The relationship between body shape satisfaction and self-esteem: An investigation of gender and class differences

DETECTION OF EATING DISORDERS IN MALE AND FEMALE ARTISTIC GYMNASTS

The purpose of this study was to investigate the trend of eating disorders in competitive male and female artistic gymnasts. The study involved 23 male and 42 female gymnasts, aged 7-27, from sports clubs throughout Greece. The EAT-26 Diet Attitudes scale was used to investigate participants' eating habits. The data collection process included communication with sports organizations throughout Greece on the content and purpose of the research. After consultation, the questionnaire was due to the COVID-19 pandemic provided in an electronic form and also included the consent form for participation in the research. The results of the study indicated that eleven of the sixty-five gymnasts had a total score of >20 on the EAT-26, a rate higher among female gymnasts (~ 24%) compared to male gymnasts (~ 4.4%) (p <.05). Although female gymnasts develop more eating disorders and bulimia than male gymnasts, no significant differences were found in the subscales of the questionnaire (p > .05). Therefore, this finding in combination with the fact that most of the gymnasts were teenagers (15.23 ± 6.35 years old) requires particular importance and attention from coaches and the family environment.

Body image across the adult lifespan: A longitudinal investigation of developmental and cohort effects

The current study examined patterns of normative change and cohort effects in body image across the male and female adult lifespan. Body satisfaction was assessed in longitudinal data spanning six years, from 2010 to 2015. Cohort sequential latent growth curve modelling was utilized to assess patterns of mean-level change due to both aging and cohort effects in 15,264 participants (62.9 % women) aged between 18-94 years (M = 46.55, SD = 14.24). Results demonstrated a very slight increase in body satisfaction across the lifespan for both men and women. Cohort effects demonstrated that for women aged 54 years and below, all but two cohorts (24-29 and 34-39 years) displayed an upward trajectory in their body satisfaction over the 5-year period of assessment. No consistent cohort effects were evident for men. Finally, men, relative to women, consistently displayed higher levels of body satisfaction across the lifespan. This study provides insights into the trajectory of body image across the lifespan for men and women. The findings also suggest recent (cohort) improvements in body image for women, and potential explanations for this unexpected shift are discussed.

The boundary conditions by which body-esteem leads to eating disorders risk among adolescents

Adolescents are believed to be susceptible to eating disorders (EDs) due to their serious fear of appearance evaluation from society. Related to this, low body-esteem has been found to be common among individuals with EDs. The present study mainly aimed to explore how emotional intelligence (EI), gender, and body size influence the relationship between body-esteem and EDs risk among adolescents. 128 middle school students classified as obese and 128 age-and gender-matched normal weight controls were included. All participants were asked to fill out self-report measures of body-esteem, EI, and EDs risk. The results showed that (1) both gender and body size directly influenced body-esteem and EDs risk; (2) EI acted as a moderator between body-esteem and EDs risk; and (3) both gender and body size interacted with EI and body-esteem to influence EDs risk. These findings contribute to our understanding of boundary conditions by which low body-esteem leads to EDs among adolescents, and help us to correspondingly conduct targeted intervention of adolescents' EDs.

Selfie posting and self-esteem among young adult women: A mediation model of positive feedback and body satisfaction

This study examined whether selfie-posting was positively associated with women’s self-esteem and whether this association was mediated by positive feedback and body satisfaction. A sample of 442 Chinese young adult women completed questionnaires on selfie-posting, positive feedback, body satisfaction, and self-esteem. Results indicated that selfie-posting was significantly and positively related to women’s self-esteem. In addition, positive feedback mediated the relation between selfie-posting and women’s self-esteem. Furthermore, the association between selfie-posting and self-esteem was sequentially mediated through positive feedback and body satisfaction. Findings from this study provide new insights into the relation between selfie-posting and self-esteem.

Self-esteem and Body Mass Index from Adolescence to Mid-adulthood. A 26-year Follow-up

PURPOSE

This study examined the developmental trajectories of self-esteem and body mass index (BMI) from adolescence to mid-adulthood and the way the association between self-esteem and BMI changed during a 26-year follow-up.

