1
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Tseng YS, Wu PR, Lu JW, Wang YF, Yeh KT, Lin SH. Cytoplasmic phosphorylated ERK1/2 expression in patients with melanoma is associated with tumor stage and metastasis. Biotech Histochem 2021; 97:118-125. [PMID: 33902381 DOI: 10.1080/10520295.2021.1912827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Melanoma is the cause of most deaths from skin cancer. The extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) pathway has been reported to participate in progression of melanoma in fair skinned populations. ERK1/2 is found in both the cytoplasm and nucleus of cells, and phosphorylated ERK1/2 has been implicated in tumor progression. We investigated the relation between melanoma progression and expression of cytoplasmic and nuclear phosphorylated ERK1/2. We examined 34 surgically resected melanomas and investigated their clinicopathologic characteristics. We found immunostaining of phosphorylated ERK1/2 in all melanomas and faint staining in benign nevi. We found expression of cytoplasmic phosphorylated ERK1/2 in most melanomas; however, nuclear phosphorylated ERK1/2 expression was found in only five melanomas. Expression of cytoplasmic phosphorylated ERK1/2 was related to the tumor stage in melanoma. Nine of 10 cases of distant metastasis were positive for cytoplasmic phosphorylated ERK1/2. Our findings suggest that phosphorylated ERK1/2 expression is relevant to clinical pathology and that in melanoma patients, phosphorylated ERK1/2 expression is found in both the cytoplasm and nucleus. Our findings suggest that cytoplasmic phosphorylated ERK1/2 participates in progression of melanoma and that it could be a useful target for clinical treatment of melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yen-Shuo Tseng
- Department of Dermatology, Changhua Christian Hospital, Changhua, Taiwan
| | - Pei-Ru Wu
- Department of Surgical Pathology, Cheng Ching Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Jeng-Wei Lu
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Yu-Fen Wang
- Cancer Research Center, Changhua Christian Hospital, Changhua, Taiwan
| | - Kun-Tu Yeh
- Department of Surgical Pathology, Changhua Christian Hospital, Changhua, Taiwan.,School of Medicine, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Shu-Hui Lin
- Department of Surgical Pathology, Changhua Christian Hospital, Changhua, Taiwan.,Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, Central Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taichung, Taiwan
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2
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Emelyanova M, Ghukasyan L, Abramov I, Ryabaya O, Stepanova E, Kudryavtseva A, Sadritdinova A, Dzhumakova C, Belysheva T, Surzhikov S, Lyubchenko L, Zasedatelev A, Nasedkina T. Detection of BRAF, NRAS, KIT, GNAQ, GNA11 and MAP2K1/2 mutations in Russian melanoma patients using LNA PCR clamp and biochip analysis. Oncotarget 2017; 8:52304-52320. [PMID: 28881731 PMCID: PMC5581030 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.17014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2016] [Accepted: 03/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Target inhibitors are used for melanoma treatment, and their effectiveness depends on the tumor genotype. We developed a diagnostic biochip for the detection of 39 clinically relevant somatic mutations in the BRAF, NRAS, KIT, GNAQ, GNA11, MAP2K1 and MAP2K2 genes. We used multiplex locked nucleic acid (LNA) PCR clamp for the preferable amplification of mutated over wild type DNA. The amplified fragments were labeled via the incorporation of fluorescently labeled dUTP during PCR and were hybridized with specific oligonucleotides immobilized on a biochip. This approach could detect 0.5% of mutated DNA in the sample analyzed. The method was validated on 253 clinical samples and six melanoma cell lines. Among 253 melanomas, 129 (51.0%) BRAF, 45 (17.8%) NRAS, 6 (2.4%) KIT, 4 (1.6%) GNAQ, 2 (0.8%) GNA11, 2 (0.8%) MAP2K1 and no MAP2K2 gene mutations were detected by the biochip assay. The results were compared with Sanger sequencing, next generation sequencing and ARMS/Scorpion real-time PCR. The specimens with discordant results were subjected to LNA PCR clamp followed by sequencing. The results of this analysis were predominantly identical to the results obtained by the biochip assay. Infrequently, we identified rare somatic mutations. In the present study we demonstrate that the biochip-based assay can effectively detect somatic mutations in approximately 70% of melanoma patients, who may require specific targeted therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Emelyanova
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Lilit Ghukasyan
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Ivan Abramov
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russian Federation
- Blokhin Cancer Research Center, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Oxana Ryabaya
- Blokhin Cancer Research Center, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Evgenia Stepanova
- Blokhin Cancer Research Center, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Anna Kudryavtseva
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russian Federation
- P. Hertsen Moscow Oncology Research Institute, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Asiya Sadritdinova
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russian Federation
- P. Hertsen Moscow Oncology Research Institute, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Cholpon Dzhumakova
- Blokhin Cancer Research Center, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Tatiana Belysheva
- Blokhin Cancer Research Center, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Sergey Surzhikov
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Lyudmila Lyubchenko
- Blokhin Cancer Research Center, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Alexander Zasedatelev
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russian Federation
- Blokhin Cancer Research Center, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Tatiana Nasedkina
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russian Federation
- Blokhin Cancer Research Center, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russian Federation
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3
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Cicenas J, Tamosaitis L, Kvederaviciute K, Tarvydas R, Staniute G, Kalyan K, Meskinyte-Kausiliene E, Stankevicius V, Valius M. KRAS, NRAS and BRAF mutations in colorectal cancer and melanoma. Med Oncol 2017; 34:26. [DOI: 10.1007/s12032-016-0879-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2016] [Accepted: 12/29/2016] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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4
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Roh MR, Eliades P, Gupta S, Tsao H. Genetics of melanocytic nevi. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res 2016; 28:661-72. [PMID: 26300491 DOI: 10.1111/pcmr.12412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2015] [Accepted: 08/19/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Melanocytic nevi are a benign clonal proliferation of cells expressing the melanocytic phenotype, with heterogeneous clinical and molecular characteristics. In this review, we discuss the genetics of nevi by salient nevi subtypes: congenital melanocytic nevi, acquired melanocytic nevi, blue nevi, and Spitz nevi. While the molecular etiology of nevi has been less thoroughly studied than melanoma, it is clear that nevi and melanoma share common driver mutations. Acquired melanocytic nevi harbor oncogenic mutations in BRAF, which is the predominant oncogene associated with melanoma. Congenital melanocytic nevi and blue nevi frequently harbor NRAS mutations and GNAQ mutations, respectively, while Spitz and atypical Spitz tumors often exhibit HRAS and kinase rearrangements. These initial 'driver' mutations are thought to trigger the establishment of benign nevi. After this initial phase of the cell proliferation, a senescence program is executed, causing termination of nevi growth. Only upon the emergence of additional tumorigenic alterations, which may provide an escape from oncogene-induced senescence, can malignant progression occur. Here, we review the current literature on the pathobiology and genetics of nevi in the hope that additional studies of nevi promise to inform our understanding of the transition from benign neoplasm to malignancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mi Ryung Roh
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Department of Dermatology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Dermatology, Cutaneous Biology Research Institute, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Philip Eliades
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Department of Dermatology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Sameer Gupta
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Department of Dermatology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Hensin Tsao
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Department of Dermatology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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5
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Kuzu OF, Nguyen FD, Noory MA, Sharma A. Current State of Animal (Mouse) Modeling in Melanoma Research. CANCER GROWTH AND METASTASIS 2015; 8:81-94. [PMID: 26483610 PMCID: PMC4597587 DOI: 10.4137/cgm.s21214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2015] [Revised: 08/10/2015] [Accepted: 08/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Despite the considerable progress in understanding the biology of human cancer and technological advancement in drug discovery, treatment failure remains an inevitable outcome for most cancer patients with advanced diseases, including melanoma. Despite FDA-approved BRAF-targeted therapies for advanced stage melanoma showed a great deal of promise, development of rapid resistance limits the success. Hence, the overall success rate of melanoma therapy still remains to be one of the worst compared to other malignancies. Advancement of next-generation sequencing technology allowed better identification of alterations that trigger melanoma development. As development of successful therapies strongly depends on clinically relevant preclinical models, together with the new findings, more advanced melanoma models have been generated. In this article, besides traditional mouse models of melanoma, we will discuss recent ones, such as patient-derived tumor xenografts, topically inducible BRAF mouse model and RCAS/TVA-based model, and their advantages as well as limitations. Although mouse models of melanoma are often criticized as poor predictors of whether an experimental drug would be an effective treatment, development of new and more relevant models could circumvent this problem in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omer F Kuzu
- Department of Pharmacology, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA, USA
| | - Felix D Nguyen
- The University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Mohammad A Noory
- Department of Pharmacology, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA, USA
| | - Arati Sharma
- Department of Pharmacology, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA, USA
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6
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Abstract
Melanoma is increasing in incidence and represents an aggressive type of cancer. Efforts have focused on identifying genetic factors in melanoma carcinogenesis to guide prevention, screening, early detection, and targeted therapy. This article reviews the hereditary risk factors associated with melanoma and the known molecular pathways and genetic mutations associated with this disease. This article also explores the controversies associated with genetic testing and the latest advances in identifying genetic targets in melanoma, which offer promise for future application in the multidisciplinary management of melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omar M Rashid
- Department of Cutaneous Oncology, Moffitt Cancer Center, 12902 Magnolia Drive, SRB 4.24012, Tampa, FL 33612, USA; Bienes Comprehensive Cancer Center, Holy Cross Hospital, 4725 N Federal Highway, Fort Lauderdale, FL 33308, USA
| | - Jonathan S Zager
- Department of Cutaneous Oncology, Moffitt Cancer Center, 12902 Magnolia Drive, SRB 4.24012, Tampa, FL 33612, USA.
