störungen beschrieben werden: Sie zeichnen sich durch erhöhte Lebensbelastung, problemmeidendes Coping sowie ein erhöhtes Konfliktausmaß aus. Insgesamt unterstreichen diese Ergebnisse, daß dem gemeinsamen Auftreten depressiver und aggressiver Symptomatik sowohl in der klinischen Praxis als auch in der entwicklungspsychopathologischen Forschung vermehrte Beachtung geschenkt werden sollte.