METHODS

Participants of a Finnish cohort study in 1983 at 16 years (N = 2194) were followed up at ages 22 (N = 1656), 32 (N = 1471), and 42 (N = 1334) using postal questionnaires. Measures at each time point covered self-esteem and self-reported weight and height. Analyses were done using latent growth curve models (LGM) and difference scores.

RESULTS

In LGM analyses among females both the initial levels (r = -0.13) and slopes (r = -0.26) of the self-esteem and BMI trajectories correlated negatively. Among males, there were no significant correlations between self-esteem and BMI growth factors. The association between increasing BMI and decreasing self-esteem among females was strongest between ages 22 and 32 (r = -0.16), while among males, increases in BMI and self-esteem correlated positively (r = 0.11) during that period. Among females, cross-sectional correlations between self-esteem and BMI showed an increasing trend (p < 0.001) from age 16 (r = -0.07) to age 42 (r = -0.17), whereas among males negative correlation (r = -0.08) emerged only in mid-adulthood at age 42.

CONCLUSION

Among females, higher and increasing BMI is associated with lower and more slowly increasing self-esteem. This association is not restricted to adolescent years but persists and gets stronger in mid-adulthood. Among males, associations are weaker but indicate more age-related differences. The results highlight the need for interventions that tackle weight-related stigma and discrimination, especially among women with higher body weight and size.

A Systematic Review of the Effects of Resistance Training on Body Image

The purpose of this systematic review was to identify and appraise the literature that has specifically tested the independent effects of resistance training (i.e., weightlifting) on body image in adults. A comprehensive search of electronic databases PubMed, Scopus, PsycNET, and Web of Science for relevant studies published in peer-reviewed journals through December 2016 was conducted, and PRISMA guidelines were followed. Inclusion criteria were that a study had to be (a) written in English, (b) published in a peer-reviewed journal, (c) conducted an assessment of body image using a validated scale before and after a stand-alone resistance training intervention (i.e., not coupled with another mode of treatment), and (d) excluded participants younger than 18 years. Methodological quality was assessed using the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale. A total of 7,324 studies were identified, and 11 were included in this review. The majority (8 of 11) of studies concluded that resistance training can significantly improve multiple dimensions of body image, including body satisfaction, appearance evaluation, and social physique anxiety; however, only 3 studies were considered high quality based on their PEDro score, and several methodological limitations exist. Overall, resistance training seems to have the potential to improve body image in adults, but future high-quality studies with more rigorous testing methods and study designs are needed.

Self-Esteem and Academic Difficulties in Preadolescents and Adolescents Healed from Paediatric Leukaemia

Adolescents with cancer may demonstrate problems in their self-esteem and schooling. This study aims to screen the preadolescents and adolescents more at risk in their self-esteem perception and schooling difficulties post-five years from the end of therapy. Twenty-five paediatric ex-patients healed from leukaemia were recruited at the Haematology-Oncologic Clinic (University of Padua). The mean age of the children was 13.64 years (Standard Deviation (SD)) = 3.08, range = 10-19 years), most were treated for acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) (84%) and relatively equally distributed by gender. They filled in the Multidimensional Self-Esteem Test, while parents completed a questionnaire on their child's schooling. Global self-esteem was mostly below the 50 percentile (58.5%), especially regarding interpersonal relationships (75%). An independent sample t-test showed significant mean differences on the emotionality scale (t = 2.23; degree of freedom (df) = 24; p = 0.03) and in the bodily experience scale (t = 3.02; df = 24; p = 0.006) with survivors of Acute Myeloid Leukaemia (AML) having lower scores. An Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) showed significant mean differences in the bodily experience scale (F = 12.31; df = 2, p = 0.0001) depending on the survivors' assigned risk band. The parent reports showed that 43.5% of children had difficulties at school. Childhood AML survivors with a high-risk treatment were more at risk in their self-esteem perceptions. Preventive interventions focusing on self-esteem and scholastic wellbeing are suggested in order to help their return to their normal schedules.