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7
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Dubruc E, Balme B, Dijoud F, Disant F, Thomas L, Wang Q, Pissaloux D, de la Fouchardiere A. Mutated and amplifiedNRASin a subset of cutaneous melanocytic lesions with dermal spitzoid morphology: report of two pediatric cases located on the ear. J Cutan Pathol 2014; 41:866-72. [DOI: 10.1111/cup.12389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2014] [Revised: 07/16/2014] [Accepted: 07/19/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Estelle Dubruc
- Département de Biopathologie; Centre Léon Bérard; Lyon France
| | - Brigitte Balme
- Département de Pathologie; hôpital Lyon Sud; Lyon France
| | | | | | - Luc Thomas
- Service de Dermatologie Centre Hospitalier Lyon Sud; Pierre Bénite France
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1; Lyon France
| | - Qing Wang
- Département de Biopathologie; Centre Léon Bérard; Lyon France
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8
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Kraft S, Granter SR. Molecular pathology of skin neoplasms of the head and neck. Arch Pathol Lab Med 2014; 138:759-87. [PMID: 24878016 DOI: 10.5858/arpa.2013-0157-ra] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT Skin neoplasms include the most common malignancies affecting humans. Many show an ultraviolet (UV)-induced pathogenesis and often affect the head and neck region. OBJECTIVE To review literature on cutaneous neoplasms that show a predilection for the head and neck region and that are associated with molecular alterations. DATA SOURCES Literature review. CONCLUSIONS Common nonmelanoma skin cancers, such as basal and squamous cell carcinomas, show a UV-induced pathogenesis. Basal cell carcinomas are characterized by molecular alterations of the Hedgehog pathway, affecting patched and smoothened genes. While squamous cell carcinomas show UV-induced mutations in several genes, driver mutations are only beginning to be identified. In addition, certain adnexal neoplasms also predominantly affect the head and neck region and show interesting, recently discovered molecular abnormalities, or are associated with hereditary conditions whose molecular genetic pathogenesis is well understood. Furthermore, recent advances have led to an increased understanding of the molecular pathogenesis of melanoma. Certain melanoma subtypes, such as lentigo maligna melanoma and desmoplastic melanoma, which are more often seen on the chronically sun-damaged skin of the head and neck, show differences in their molecular signature when compared to the other more common subtypes, such as superficial spreading melanoma, which are more prone to occur at sites with acute intermittent sun damage. In summary, molecular alterations in cutaneous neoplasms of the head and neck are often related to UV exposure. Their molecular footprint often reflects the histologic tumor type, and familiarity with these changes will be increasingly necessary for diagnostic and therapeutic considerations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Kraft
- From the Department of Pathology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts (Dr Kraft); and the Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts (Dr Granter)
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9
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Mandalà M, Merelli B, Massi D. Nras in melanoma: targeting the undruggable target. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2014; 92:107-22. [PMID: 24985059 DOI: 10.1016/j.critrevonc.2014.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2014] [Revised: 05/01/2014] [Accepted: 05/09/2014] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
RAS belongs to the guanosine 5'-triphosphate (GTP)-binding proteins' family, and oncogenic mutations in codons 12, 13, or 61 of RAS family occur in approximately one third of all human cancers with N-RAS mutations found in about 15-20% of melanomas. The importance of RAS signaling as a potential target in cancer is emphasized not only by the prevalence of RAS mutations, but also by the high number of RAS activators and effectors identified in mammalian cells that places the RAS proteins at the crossroads of several, important signaling networks. Ras proteins are crucial crossroads of signaling pathways that link the activation of cell surface receptors with a wide variety of cellular processes leading to the control of proliferation, apoptosis and differentiation. Furthermore, oncogenic ras proteins interfere with metabolism of tumor cells, microenvironment's remodeling, evasion of the immune response, and finally contributes to the metastatic process. After 40 years of basic, translational and clinical research, much is now known about the molecular mechanisms by which these monomeric guanosine triphosphatase-binding proteins promote cellular malignancy, and it is clear that they regulate signaling pathways involved in the control of cell proliferation, survival, and invasiveness. In this review we summarize the biological role of RAS in cancer by focusing our attention on the biological rational and strategies to target RAS in melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Mandalà
- Unit of Medical Oncology, Department of Oncology and Hematology, Papa Giovanni XXIII Hospital, Bergamo, Italy.
| | - Barbara Merelli
- Unit of Medical Oncology, Department of Oncology and Hematology, Papa Giovanni XXIII Hospital, Bergamo, Italy
| | - Daniela Massi
- Division of Pathological Anatomy, Department of Surgery and Translational Medicine, University of Florence, Italy
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10
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Abstract
The rapidly increasing incidence of melanoma, coupled with its highly aggressive metastatic nature, is of urgent concern. In order to design rational therapies, it is of critical importance to identify the genetic determinants that drive melanoma formation and progression. To date, signaling cascades emanating from the EGF receptor, c-MET and other receptors are known to be altered in melanoma. Important mutations in signaling molecules, such as BRAF and N-RAS, have been identified. In this review, some of the major genetic alterations and signaling pathways involved in melanoma will be discussed. Given the great deal of genetic heterogeneity observed in melanoma, it is likely that many more genetic determinants exist. Through the use of powerful genomic technologies, it is now possible to identify these additional genetic alterations in melanoma. A critical step in this analysis will be culling bystanders from functionally important drivers, as this will highlight genetic elements that will be promising therapeutic targets. Such technologies and the important points to consider in understanding the genetics of melanoma will be reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Papia Ghosh
- Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Department of Medical Oncology, 44 Binney Street, Boston, MA 02215, USA, Tel.: +1 617 258 8614, ,
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11
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Abstract
Genomic variation is a trend observed in various human diseases including cancer. Genetic studies have set out to understand how and why these variations result in cancer, why some populations are pre-disposed to the disease, and also how genetics affect drug responses. The melanoma incidence has been increasing at an alarming rate worldwide. The burden posed by melanoma has made it a necessity to understand the fundamental signaling pathways involved in this deadly disease. Signaling cascades such as mitogen-activated protein kinase and PI3K/AKT have been shown to be crucial in the regulation of processes that are commonly dysregulated during cancer development such as aberrant proliferation, loss of cell cycle control, impaired apoptosis, and altered drug metabolism. Understanding how these and other oncogenic pathways are regulated has been integral in our challenge to develop potent anti-melanoma drugs. With advances in technology and especially in next generation sequencing, we have been able to explore melanoma genomes and exomes leading to the identification of previously unknown genes with functions in melanomagenesis such as GRIN2A and PREX2. The therapeutic potential of these novel candidate genes is actively being pursued with some presenting as druggable targets while others serve as indicators of therapeutic responses. In addition, the analysis of the mutational signatures of melanoma tumors continues to cement the causative role of UV exposure in melanoma pathogenesis. It has become distinctly clear that melanomas from sun-exposed skin areas have distinct mutational signatures including C to T transitions indicative of UV-induced damage. It is thus necessary to continue spreading awareness on how to decrease the risk factors of developing the disease while at the same time working for a cure. Given the large amount of information gained from these sequencing studies, it is likely that in the future, treatment of melanoma will follow a highly personalized route that takes into account the differential mutational signatures of each individual’s cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janet Wangari-Talbot
- Susan Lehman Cullman Laboratory for Cancer Research, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey Piscataway, NJ, USA
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12
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13
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Superficial spreading and nodular melanoma are distinct biological entities: a challenge to the linear progression model. Melanoma Res 2012; 22:1-8. [PMID: 22108608 DOI: 10.1097/cmr.0b013e32834e6aa0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The classification of melanoma subtypes into prognostically relevant and therapeutically insightful categories has been a challenge since the first description of melanoma in the 1800s. One limitation has been the assumption that the two most common histological subtypes of melanoma, superficial spreading and nodular, evolve according to a linear model of progression, as malignant melanocytes spread radially and then invade vertically. However, recent clinical, pathological, and molecular data indicate that these two histological subtypes might evolve as distinct entities. Here, we review the published data that support distinct molecular characterization of superficial spreading and nodular melanoma, the clinical significance of this distinction including prognostic relevance and the therapeutic implications.
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14
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Abstract
Melanoma is often considered one of the most aggressive and treatment-resistant human cancers. It is a disease that, due to the presence of melanin pigment, was accurately diagnosed earlier than most other malignancies and that has been subjected to countless therapeutic strategies. Aside from early surgical resection, no therapeutic modality has been found to afford a high likelihood of curative outcome. However, discoveries reported in recent years have revealed a near avalanche of breakthroughs in the melanoma field-breakthroughs that span fundamental understanding of the molecular basis of the disease all the way to new therapeutic strategies that produce unquestionable clinical benefit. These discoveries have been born from the successful fruits of numerous researchers working in many-sometimes-related, although also distinct-biomedical disciplines. Discoveries of frequent mutations involving BRAF(V600E), developmental and oncogenic roles for the microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF) pathway, clinical efficacy of BRAF-targeted small molecules, and emerging mechanisms underlying resistance to targeted therapeutics represent just a sample of the findings that have created a striking inflection in the quest for clinically meaningful progress in the melanoma field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hensin Tsao
- Department of Dermatology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, USA
- The Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, USA
| | - Lynda Chin
- Department of Genomic Medicine, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
| | - Levi A. Garraway
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
| | - David E. Fisher
- Department of Dermatology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, USA
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15
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Abstract
Despite recent advances, the biology underlying nevogenesis remains unclear. Activating mutations in NRAS, HRAS, BRAF, and GNAQ have been identified in benign nevi. Their presence roughly correlates with congenital, Spitz, acquired, and blue nevi, respectively. These mutations are likely to play a critical role in driving nevogenesis. While each mutation is able to activate the MAP kinase pathway, they also interact with a host of different proteins in other pathways. The different melanocytic developmental pathways activated by each mutation cause the cells to migrate, proliferate, and differentiate to different extents within the skin. This causes each mutation to give rise to a characteristic growth pattern. The exact location and differentiation state of the cell of origin for benign moles remains to be discovered. Further research is necessary to fully understand nevus development given that most of the same developmental pathways are also present in melanoma.
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16
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Abstract
The relative risk for melanoma arising within a congenital nevus is related to the size of the lesion. The timing of and clinical presentation of development of melanoma is also related to the size of the lesion. Medical decisions are individualized taking into account the perceived risk of malignancy, psychosocial impact, and anticipated treatment outcome. In this article, the common features of congenital nevi are discussed as well as the potential individual variations and their impact on treatment recommendations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valerie B Lyon
- Department of Dermatology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA.
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17
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Nogueira C, Kim KH, Sung H, Paraiso KHT, Dannenberg JH, Bosenberg M, Chin L, Kim M. Cooperative interactions of PTEN deficiency and RAS activation in melanoma metastasis. Oncogene 2010; 29:6222-32. [PMID: 20711233 PMCID: PMC2989338 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2010.349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and AKT pathways are frequently co-activated in melanoma through overexpression of receptor tyrosine kinases, mutations in their signaling surrogates, such as RAS and BRAF, or loss of negative regulators such as PTEN. As RAS can be a positive upstream regulator of PI3-K, it has been proposed that the loss of PTEN and the activation of RAS are redundant events in melanoma pathogenesis. Here, in genetically engineered mouse models of cutaneous melanomas, we sought to better understand the genetic interactions between HRAS activation and PTEN inactivation in melanoma genesis and progression in vivo. We showed that HRAS activation cooperates with Pten+/- and Ink4a/Arf-/- to increase melanoma penetrance and promote metastasis. Correspondingly, gain- and loss-of-function studies established that Pten loss increases invasion and migration of melanoma cells and non-transformed melanocytes, and such biological activity correlates with a shift to phosphorylation of AKT2 isoform and E-cadherin down-regulation. Thus, Pten inactivation can drive the genesis and promote the metastatic progression of RAS activated Ink4a/Arf deficient melanomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Nogueira
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA
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18
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Abstract