The associations between body dissatisfaction, body figure, self-esteem, and depressed mood in adolescents in the United States and Korea: A moderated mediation analysis

The perception of one's body image becomes particularly important in adolescence. Body dissatisfaction has been associated with negative psychological functioning, such as self-esteem and depression. Previous findings showed that the decreased self-esteem due to body dissatisfaction explained the association between negative attitude toward body and psychological well-being in different cultural contexts. The present study examined adolescents from the US (N = 1002) and Korea (N = 3993) and replicated and extended the previous findings regarding body dissatisfaction and associated psychological outcomes. The results showed that body dissatisfaction predicted higher depressed mood and that self-esteem mediated this association for both American and Korean adolescents. Notably, the indirect effect of body dissatisfaction and perceived body image on depressed mood via self-esteem was greater for American adolescents than for Korean adolescents. The implications of the cultural difference in the significance of self-esteem in mediating the body dissatisfaction and depressed mood are discussed.

Changes in Social Physique Anxiety during 16-Week Physical Activity Courses

Social physique anxiety represents a discomfort or apprehension about body proportions, especially during social exercise. The purpose of this study was to describe the relationship for such anxiety with selection of differing types of physical activity courses, assess changes in social physique anxiety after a 16-wk, physical activity session, and examine sex differences in social physique anxiety. Data from 315 undergraduate students (217 women, 98 men) enrolled in either physical activity courses or an emergency care course showed those in a fitness course had higher anxiety scores. Such scores differed by sex, and showed improvement between 8 and 16 wk.

Is "drunkorexia" an eating disorder, substance use disorder, or both?

Researchers have identified a specific behavior pattern labeled "drunkorexia" to describe recurrent inappropriate compensatory behaviors (e.g., fasting and self-induced vomiting) to avoid weight gain from consuming alcohol (referred to as ICB-WGA). Several studies have investigated the prevalence of these behaviors among college students, but few have tested whether this behavior pattern is more strongly related to substance use or disordered eating, which may have future implications for eating disorder and substance abuse research fields. The aim of this project was to test: (1) whether disordered eating or alcohol use adds incremental validity to the prediction of ICB-WGA when controlling for the other variable and (2) the effect of sex on ICB-WGA. College participants (N=579; 53% female) completed the Eating Pathology Symptoms Inventory (EPSI), the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT), and several questions designed to measure ICB-WGA. Results indicated that EPSI Restricting and Body Dissatisfaction scales were not significant predictors of ICB-WGA, whereas the AUDIT and EPSI Cognitive Restraint, Excessive Exercise, Purging, and Binge Eating scales significantly predicted ICB-WGAs. Results indicated that disordered eating and alcohol use both added incremental validity to the prediction of ICB-WGA; however, ICB-WGA was more strongly related to disordered eating, and this was particularly true for women. Our findings suggest that individuals engaging in ICB-WGA may be at-risk for future development of both eating and substance disorders. Notably, our findings highlight the need for future research to focus on trans-diagnostic prevention programs that target mechanisms that underlie both disordered eating and substance misuse.

Sociocultural, Feminist, and Psychological Influences on Women's Body Satisfaction: A Structural Modeling Analysis

We explored sociocultural, feminist, and psychological influences on women's body dissatisfaction by examining the manner in which awareness and internalization of appearance standards, feminist ideology, and self-esteem affect body dissatisfaction. A main goal of the study was to test a model of potential protective mechanisms against internalization of appearance standards. The LISREL 8.5 program was used to perform structural modeling analyses on the proposed theoretical models. The results supported previous findings regarding the influential role of sociocultural variables on women's body dissatisfaction. In particular, internalization was found to mediate the relationship between awareness and body dissatisfaction. Feminist ideology and self-esteem were not found to serve as protective mechanisms against internalization. However, self-esteem appeared to directly affect body dissatisfaction.

Social support buffers the effect of self-esteem on quality of life of early-stage cervical cancer survivors in Taiwan

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of self-esteem and social support on quality of life (QoL) in stage I and II cervical cancer survivors.