Congenital melanocytic naevi, consisting of clusters of naevo-melanocytes, develop in utero. Although many congenital naevi are visible at birth, some may not become evident until later in life. The timing of naevo-melanocyte proliferation, senescence and melanogenesis may all contribute towards determining when a naevus will become clinically manifest on the skin. Besides the fact that congenital melanocytic naevi may be aesthetically displeasing, resulting in a multitude of psychosocial issues, they also increase the risk for developing cutaneous melanoma, leptomeningeal melanoma, neurocutaneous melanocytosis, malformations of the brain and, rarely, other tumours such as rhabdomyosarcoma and liposarcoma. Whereas the risk of developing malignancy in association with congenital naevi is dependent, to some extent, on the size of the naevus, the risk of developing neurocutaneous melanocytosis correlates best with the number of satellite naevi. Management of patients with congenital melanocytic naevi requires individualization, taking into account the naevus size and location, and the risk of developing cutaneous melanoma or neurocutaneous melanocytosis. When contemplating treatment options, it is important to set realistic expectations and to address the possible aesthetic and functional outcomes, while at the same time addressing the risk for developing cutaneous and/or extracutaneous melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivanka Kovalyshyn
- Dermatology Service, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, USA
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19
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Dovey M, White RM, Zon LI. Oncogenic NRAS cooperates with p53 loss to generate melanoma in zebrafish. Zebrafish 2010; 6:397-404. [PMID: 19954345 DOI: 10.1089/zeb.2009.0606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
NRAS mutations are a common oncogenic event in skin cancer, occurring frequently in congenital nevi and malignant melanoma. To study the role of NRAS in zebrafish, a transgenic approach was applied to generate fish that express human oncogenic NRAS(Q61K) under the control of the melanocyte-restricted mitfa promoter. By screening the progeny of the injected animals, two strains stably expressing the NRAS transgene were identified: Tg(mitfa:EGFP:NRAS(Q61K))(1) and Tg(mitfa:EGFP:NRAS(Q61K))(2). Stable expression of this transgene results in hyperpigmented fish displaying a complete ablation of the normal pigment pattern. Although oncogenic NRAS expression alone was found to be insufficient to promote tumor formation, loss of functional p53 was found to collaborate with NRAS expression in the genesis of melanoma. The tumors derived from these animals are variably pigmented and closely resemble human melanoma. Underscoring the pathological similarities between these tumors and human disease and suggesting that common pathways are similar in these models and human disease, gene set enrichment analysis performed on microarray data found that the upregulated genes from zebrafish melanomas are highly enriched in human tumor samples. This work characterizes two zebrafish melanoma models that will be useful tools for the study of melanoma pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Dovey
- Stem Cell Program and Hematology/Oncology, Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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20
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Martorell-Calatayud A, Requena C, Botella-Estrada R, Sangüeza O. Novedades en biología molecular y su aplicación en el diagnóstico y el tratamiento del melanoma. ACTAS DERMO-SIFILIOGRAFICAS 2009; 100 Suppl 1:52-65. [DOI: 10.1016/s0001-7310(09)73168-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
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21
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Berger MF, Garraway LA. Applications of genomics in melanoma oncogene discovery. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 2009; 23:397-414, vii. [PMID: 19464593 DOI: 10.1016/j.hoc.2009.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
The identification of recurrent alterations in the melanoma genome has provided key insights into the biology of melanoma genesis and progression. These discoveries have come about as a result of the systematic deployment and integration of diverse genomic technologies, including DNA sequencing, chromosomal copy number analysis, and gene expression profiling. Here, the discoveries of several key melanoma oncogenes affecting critical cell pathways are described and the role played by evolving genomics technologies in melanoma oncogene discovery is examined. These advances are being exploited to improve prognosis and treatment of melanoma patients through the development of genome-based diagnostic and targeted therapeutic avenues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael F Berger
- The Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, 7 Cambridge Center, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
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Abstract
The skin is the largest organ of the body and protects the organism against external physical, chemical and biological insults, such as wounding, ultraviolet radiation and micro-organisms. The epidermis is the upper part of the skin that is continuously renewed. The keratinocytes are the major cell type in the epidermis and undergo a specialized form of programmed cell death, called cornification, which is different from classical apoptosis. In keep with this view, several lines of evidence indicate that NF-kB is an important factor providing protection against keratinocyte apoptosis in homeostatic and inflammatory conditions. In contrast, the hair follicle is an epidermal appendage that shows cyclic apoptosis-driven involution, as part of the normal hair cycle. The different cell death programs need to be well orchestrated to maintain skin homeostasis. One of the major environmental insults to the skin is UVB radiation, causing the occurrence of apoptotic sunburn cells. Deregulation of cell death mechanisms in the skin can lead to diseases such as cancer, necrolysis and graft-versus-host disease. Here we review the apoptotic and the anti-apoptotic mechanisms in skin homeostasis and disease.
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Zigler M, Villares GJ, Lev DC, Melnikova VO, Bar-Eli M. Tumor immunotherapy in melanoma: strategies for overcoming mechanisms of resistance and escape. Am J Clin Dermatol 2009; 9:307-11. [PMID: 18717605 DOI: 10.2165/00128071-200809050-00004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
The incidence of melanoma has been steadily increasing over the last 3 decades. Currently, there are several approved treatments for metastatic melanoma, including chemotherapy and biologic therapy as both single treatments and in combination, but none is associated with a significant increase in survival. The chemotherapeutic agent dacarbazine is the standard treatment for metastatic melanoma, with a response rate of 15-20%, although most responses are not sustained. One of the main problems with melanoma treatment is chemotherapeutic resistance. The mechanisms of resistance of melanoma cells to chemotherapy have yet to be elucidated. Following treatment with dacarbazine, melanoma cells activate the extracellular signal-regulated kinase pathway, which results in over-expression and secretion of interleukin (IL)-8 and vascular endothelial growth factor. Melanoma cells utilize this mechanism to escape from the cytotoxic effect of the drug. We have previously reported on the development of fully human neutralizing antibodies against IL-8 (anti-IL-8-monoclonal-antibody [ABX-IL8]). In preclinical studies, ABX-IL8 inhibited tumor growth, angiogenesis, and metastasis of human melanoma in vivo. We propose that combination treatment with dacarbazine and IL-8 will potentiate the cytotoxic effect of the drug. Furthermore, formation of metastasis is a multistep process that includes melanoma cell adhesion to endothelial cells. Melanoma cell adhesion molecule (MUC18) mediates these processes in melanoma and is therefore a good target for eliminating metastasis. We have developed a fully human antibody against MUC18 that has shown promising results in preclinical studies. Since resistance is one of the major obstacles in the treatment of melanoma, we propose that utilization of antibodies against IL-8 or MUC18 alone, or as part of a 'cocktail' in combination with dacarbazine, may be a new treatment modality for metastatic melanoma that overcomes resistance of the disease to chemotherapy and significantly improves survival of patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya Zigler
- Department of Cancer Biology, University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA
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Pons M, Mancheño-Corvo P, Martín-Duque P, Quintanilla M. Molecular Biology of Malignant Melanoma. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2009; 624:252-64. [DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-77574-6_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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Abstract
Malignant melanoma originates in melanocytes, the pigment-producing cells of the skin and eye, and is one of the most deadly human cancers with no effective cure for metastatic disease. Like many other cancers, melanoma has both environmental and genetic components. For more than 20 years, the melanoma genome has been subject to extensive scrutiny, which has led to the identification of several genes that contribute to melanoma genesis and progression. Three molecular pathways have been found to be nearly invariably dysregulated in melanocytic tumors, including the RAS-RAF-MEK-ERK pathway (through mutation of BRAF, NRAS or KIT), the p16 INK4A-CDK4-RB pathway (through mutation of INK4A or CDK4) and the ARF-p53 pathway (through mutation of ARF or TP53). Less frequently targeted pathways include the PI3K-AKT pathway (through mutation of NRAS, PTEN or PIK3CA) and the canonical Wnt signaling pathway (through mutation of CTNNB1 or APC). Beyond the specific and well-characterized genetic events leading to activation of proto-oncogenes or inactivation of tumor suppressor genes in these pathways, systematic high-resolution genomic analysis of melanoma specimens has revealed recurrent DNA copy number aberrations as well as perturbations of DNA methylation patterns. Melanoma provides one of the best examples of how genomic analysis can lead to a better understanding of tumor biology. We review current knowledge of the genes involved in the development of melanoma and the molecular pathways in which these genes operate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Dahl
- Institute of Cancer Biology, Danish Cancer Society, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Kwong L, Chin L, Wagner SN. Growth factors and oncogenes as targets in melanoma: lost in translation? ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 23:99-129. [PMID: 18159898 DOI: 10.1016/j.yadr.2007.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Lawrence Kwong