METHOD

The sample consisted of 110 participants who had been diagnosed with stage I-II cervical cancer and had completed their treatment 5 years or more before data collection. Each participant completed four structured questionnaires: a demographic-disease survey, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, Medical Outcomes Study Social Support Survey, and European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer Quality of Life Questionnaire 30. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, independent sample t-test, one-way ANOVA, and hierarchical multiple linear regression analyses.

RESULTS

The participants' mean age was 60.74 ± 10.69 years. Better QoL was significantly associated with younger age, higher self-esteem, and stronger social support; in addition, social support buffered the effect of self-esteem on global QoL. Together, five variables (age, time since treatment, self-esteem, social support, and the interaction term of self-esteem and social support) explained 36% of the variance in global QoL, with self-esteem being the strongest predictor.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study advance current knowledge of QoL in cervical cancer survivors by demonstrating that survivors with low self-esteem and social support tend to have lower QoL than those with low self-esteem but high social support. Health professionals should help survivors seek support and provide appropriate strategies to expand their social networks and enhance their self-esteem to improve their global QoL after cervical cancer.

Experiences and coping behaviours of adolescents in Pakistan with alopecia areata: an interpretative phenomenological analysis

The study explored experiences of adolescents aged 15-19 with alopecia areata (AA) and investigated their accounts of coping behaviours. Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis was used to provide an in-depth and holistic perspective of their accounts. Semi-structured interviews were undertaken with a volunteer sample of eight respondents diagnosed with AA. Four key themes were identified: loss (self/social), concerns (physical/future), negative (emotions/thoughts), and coping styles (adaptive/maladaptive). Females experienced greater feelings of loss, were more concerned about their looks and their future, and reported more negative thoughts and emotions. Females felt angry and blamed God for their fate; males blamed both their fate and luck. Action-oriented and practical coping styles were adopted by all of them. After the realization that initial coping behaviours were ineffective, self-distraction, acceptance, and humour were used. Psychological relief followed with the practice of religion and planning for treatments to be undertaken in the future. The findings here are similar to research conducted in the West, though with more emphasis on religion. Health care providers and student counsellors need to understand the negative psychosocial consequences for adolescents living with a visible disfigurement and provide appropriate psychological and social support.

Telling Women That Men Desire Women With Bodies Larger Than the Thin-Ideal Improves Women’s Body Satisfaction

One source of women’s body dissatisfaction appears to be the media’s suggestion that men desire extremely thin women. Thus, three independent experiments examined whether reversing this suggestion would improve women’s weight satisfaction. In all three studies, women viewed images of female models with bodies larger than the thin-ideal. Women who were randomly assigned to be told that men found those models attractive experienced increased weight satisfaction compared to women who were not given any information (Studies 1 and 2) and women who were told that men preferred ultra-thin women (Study 2). Study 3 (a) provided evidence for the theoretical mechanism—internalization of the thin-ideal—and (b) revealed that telling women that other women find larger models attractive does not yield similar benefits. These findings extend the tripartite influence model by demonstrating that women’s beliefs about men’s body preferences are an important moderator of the association between media influence and women’s body satisfaction.

Depressive symptoms among Jordanian youth: results of a national survey

This study examines level of depression and factors associated with depression among female and male youth in Jordan. The study uses data from a cross-sectional survey conducted among a national sample of 14-25 year old youth attending educational institutions in Jordan (N = 8,129). On average, respondents reported frequently experiencing feelings of sadness (66 %), loss of joy (49 %) and loss of hope in living (43 %). Regression models demonstrated that higher levels of depressive symptoms were observed among females and among youth exposed to violence. Better parent-child relationships were associated with lower depression score. Among males depressive symptoms were associated with poor economic status, low assertiveness and a higher likelihood of alcohol use and smoking. There is a need for mental health prevention programs for youth in Jordan that enhance youth's social and emotional skills, strengthen parent-child relationships, and reduce violence in school, home and in the community.

Body dissatisfaction and body mass in girls and boys transitioning from early to mid-adolescence: additional role of self-esteem and eating habits

BACKGROUND

In the transition from early to mid-adolescence, gender differences in pubertal development become significant. Body dissatisfaction is often associated with body mass, low self-esteem and abnormal eating habits. The majority of studies investigating body dissatisfaction and its associations have been conducted on female populations. However, some evidence suggests that males also suffer from these problems and that gender differences might already be observed in adolescence.

AIMS

To examine body dissatisfaction and its relationship with body mass, as well as self-esteem and eating habits, in girls and boys in transition from early to mid-adolescence.

METHODS

School nurses recorded the heights and weights of 659 girls and 711 boys with a mean age of 14.5 years. The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and the Body Dissatisfaction subscale of the Eating Disorder Inventory were used as self-appraisal scales. Eating data were self-reported.

RESULTS

The girls were less satisfied with their bodies than boys were with theirs (mean score (SD): 30.6 (SD 12.2) vs. 18.9 (SD 9.5); p < 0.001). The girls expressed most satisfaction with their bodies when they were underweight, more dissatisfaction when they were of normal weight and most dissatisfaction when they had excess body weight. The boys also expressed most satisfaction when they were underweight and most dissatisfaction when they had excess body weight. The boys reported higher levels of self-esteem than did the girls (mean (SD): 31.3 (4.8) vs. 28.0 (5.9); p < 0.001). The adolescents self-reporting abnormal eating habits were less satisfied with their bodies than those describing normal eating habits (mean (SD): 33.0 (12.9) vs. 21.2 (10.2); p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Body mass, self-esteem and eating habits revealed a significant relationship with body dissatisfaction in the transitional phase from early to mid-adolescence in girls and boys, but significant gender differences were also found.

Impact of today's media on university student's body image in Pakistan: a conservative, developing country's perspective

Background

Living in a world greatly controlled by mass media makes it impossible to escape its pervading influence. As media in Pakistan has been free in the true sense of the word for only a few years, its impact on individuals is yet to be assessed. Our study aims to be the first to look at the effect media has on the body image of university students in a conservative, developing country like Pakistan. Also, we introduced the novel concept of body image dissatisfaction as being both negative and positive.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted among 7 private universities over a period of two weeks in the city of Karachi, Pakistan's largest and most populous city. Convenience sampling was used to select both male and female undergraduate students aged between 18 and 25 and a sample size of 783 was calculated.

Results

Of the 784 final respondents, 376 (48%) were males and 408 (52%) females. The mean age of males was 20.77 (+/- 1.85) years and females was 20.38 (+/- 1.63) years. Out of these, 358 (45.6%) respondents had a positive BID (body image dissatisfaction) score while 426 (54.4%) had a negative BID score. Of the respondents who had positive BID scores, 93 (24.7%) were male and 265 (65.0%) were female. Of the respondents with a negative BID score, 283 (75.3%) were male and 143 (35.0%) were female. The results for BID vs. media exposure were similar in both high and low peer pressure groups. Low media exposure meant positive BID scores and vice versa in both groups (p < 0.0001) showing a statistically significant association between high media exposure and negative body image dissatisfaction. Finally, we looked at the association between gender and image dissatisfaction. Again a statistically significant association was found between positive body image dissatisfaction and female gender and negative body image dissatisfaction and male gender (p < 0.0001).

Conclusions

Our study confirmed the tendency of the media to have an overall negative effect on individuals' body image. A striking feature of our study, however, was the finding that negative body image dissatisfaction was found to be more prevalent in males as compared to females. Likewise, positive BID scores were more prevalent amongst females.

The experiences of young people with Epidermolysis Bullosa Simplex: a qualitative study

The objective of this study was to explore the experiences of young people with Epidermolysis Bullosa Simplex (EBS). Eleven participants aged 10 -14 years were interviewed and Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis was employed. A key theme was 'self as different'. This related to experiences of negative treatment and exclusion from peers; a lack of understanding of others about the condition; and a sense of the self as 'wrong'. Findings indicate the importance of providing appropriate psychological and peer support, as well as wider community education and intervention, as part of the holistic treatment of young people with this chronic, painful and visible skin condition.