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, 44 Binney Street, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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Platz A, Egyhazi S, Ringborg U, Hansson J. Human cutaneous melanoma; a review of NRAS and BRAF mutation frequencies in relation to histogenetic subclass and body site. Mol Oncol 2007; 1:395-405. [PMID: 19383313 DOI: 10.1016/j.molonc.2007.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 190] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2007] [Revised: 12/17/2007] [Accepted: 12/19/2007] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
A majority of cutaneous melanomas show activating mutations in the NRAS or BRAF proto-oncogenes, components of the Ras-Raf-Mek-Erk signal transduction pathway. Consistent data demonstrate the early appearance, in a mutually exclusive manner, of these mutations. The purpose of this paper is to summarize the literature on NRAS and BRAF activating mutations in melanoma tumors with respect to available data on histogenetic classification as well as body site and presumed UV-exposure. Common alterations of the signal transducing network seem to represent molecular hallmarks of cutaneous melanomas and therefore should continue to strongly stimulate design and testing of targeted molecular interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anton Platz
- Department of Oncology-Pathology, Karolinska Institute, Cancer Centre Karolinska, Karolinska University Hospital Solna, Stockholm S-17176, Sweden
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Abstract
Interactions between death receptors from the tumor necrosis factor superfamily and their ligands play a crucial role in the development and the integrity of the epidermis. The major consequence resulting from death receptor targeting is apoptosis. Evidence for dysregulation of death receptor signaling associated with the pathogenesis of selected cutaneous diseases, including toxic epidermal necrolysis, graft versus host disease, and skin cancer, are reviewed herein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Contassot
- Department of Dermatology, Zurich University Hospital, Gloriastrasse 31, 8091 Zürich, Switzerland
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Prieto VG, Mourad-Zeidan AA, Melnikova V, Johnson MM, Lopez A, Diwan AH, Lazar AJF, Shen SS, Zhang PS, Reed JA, Gershenwald JE, Raz A, Bar-Eli M. Galectin-3 expression is associated with tumor progression and pattern of sun exposure in melanoma. Clin Cancer Res 2006; 12:6709-15. [PMID: 17121890 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-06-0758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Most studies accept a multistep pathogenic process in melanoma that may include the phases of benign nevi and dysplastic nevi, melanoma, and metastatic melanoma. Dysregulation of cellular proliferation and apoptosis is probably involved in melanoma progression and response to therapy. We have studied the expression of galectin-3, a beta-galactoside-binding protein involved in apoptosis, angiogenesis, and cell proliferation, in a large series of melanocytic lesions, and correlated the expression with clinical and histologic features. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Tissue microarray blocks of 94 melanocytic lesions were semiquantitatively evaluated by immunohistochemistry for the cytoplasmic or nuclear expression of galectin-3. RESULTS Primary and metastatic melanomas expressed galectin-3 at a significantly higher level than nevi in both cytoplasm and nuclei (P<0.0073). There was a significant association between anatomic source (as indirect indication of level of sun-exposure) and cytoplasmic and nuclear expression. Lymph node and visceral metastases had a higher level of expression than s.c. lesions (P<0.004). Interestingly, there was an almost significant finding of worse survival in those patients with lesions showing higher levels of cytoplasmic than nuclear galectin-3 expression (log-rank test, P=0.06). CONCLUSIONS Melanocytes accumulate galectin-3 with tumor progression, particularly in the nucleus. The strong association of cytoplasmic and nuclear expression in lesions of sun-exposed areas suggests an involvement of UV light in activation of galectin-3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor G Prieto
- Department of Pathology, The University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, The Methodist Hospital, Houston 77030, USA.
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Abstract
Cell for cell, probably no human cancer is as aggressive as melanoma. It is among a handful of cancers whose dimensions are reported in millimeters. Tumor thickness approaching 4 mm presents a high risk of metastasis, and a diagnosis of metastatic melanoma carries with it an abysmal median survival of 6-9 mo. What features of this malignancy account for such aggressive behavior? Is it the migratory history of its cell of origin or the programmed adaptation of its differentiated progeny to environmental stress, particularly ultraviolet radiation? While the answers to these questions are far from complete, major strides have been made in our understanding of the cellular, molecular, and genetic underpinnings of melanoma. More importantly, these discoveries carry profound implications for the development of therapies focused directly at the molecular engines driving melanoma, suggesting that we may have reached the brink of an unprecedented opportunity to translate basic science into clinical advances. In this review, we attempt to summarize our current understanding of the genetics and biology of this disease, drawing from expanding genomic information and lessons from development and genetically engineered mouse models. In addition, we look forward toward how these new insights will impact on therapeutic options for metastatic melanoma in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lynda Chin
- Melanoma Program, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA.
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Papp T, Schipper H, Kumar K, Schiffmann D, Zimmermann R. Mutational analysis of the BRAF gene in human congenital and dysplastic melanocytic naevi. Melanoma Res 2006; 15:401-7. [PMID: 16179867 DOI: 10.1097/00008390-200510000-00008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Eighteen congenital melanocytic naevi (CMN) from 17 patients and 18 dysplastic melanocytic naevi (DMN) from 18 patients were screened for mutations in the BRAF oncogene (present study) and the N-ras oncogene (in the course of two foregoing studies) by single-strand conformational polymorphism (SSCP)/sequencing analysis. BRAF mutations were demonstrated in both types of lesion. As a whole, 17 of 18 CMN (94.4%) and five of 18 DMN (27.7%) harboured either BRAF or N-ras mutations. As the BRAF oncogene is frequently found to be mutated in human cutaneous melanomas, it may constitute a risk factor for melanoma formation within CMN and DMN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thilo Papp
- Department of Biological Sciences, Institute of Cell Biology and Biosystem Technology, Rostock, Germany.
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Zhuang L, Lee CS, Scolyer RA, McCarthy SW, Palmer AA, Zhang XD, Thompson JF, Bron LP, Hersey P. Activation of the extracellular signal regulated kinase (ERK) pathway in human melanoma. J Clin Pathol 2005; 58:1163-9. [PMID: 16254105 PMCID: PMC1770768 DOI: 10.1136/jcp.2005.025957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/29/2005] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Several studies suggest that melanoma may be resistant to treatment because of resistance to apoptosis and that this may be the result of activation of the extracellular signal regulated kinase (ERK1/2) pathway. AIMS To test this hypothesis by examining the expression of ERK1/2 and its activated form in histological sections of melanoma and its relation to known prognostic features of the disease. MATERIALS/METHODS Immunohistochemistry with antibodies to ERK1/2 and phosphorylated ERK (p-ERK) was performed on formalin fixed sections from 42 primary melanomas, 38 metastases, and 20 naevi. Fourteen of the primary melanomas were in the radial and 28 in the vertical growth phase. RESULTS ERK1/2 was widely expressed (100%) in all the (pigmented) lesions studied. p-ERK1/2 expression was much lower in compound (32.4%) and dysplastic (54.5%) naevi than in primary melanoma (nodular 78.8%, superficial spreading 67%) and subcutaneous metastases (76.3%). p-ERK expression was much lower in lymph node metastases (48.5%), suggesting that the microenvironment may influence the activation of ERK. There was a (non-significant) trend for p-ERK expression to be higher in thick (>1.0 mm) versus thin (< or =1.0 mm) melanoma (p = 0.23). There was a trend for overall survival to be related to p-ERK expression in patients with melanoma over 1 mm in thickness. CONCLUSIONS Expression of activated ERK1/2 in melanocytic lesions appears to be related to malignant potential so that activation of ERK1/2 may be important in melanoma progression. These results provide important histological support for the proposal that inhibition of this signalling pathway may be useful in treatment of melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Zhuang
- Department of Anatomic Pathology, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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Demierre MF, Sondak VK. Cutaneous melanoma: pathogenesis and rationale for chemoprevention. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2005; 53:225-39. [PMID: 15718148 DOI: 10.1016/j.critrevonc.2004.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/04/2004] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To critically review aspects of melanoma pathogenesis that lend themselves to a chemoprevention strategy. To discuss potential candidate chemoprevention agents with an emphasis on the lipid lowering drugs, the statins, currently, the most promising agents. DATA SOURCES A retrospective review of the literature. STUDY SELECTION Studies included those relevant to melanoma pathogenesis, to the scientific rationale of chemoprevention, and pertinent epidemiologic, pre-clinical, and clinical studies. The referenced study designs and methodologies varied. DATA EXTRACTION AND SYNTHESIS Data were extracted by two reviewers, and the main results are presented in a quantitative descriptive manner. CONCLUSION Melanoma is a preventable disease by altering behavior (sun exposure) among at-risk individuals. There is also considerable evidence to suggest that melanoma development may be prevented or delayed by drugs of sufficiently low toxicity to make clinical trials of chemoprevention feasible and potentially successful. Among potential candidate agents, statins have compelling data for long-term safety and sufficient pre-clinical and clinical evidence for efficacy to justify their evaluation in well-designed trials in high-risk individuals, incorporating intermediate biologic endpoints.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-France Demierre
- Department of Dermatology, Skin Oncology Program, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston Medical Center, 720 Harrison Ave-DOB 801A, Boston, MA 02118, USA.
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Garraway LA, Widlund HR, Rubin MA, Getz G, Berger AJ, Ramaswamy S, Beroukhim R, Milner DA, Granter SR, Du J, Lee C, Wagner SN, Li C, Golub TR, Rimm DL, Meyerson ML, Fisher DE, Sellers WR. Integrative genomic analyses identify MITF as a lineage survival oncogene amplified in malignant melanoma. Nature 2005; 436:117-22. [PMID: 16001072 DOI: 10.1038/nature03664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1087] [Impact Index Per Article: 57.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2004] [Accepted: 04/19/2005] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Systematic analyses of cancer genomes promise to unveil patterns of genetic alterations linked to the genesis and spread of human cancers. High-density single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) arrays enable detailed and genome-wide identification of both loss-of-heterozygosity events and copy-number alterations in cancer. Here, by integrating SNP array-based genetic maps with gene expression signatures derived from NCI60 cell lines, we identified the melanocyte master regulator MITF (microphthalmia-associated transcription factor) as the target of a novel melanoma amplification. We found that MITF amplification was more prevalent in metastatic disease and correlated with decreased overall patient survival. BRAF mutation and p16 inactivation accompanied MITF amplification in melanoma cell lines. Ectopic MITF expression in conjunction with the BRAF(V600E) mutant transformed primary human melanocytes, and thus MITF can function as a melanoma oncogene. Reduction of MITF activity sensitizes melanoma cells to chemotherapeutic agents. Targeting MITF in combination with BRAF or cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors may offer a rational therapeutic avenue into melanoma, a highly chemotherapy-resistant neoplasm. Together, these data suggest that MITF represents a distinct class of 'lineage survival' or 'lineage addiction' oncogenes required for both tissue-specific cancer development and tumour progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Levi A Garraway
- Department of Medical Oncology, and Melanoma Program in Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, 44 Binney Street, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
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Lev DC, Onn A, Melinkova VO, Miller C, Stone V, Ruiz M, McGary EC, Ananthaswamy HN, Price JE, Bar-Eli M. Exposure of melanoma cells to dacarbazine results in enhanced tumor growth and metastasis in vivo. J Clin Oncol 2004; 22:2092-100. [PMID: 15123733 DOI: 10.1200/jco.2004.11.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE In recent years, the incidence of cutaneous melanoma has increased more than that of any other cancer. Dacarbazine is considered the gold standard for treatment, having a response rate of 15% to 20%, but most responses are not sustained. Previously, we have shown that short exposure of primary cutaneous melanoma cells to dacarbazine resulted in the upregulation of interleukin-8 (IL-8) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). The purpose of the present study was to determine how long-term exposure of melanoma cells to dacarbazine would affect their tumorigenic and metastatic potential in vivo. MATERIALS AND METHODS The primary cutaneous melanoma cell lines SB2 and MeWo were repeatedly exposed in vitro to increasing concentrations of dacarbazine, and dacarbazine-resistant cell lines SB2-D and MeWo-D were selected and examined for their ability to grow and metastasize in nude mice. RESULTS The dacarbazine-resistant cell lines SB2-D and MeWo-D exhibited increased tumor growth and metastatic behavior in vivo. This increase could be explained by the activation of RAF, MEK, and ERK, which led to the upregulation of IL-8 and VEGF. More IL-8, VEGF, matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2), and microvessel density (CD-31) were found in tumors produced by SB2-D and MeWo-D in vivo than in those produced by their parental counterparts. No mutations were observed in BRAF. CONCLUSION Our results have significant clinical implications. Treatment of melanoma patients with dacarbazine could select for a more aggressive melanoma phenotype. We propose that combination treatment with anti-VEGF/IL-8 or MEK inhibitors may potentiate the therapeutic effects of dacarbazine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dina Chelouche Lev
- Department of Cancer Biology, The University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Unit 0173, 7777 Knight Rd, Houston, TX 77054, USA
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Melnikova VO, Bolshakov SV, Walker C, Ananthaswamy HN. Genomic alterations in spontaneous and carcinogen-induced murine melanoma cell lines. Oncogene 2004; 23:2347-56. [PMID: 14743208 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1207405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
We have conducted an analysis of genetic alterations in spontaneous murine melanoma cell line B16F0 and its two metastatic clones, B16F1 and B16F10 and the carcinogen-induced murine melanoma cell lines CM519, CM3205, and K1735. We found that unlike human melanomas, the murine melanoma cell lines did not have activating mutations in the Braf oncogene at exon 11 or 15. However, there were distinct patterns of alterations in the ras, Ink4a/Arf, and p53 genes in the two melanoma groups. In the spontaneous B16 melanoma cell lines, expression of p16Ink4a and p19Arf tumor suppressor proteins was lost as a consequence of a large deletion spanning Ink4a/Arf exons 1alpha, 1beta, and 2. In contrast, the carcinogen-induced melanoma cell lines expressed p16Ink4a but had inactivating mutations in either p19Arf (K1735) or p53 (CM519 and CM3205). Inactivation of p19Arf or p53 in carcinogen-induced melanomas was accompanied by constitutive activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and/or mutation-associated activation of N-ras. These results indicate that genetic alterations in p16Ink4a/p19Arf, p53 and ras-MAPK pathways can cooperate in the development of murine melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladislava O Melnikova
- Department of Immunology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, PO Box 301402, Unit 902, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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Abstract
Therapeutic resistance and proclivity for metastasis are hallmarks of malignant melanoma. Genetic, epidemiological and genomic investigations are uncovering the spectrum of stereotypical mutations that are associated with melanoma and how these mutations relate to risk factors such as ultraviolet exposure. The ability to validate the pathogenetic relevance of these mutations in the mouse, coupled with advances in rational drug design, has generated optimism for the development of effective prevention programmes, diagnostic measures and targeted therapeutics in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lynda Chin
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA.