Beauty in Later Life: Older Women's Perceptions of Physical Attractiveness

Using data from 96 hours of semi-structured interviews with women aged 61 to 92, this paper explores the meanings that older women attribute to beauty and aging. The women in my study tend to equate physical attractiveness with youthfulness and slimness. However, they reject the extremes of thinness embodied in today's fashion models and actresses. Even as they disparage obese individuals, the women argue that thin older women appear scrawny. The women express a preference for more rounded female bodies than current beauty standards allow and emphasize the importance of inner beauty. While some women view their wrinkles negatively, others suggest that their facial creases are badges of honour. I argue that older women do not simply internalize beauty ideals to the detriment of their sense of self. Rather, older women resist and challenge current ideals of feminine attractiveness and suggest alternative beauty ideals and definitions of personal desirability.

Eating behaviour, body image, and self-esteem of adolescent girls in Malaysia

This cross-sectional study was undertaken with 489 secondary school girls, ages 15-17 years, to examine disordered eating behaviours of adolescent girls in Malaysia and to estimate associations with body weight, body-size discrepancy, and self-esteem. Dietary restraint, binge eating, body image, and self-esteem were assessed using the Restrained Eating scale of the Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire, the Binge Scale Questionnaire, the Contour Drawing Rating Scale, and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, respectively. Pearson correlations estimated associations between variables. There were 3.1% underweight, 9.8% at risk of being overweight, and 8.6% overweight girls. A total of 87.3% were dissatisfied with their own body size. Dietary restraint and binge eating were reported by 36.0% and 35.4%, respectively. Body Mass Index (r = .34, p < .01) and body-size dissatisfaction (r = .24, p < .01) were significantly associated with dietary restraint and binge eating, but self-esteem (r = -.20, p < .001) was significantly associated only with binge eating.

Motivational processes associated with unhealthy body change attitudes and behaviours

OBJECTIVE

The relationship between approach-avoidance motivational processes and unhealthy body change attitudes and behaviours was investigated.

METHOD

Self-reported sensitivity to rewards (SR) and sensitivity to punishments (SP) were measured for a convenience sample of 130 women, aged 18 to 40 years, along with measures of disordered eating symptomatology and exercise dependence.

RESULTS

Together, SR and SP significantly predicted variance in drive for thinness (21%), bulimia (17%), and obligatory exercise (7%). These relationships were partly mediated by internalization of the thin ideal, body comparison, and subjective importance of achieving one's 'ideal' body and of avoiding one's 'worst possible' body. Interestingly, body dissatisfaction partly mediated the relationships involving SP but not SR.

DISCUSSION

The results suggest that an underlying sensitivity to punishments, but not rewards, can manifest as a 'fear of fatness'. Both of these motivational traits can increase the salience of self evaluations, and thus indirectly contribute to unhealthy body change attitudes and behaviours.

Emotional reactions following exposure to idealized bodies predict unhealthy body change attitudes and behaviors in women and men

OBJECTIVE

We explored the extent to which changes in emotional states following exposure to images of idealized bodies predict unhealthy body change attitudes and behaviors in women and men, and whether particular psychological traits mediate these effects.

METHOD

One hundred thirty-three women and 93 men were assessed for unhealthy attitudes and behaviors related to body weight and muscles using the Eating Disorder Inventory-2 (EDI-2), the Obligatory Exercise Questionnaire, and the strategies to increase muscles subscale of the Body Change Inventory. Psychological traits assessed included body dissatisfaction (EDI-2), internalization of the thin/athletic ideal (Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire-3), body comparison (Body Comparison Scale), self-esteem (Rosenberg Self-Esteem Inventory), depression (Beck Depression Inventory-II), and identity confusion (Self-Concept Clarity Scale). Participants were then exposed to photographs of thin female models and muscular male models, and visual analogue scales were used to measure changes in postexposure state body dissatisfaction, anger, anxiety, and depression.