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Eskandarpour M, Hashemi J, Kanter L, Ringborg U, Platz A, Hansson J. Frequency of UV-inducible NRAS mutations in melanomas of patients with germline CDKN2A mutations. J Natl Cancer Inst 2003; 95:790-8. [PMID: 12783933 DOI: 10.1093/jnci/95.11.790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Germline alterations in cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 2A (CDKN2A) are important genetic factors in familial predisposition to melanoma. Activating mutations of the NRAS proto-oncogene are among the most common somatic genetic alterations in cutaneous malignant melanomas. We investigated the occurrence of NRAS mutations in melanomas and dysplastic nevi in individuals with germline CDKN2A mutations. METHODS Genomic DNA was extracted from 39 biopsy samples (including primary melanomas, metastatic melanomas, and dysplastic nevi) from 25 patients in six Swedish families with a hereditary predisposition to melanoma who carried germline CDKN2A mutations. DNA was also extracted from 10 biopsy samples from patients with sporadic melanomas. NRAS was analyzed using polymerase chain reaction, single-strand conformation polymorphism analysis, and nucleotide sequence analysis. Differences in NRAS mutation frequency between hereditary and sporadic melanomas were analyzed by the chi-square test. All statistical tests were two-sided. RESULTS Activating mutations in NRAS codon 61, all of which were either CAA(Gln)-AAA(Lys) or CAA(Gln)-CGA(Arg) mutations, were found in 95% (20/21) of primary hereditary melanomas but in only 10% (1/10) of sporadic melanomas (P<.001). Multiple activating NRAS mutations were detected in tumor cells from different regions of individual primary melanomas in nine patients. Activating mutations that were detected in the primary melanomas of these patients were also retained in their metastases. NRAS mutations at sites other than codon 61 were also present in the primary melanomas, indicating genetic instability of this locus. NRAS codon 61 mutations were also detected in dysplastic nevi and in an in situ melanoma, suggesting a role for such mutations during early melanoma development. CONCLUSIONS The high frequency of NRAS codon 61 mutations detected in these hereditary melanomas may be the result of a hypermutability phenotype associated with a hereditary predisposition for melanoma development in patients with germline CDKN2A mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malihe Eskandarpour
- Department of Oncology-Pathology, Cancer Center Karolinska, Karolinska Hospital and Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
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Mayr B, Schaffner G, Reifinger M, Zwetkoff S, Prodinger B. N-ras mutations in canine malignant melanomas. Vet J 2003; 165:169-71. [PMID: 12573607 DOI: 10.1016/s1090-0233(02)00245-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- B Mayr
- Institute for Animal Breeding and Genetics, Veterinary University, Veterinärplatz 1, A-1210 Vienna, Austria.
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Kortylewski M, Heinrich PC, Mackiewicz A, Behrmann I. Cytokine-mediated growth inhibition of human melanoma cells. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2002; 495:169-72. [PMID: 11774562 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4615-0685-0_22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/23/2023]
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Popp S, Waltering S, Herbst C, Moll I, Boukamp P. UV-B-type mutations and chromosomal imbalances indicate common pathways for the development of Merkel and skin squamous cell carcinomas. Int J Cancer 2002; 99:352-60. [PMID: 11992403 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.10321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 154] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Two developmentally highly divergent nonmelanoma skin cancers, the epidermal squamous cell carcinomas (SCC) and the neuroendocrine Merkel cell carcinomas (MCC), occur late in life at sun-exposed body sites. To determine whether these similarities may indicate common genetic alterations, we studied the genetic profile of 10 MCCs and analyzed 6 derived cell lines and 5 skin SCC lines by comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) and molecular genetic analyses. Although the MCCs were highly divergent-only 3 of the 10 tumors exhibited common gains and losses-they shared gain of 8q21-q22 and loss of 4p15-pter with the genetically much more homogeneous SCC lines. In addition, 2 of 5 SCC and 2 of 6 MCC lines exhibited UV-B-type-specific mutations in the p53 tumor-suppressor gene and a high frequency (9/11) of CC-->TT double base changes in codon 27 of the Harvey (Ha)-ras gene. Since 45% of the tumor lines were homozygous for this nucleotide substitution compared to 14% of the controls and in 1 MCC patient the wild-type allele was lost in the tumor, this novel polymorphism may contribute to tumor development. On the other hand, loss of 3p, characteristic for SCCs, was rare in MCCs. Although in 2 of 3 SCC lines 3p loss was correlated with reduced expression of the FHIT (fragile histidine triad) gene, the potential tumor suppressor mapped to 3p14.2 and 2 MCC lines with normal 3p showed aberrant or no FHIT transcripts. Taken together, in addition to the common UV-B-specific mutations in the p53 and Ha-ras gene, MCCs and SCCs also share chromosomal imbalances that may point to a common environmental-derived (e.g., UV-A) oxidative damage.
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MESH Headings
- Aged
- Aged, 80 and over
- Blotting, Southern
- Carcinoma, Merkel Cell/etiology
- Carcinoma, Merkel Cell/genetics
- Carcinoma, Squamous Cell/etiology
- Carcinoma, Squamous Cell/genetics
- Chromosome Aberrations
- Chromosome Mapping
- Chromosomes, Human, Pair 4
- Chromosomes, Human, Pair 8
- Cyclin-Dependent Kinase Inhibitor p16/genetics
- Exons
- Female
- Genes, p53/genetics
- Genes, ras/genetics
- Homozygote
- Humans
- Male
- Mutation
- Neoplasms, Radiation-Induced
- Nucleic Acid Hybridization
- Oxygen/metabolism
- Polymorphism, Genetic
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Sequence Analysis, DNA
- Skin Neoplasms/etiology
- Skin Neoplasms/genetics
- Tumor Cells, Cultured
- Ultraviolet Rays
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne Popp
- Division of Genetics of Skin Carcinogenesis, Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum, Heidelberg, Germany
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42
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Abstract
Death receptors are a subgroup of TNF-receptor family members that can trigger caspase-8 activation and apoptosis upon interaction with their selective ligands. One of the death receptors, Fas (CD95) and its ligand is critically involved in the regulation of immune homeostasis and effectorfunction. Fas-mediated cell death is a major pathway of cytolytic T-cell-mediated death that is involved in specific killing of tumor cells. Recent investigations summarized herein have shown that defective Fas-signaling due to receptor downregulation or dysfunction, or intracellular inhibition by FLIP (FLICE inhibitory protein) can interfere with Fas-mediated tumor cell death, and thereby favor tumor immune escape.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars E French
- Department of Dermatology, Geneva University Hospital, Switzerland
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43
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Abstract
At the doses used clinically, chemotherapy is believed to kill melanoma by a final common 'mitochondrial' pathway that leads to apoptosis. Similarly, several natural defence mechanisms kill melanoma by the same pathways. A corollary to the latter is that survival of melanoma in the host is due to the development of anti-apoptotic mechanisms in melanoma cells. What are these mechanisms? And how might we bypass them to improve the treatment of melanoma?
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Affiliation(s)
- P Hersey
- Immunology and Oncology Unit, Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia.
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44
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Kortylewski M, Heinrich PC, Kauffmann ME, Böhm M, MacKiewicz A, Behrmann I. Mitogen-activated protein kinases control p27/Kip1 expression and growth of human melanoma cells. Biochem J 2001; 357:297-303. [PMID: 11415463 PMCID: PMC1221955 DOI: 10.1042/0264-6021:3570297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK)1 and ERK2, involved in regulating cell growth and differentiation, are constitutively active in A375 and WM239 human melanoma cells. Using PD098059, an inhibitor of MAPK kinase (MEK), we investigated the role of persistently activated ERK1/2 in cell growth. The inhibition of MAPK activity induced a dose-dependent growth arrest in G(0)/G(1) phase. Correspondingly, we observed the up-regulation of the cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk) inhibitor p27/Kip1 and hypophosphorylation of the retinoblastoma protein. Further studies showed that PD098059 treatment significantly decreased Cdk2 kinase activity, most probably owing to an augmented level of p27/Kip1 associated with cyclin E-Cdk2 complexes. The accumulation of p27/Kip1 protein in A375 cells was attributed to its increased stability. Our findings suggest that constitutively active ERK1/2 kinases contribute to the growth of melanoma cells by negative regulation of the p27/Kip1 inhibitor.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Kortylewski
- Department of Biochemistry, RWTH Aachen, Pauwelsstrasse 30, 52074 Aachen, Germany
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45
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Abstract
The frequent loss of the INK4a/ARF locus, encoding for both p16(INK4a)and p19(ARF)in human melanoma, raises the question as to which INK4a/ARF gene product functions to suppress melanoma-genesis in vivo. Studies in the mouse have shown that activated RAS mutation can cooperate with INK4a(Delta 2/3)deficiency (null for both p16(INK4a)and p19(ARF)) to promote development of melanoma, and these melanomas retain wild-type p53. Given the functional link between p19(ARF)and p53, we have now shown that activated RAS can also cooperate with p53 deficiency to produce melanoma in the mouse. Moreover, genome-wide analysis of RAS-induced p53 mutant melanomas reveals alterations of key components governing RB-regulated G1/S transition, such as c-Myc. These experimental findings suggest that both RB and p53 pathways function to suppress melanocyte transformation in vivo in the mouse.
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Affiliation(s)
- F C Yang
- Department of Adult Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, 44 Binney Street, Mayer 448, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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46
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Abstract
Recent advancement in the research of malignant melanoma is reviewed. Among many gene alterations detected in human melanoma, defect of CDKN2A located at chromosome 9p21 seems to be most important in the earlier developmental phase, though significance of this gene in the evolution of melanoma in situ has not been confirmed yet. Deletions of PTEN/MMAC1 on 10q23.3 and AIM1 on 6q21 as well as mutations of ras gene are involved in the later progression stages of melanoma. Adhesion molecules relevant to development and progression of melanoma have been intensely investigated in recent years, revealing crucial roles of cadherins and alpha(v)beta(3) integrin in the biologic behaviors of melanoma cells. Melanoma is characterized by extremely high potential of developing metastases. Dynamic changes of matrix metalloproteinase activity during invasion and movement of melanoma cells may be a major concern in this field. Fragility of blood vessels in melanoma lesions is another important point related to hematogeneous metastases. Acral lentiginous melanoma is a unique subtype of melanoma, because, in contrast to other subtypes, ultraviolet irradiation is not a major factor in its development. Investigation of pathogenesis of acral lentiginous melanoma surely provides us with new information about mechanism of melanocyte transformation. Recent advances in the management of malignant melanoma are also briefly reviewed, such as biochemotherapy, immunotherapy, and gene therapy. Finally, the concept of molecular classification of melanoma by gene expression profile is introduced, which possibly enables us to give the tailor-made therapy for each melanoma patient in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Saida
- Department of Dermatology, Shinshu University School of Medicine, 3-1-1 Asahi, 390-8621, Matsumoto, Japan.
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47
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Bardeesy N, Wong KK, DePinho RA, Chin L. Animal models of melanoma: recent advances and future prospects. Adv Cancer Res 2000; 79:123-56. [PMID: 10818679 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-230x(00)79004-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
MESH Headings
- Animals
- Cell Cycle Proteins/genetics
- Cell Cycle Proteins/physiology
- Chromosomes, Human, Pair 9/genetics
- Cricetinae
- Cyprinodontiformes
- Disease Progression
- Forecasting
- Genes, p16
- Genes, ras
- Growth Substances/physiology
- Humans
- Loss of Heterozygosity
- Melanocytes/metabolism
- Melanocytes/pathology
- Melanoma, Experimental/epidemiology
- Melanoma, Experimental/genetics
- Melanoma, Experimental/metabolism
- Melanoma, Experimental/pathology
- Mesocricetus
- Mice
- Mice, Transgenic
- Mutation
- Neoplasm Proteins/genetics
- Neoplasm Proteins/physiology
- Neoplasms, Radiation-Induced/epidemiology
- Neoplasms, Radiation-Induced/genetics
- Opossums
- Proteins/genetics
- Receptor Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/genetics
- Receptor Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/physiology
- Receptors, Growth Factor/genetics
- Receptors, Growth Factor/physiology
- Species Specificity
- Tumor Suppressor Protein p14ARF
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Affiliation(s)
- N Bardeesy
- Department of Adult Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA
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48
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Wehrli P, Viard I, Bullani R, Tschopp J, French LE. Death receptors in cutaneous biology and disease. J Invest Dermatol 2000; 115:141-8. [PMID: 10951228 DOI: 10.1046/j.1523-1747.2000.00037.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Death receptors are a growing family of transmembrane proteins that can detect the presence of specific extracellular death signals and rapidly trigger cellular destruction by apoptosis. Expression and signaling by death receptors and their respective ligands is a tightly regulated process essential for key physiologic functions in a variety of organs, including the skin. Several death receptors and ligands, Fas and Fas ligand being the most important to date, are expressed in the skin and have proven to be essential in contributing to its functional integrity. Recent evidence has shown that Fas-induced keratinocyte apoptosis in response to ultraviolet light, prevents the accumulation of pro-carcinogenic p53 mutations by deleting ultraviolet-mutated keratinocytes. Further- more, there is strong evidence that dysregulation of Fas expression and/or signaling contributes to the pathogenesis of toxic epidermal necrolysis, acute cutaneous graft versus host disease, contact hypersensitivity and melanoma metastasis. With these new developments, strategies for modulating the function of death receptor signaling pathways have emerged and provided novel therapeutic possibilities. Specific blockade of Fas, for example with intravenous immunoglobulin preparations that contain specific anti-Fas antibodies, has shown great promise in the treatment of toxic epidermal necrolysis and may also be useful in the treatment acute graft versus host disease. Likewise, induction of death signaling by ultraviolet light can lead to hapten-specific tolerance, and gene transfer of Fas ligand to dendritic cells can be used to induce antigen specific tolerance by deleting antigen-specific T cells. Further developments in this field may have important clinical implications in cutaneous disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Wehrli
- Department of Dermatology, Geneva University Medical School, Geneva, Switzerland
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49
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Shellman YG, Chapman JT, Fujita M, Norris DA, Maxwell IH. Expression of activated N-ras in a primary melanoma cell line counteracts growth inhibition by transforming growth factor-beta. J Invest Dermatol 2000; 114:1200-4. [PMID: 10844567 DOI: 10.1046/j.1523-1747.2000.00988.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
One critical factor in melanoma progression is the change from radial growth phase to vertical growth phase. We previously showed a high incidence of ras mutations in progressing but not early human melanomas. We also found that stable expression of activated Ras in a primary human melanoma cell line (WM35) led to enhanced proliferation, anchorage-independent survival, migration and invasion in vitro and enhanced subcutaneous tumor formation in vivo, transforming the melanoma phenotype from the radial growth phase to the vertical growth phase. Inhibitory cytokines, especially transforming growth factor-beta, are important in homeostasis of normal human melanocytes. Proliferation of early melanoma cells can be inhibited by transforming growth factor-beta, whereas more aggressive stages lose this response. Using a transforming growth factor-beta activated luciferase reporter transiently transfected into WM35, WM35N-ras, and WM35H-ras (WM35 transfected with mutant N-ras or H-ras genes), we demonstrated significant decreases (p < 0. 04) in transforming growth factor-beta induced reporter expression in both ras transfected cell lines. Transforming growth factor-beta also induced significant decreases (p < 0.002) in the proportion of WM35 cells in S-phase of the cell cycle; this effect was not observed in WM35N-ras cells. Furthermore, we demonstrated that an important controlling factor in transforming growth factor-beta inhibition of cell cycle progression, the phosphorylation of the Rb protein, was altered in WM35N-ras; transforming growth factor-beta caused a marked relative increase in hypophosphorylated pRb in WM35 cells, but not in WM35N-ras. These data suggest that activated Ras plays an important part in melanoma progression from the radial growth phase to the vertical growth phase by counteracting inhibition by cytokines such as transforming growth factor-beta, thus providing a growth advantage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y G Shellman
- Department of Dermatology and University of Colorado Cancer Center, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Denver 80262, USA
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50
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Affiliation(s)
- L Chin
- Department of Dermatology, Harvard Medical School, Department of Adult Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, 44 Binney Street, M413 Boston, Massachusetts, MA 02115, USA
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