RESULTS

Postexposure increases in state anger, anxiety, depression, and body dissatisfaction correlated with drive for thinness and disordered eating symptomatology in women, while postexposure increases in state body dissatisfaction correlated with muscle development in men. Analyses revealed that internalization and body comparison mediated these relationships, with trait body dissatisfaction, trait depression, self-esteem, and self-concept/identity confusion serving as mediators for women only.

CONCLUSION

These results are indicative of gender differences in: (a) reactions to idealized bodies; (b) psychological traits that predispose individuals to experience these reactions; and (c) types of body change behavior that are associated with these reactions.

BEING PROUD OF ONESELF AS A PERSON OR BEING PROUD OF ONE’S PHYSICAL APEARANCE: WHAT MATTERS FOR FEELING WELL IN ADOLESCENCE?

Among the numerous studies aimed at examining the link between appearance satisfaction and self-esteem at adolescence very few, except Zumpf and Harter (1989), have specifically examined the directionality of the relation. Hence, the first goal of this study was to examine the distribution of adolescents, according to their gender and grade level, within each of the following two groups: those who acknowledge that the evaluation of their physical appearance precedes and determines their global self-esteem, and those who conversely believe that they must first be satisfied with their global sense of self in order to be satisfied with their physical appearance. The second goal was to examine whether adolescents' perceived competence in various domains of daily life functioning differs according to how they value physical appearance. Participants were 1,362 adolescents (540 boys and 822 girls) from the 7th, 9th and 11th grades. Overall, 35% of adolescents acknowledged that their perceived appearance determined their self-esteem, with boys and girls being proportionally distributed between the groups. Adolescents in the group more concerned with appearance reported lower satisfaction with their physical appearance, lower self-esteem than others, and lower perceived competence in the scholastic and social domains.

Gender differences in disordered eating and its correlates

The goal of this study was to examine gender differences in the prevalence of disordered eating and body dissatisfaction as well as examine gender differences in several risk factors: mass media, self-esteem and perfectionism. Three hundred fifty-three undergraduates completed surveys about their body dissatisfaction, disordered eating habits, exposure to and influence of mass media, self-esteem and perfectionistic tendencies. As expected, women experienced more symptoms of disordered eating as well as body dissatisfaction than did their male counterparts. There were also gender differences in the risk factors. For women, mass media, self-esteem, and perfectionism related to disordered eating behaviors, whereas for men, only perfectionism and mass media related to disordered eating behaviors. For women, mass media and self-esteem related to body image dissatisfaction, whereas for men, mass media and perfectionism related to body image dissatisfaction. The results of the present study indicate that risk factors for disordered eating and body dissatisfaction for men and women may be different, which has implications for understanding the etiology of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating and for possible treatment interventions.

Differences for gender, weight and exercise in body image disturbance and eating disorder symptoms

OBJECTIVE

Differences for gender, weight, exercise frequency and type for eating disorder symptoms and body image disturbance were examined. Further understanding of male body image disturbance was the primary goal.

METHOD

Males (n=200) and females (n=233) completed measures to assess eating disorder symptoms and multiple components of body image disturbance. Measures were modified to be more appropriate for males.

RESULTS

Females endorsed higher levels of eating and body concerns. Males were divided between a desire to maintain, increase or decrease their size. Higher weight and exercise frequency was associated with increased body image concern and eating disorder symptoms, particularly for males. Exercise frequency was also linked to higher self-esteem for males. Males who used muscle-enhancing supplements indicated increased social pressures and concern for appearance, and a desire to increase their size.

DISCUSSION

The findings support that weight and exercise frequency affect eating disorder symptoms and body image disturbance. Males appear to exhibit body image disturbance, which is related to their current weight status. Results support the call for further development of measures that more adequately address male concerns.

Male physical attractiveness in Britain and Malaysia: A cross-cultural study

Three purported cues to perceived male physical attractiveness are the waist-to-chest ratio (WCR), body mass index (BMI) and the waist-to-hip ratio (WHR). This study examined the relative contribution of each cue in several socio-economically distinct populations. Ninety-five female participants from Britain and Malaysia were asked to rate a set of images of real men with known WCR, BMI and WHR. The results showed clear differences along a gradient of socio-economic development. In urban settings, WCR was the primary component of attractiveness ratings, with BMI playing a smaller role and WHR not reaching significance. In the rural setting, BMI was the primary predictor of attractiveness, with WCR playing a more minor role and WHR not reaching significance. In general, urban participants were more reliant on body shape and chose a relatively slim figure with an 'inverted triangle' shape; rural participants were more reliant on body weight and chose a heavier figure with a less triangular shape. These findings are discussed in terms of evolutionary psychological explanations of mate selection and sociological theories that emphasise the effect of resource scarcity on preferences for body shapes and sizes.

Body image dissatisfaction among males across the lifespan: a review of past literature

OBJECTIVE

Most past research has focused on body dissatisfaction among females. This paper provides a review and evaluation of studies that have examined body dissatisfaction among males. Body dissatisfaction in males has been associated with poor psychological adjustment, eating disorders, steroid use, exercise dependence, as well as other health behaviors. It is therefore important to understand the level of body dissatisfaction, as well as the factors that are related to this construct.

METHOD

The review is divided into three sections: body dissatisfaction among children, adolescents and adults. Within each section, levels of body dissatisfaction are examined, as well as the research that relates to sociocultural influences on body dissatisfaction. Difficulties in drawing valid conclusions from the data due to methodological problems are highlighted.

RESULTS

From the current data, it would appear that there are strong similarities in the levels of body dissatisfaction of male and female children, with most children demonstrating high levels of body satisfaction. During adolescence, boys are about equally divided between wanting to lose weight and increasing weight, but there are few studies that have examined a desire for increased muscle size. In adulthood, men evidence a stronger desire to lose weight as they get older.

CONCLUSION

Overall, past studies have primarily focused on questions that are relevant to females, and there is a need to conduct studies that evaluate areas of body dissatisfaction that have greater relevance for males. This will then allow a better understanding of the relationship between body dissatisfaction and psychological and behavioral problems experienced by males at all stages of the lifespan.

Overcoming ambivalence: the challenges of exploring socially charged issues

In this article, the author considers the challenges associated with the investigation of sensitive and socially charged issues. Drawing on a qualitative study of older women's body image and embodied experience, she discusses how societal ambivalence toward older women's bodies and appearances shapes and constrains the establishment of rapport between a young researcher and the study participants. Exploring the internalized anxiety expressed by the women, she investigates how life history narratives, multiple interviews, photographs, location of the interview, self-disclosure, information sharing, provision of assistance, student and stranger statuses, collaborative interviewing, and impression management combine to enhance rapport and ease the women's sense of discomfort.

PREDICTORS OF BODY IMAGE DISSATISFACTION IN ADULT MEN AND WOMEN

Disordered eating and body image have been widely studied in college students and children. However, few studies have examined body image dissatisfaction in adulthood. Therefore, this study sought to determine the prevalence of body image dissatisfaction in adult men and women. One hundred and thirty-nine adults were surveyed on body dissatisfaction and possible relating factors. It was found that media influence predicted body dissatisfaction in women and that age, family pressure and self-esteem predicted body image dissatisfaction in both men and women. Because adults' views about their bodies can have an impact on those of their children, it is important that researchers continue to examine body image dissatisfaction and comparable issues within adult populations.

Older women's body image and embodied experience: an exploration

This paper presents and analyzes findings from unstructured interviews with women aged 61 to 92 regarding their perceptions and feelings about their aging bodies. The data are discussed in light of the existing literature on women's body image which has largely ignored the experiences of women in later life and which has tended to focus on adolescent and middle-aged women. Given the fact that beauty is equated with youthfulness and thinness in our society, older women face unique challenges as they strive to construct and maintain positive evaluations of self. The women in the study exhibit the internalization of ageist beauty norms even as they assert that health is more important to them than physical attractiveness and comment on the 'naturalness' of the aging process.