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Idda ML, Campesi I, Fiorito G, Vecchietti A, Urru SAM, Solinas MG, Franconi F, Floris M. Sex-Biased Expression of Pharmacogenes across Human Tissues. Biomolecules 2021; 11:1206. [PMID: 34439872 PMCID: PMC8393247 DOI: 10.3390/biom11081206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2021] [Revised: 08/05/2021] [Accepted: 08/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Individual response to drugs is highly variable and largely influenced by genetic variants and gene-expression profiles. In addition, it has been shown that response to drugs is strongly sex-dependent, both in terms of efficacy and toxicity. To expand current knowledge on sex differences in the expression of genes relevant for drug response, we generated a catalogue of differentially expressed human transcripts encoded by 289 genes in 41 human tissues from 838 adult individuals of the Genotype-Tissue Expression project (GTEx, v8 release) and focused our analysis on relevant transcripts implicated in drug response. We detected significant sex-differentiated expression of 99 transcripts encoded by 59 genes in the tissues most relevant for human pharmacology (liver, lung, kidney, small intestine terminal ileum, skin not sun-exposed, and whole blood). Among them, as expected, we confirmed significant differences in the expression of transcripts encoded by the cytochromes in the liver, CYP2B6, CYP3A7, CYP3A5, and CYP1A1. Our systematic investigation on differences between male and female in the expression of drug response-related genes, reinforce the need to overcome the sex bias of clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Laura Idda
- Institute of Genetics and Biomedical research, 07100 Sassari, Italy;
| | - Ilaria Campesi
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (I.C.); (G.F.); (A.V.); (M.G.S.)
| | - Giovanni Fiorito
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (I.C.); (G.F.); (A.V.); (M.G.S.)
- Unit of Environmental Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Andrea Vecchietti
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (I.C.); (G.F.); (A.V.); (M.G.S.)
| | - Silvana Anna Maria Urru
- Hospital Pharmacy Unit, Trento General Hospital, Autonomous Province of Trento, 38122 Trento, Italy;
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, School of Hospital Pharmacy, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy
| | - Maria Giuliana Solinas
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (I.C.); (G.F.); (A.V.); (M.G.S.)
| | - Flavia Franconi
- National Laboratory of Pharmacology and Gender medicine, National Institute of Biostructure and Biosystems, 00136 Rome, Italy;
| | - Matteo Floris
- Institute of Genetics and Biomedical research, 07100 Sassari, Italy;
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (I.C.); (G.F.); (A.V.); (M.G.S.)
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Jiang M, Klein M, Zanger UM, Mohammad MK, Cave MC, Gaikwad NW, Selcer KW, Guo Y, He J, Zhang X, Shen Q, Qin W, Li J, Li S, Xie W, Xie W. Inflammatory regulation of steroid sulfatase: A novel mechanism to control estrogen homeostasis and inflammation in chronic liver disease. J Hepatol 2016; 64. [PMID: 26220752 PMCID: PMC4691383 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2015.07.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Chronic inflammatory liver diseases are associated with estrogen excess and feminization in men, which is thought to be due to compromised liver function to break down estrogens. The goal of this study is to determine whether the inflammatory induction of steroid sulfatase (STS), which converts inactive estrogen sulfates to active estrogens, may have contributed to the estrogen excess in chronic liver disease. METHODS We performed bioinformatic analysis, real-time PCR, immunohistochemistry, and UPLC/MS-MS to analyze hepatic STS expression and serum estrogen levels in patients with chronic liver diseases. The crosstalk between NF-κB pathway and STS-regulated estrogen signaling was investigated by electrophoretic mobility shift assay, chromatin immunoprecipitation, luciferase assay and gene knockdown experiments in human hepatocytes. RESULTS Hepatic STS was induced in patients with chronic inflammatory liver diseases, which was accompanied by increased circulating estrogen levels. The human STS gene, but not the mouse Sts gene, was induced by inflammatory stimuli in hepatic cells. Mechanistically, STS was established as a novel NF-κB target gene, whose induction facilitated the conversion of inactive estrogen sulfates to active estrogens, and consequently attenuated the inflammatory response. In contrast, genetic or pharmacological inhibition of STS or a direct blockade of estrogen signaling sensitized liver cells to the transcriptional activation of NF-κB and inflammatory response, possibly through the inhibition of IκB kinase activation. CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest a negative feedback loop in chronic inflammatory liver diseases, in which the inflammatory activation of NF-κB induces STS gene expression. The induced STS facilitates the conversion of inactive estrogen sulfates to active estrogens, which in return attenuates the NF-κB-mediated inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengxi Jiang
- Center for Pharmacogenetics and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Marcus Klein
- Dr. Margarete Fischer-Bosch Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Stuttgart, and University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Ulrich M. Zanger
- Dr. Margarete Fischer-Bosch Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Stuttgart, and University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Mohammad K. Mohammad
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition, University of Louisville School of Medicine Louisville, Kentucky
| | - Matthew C. Cave
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition, University of Louisville School of Medicine Louisville, Kentucky
| | - Nilesh W. Gaikwad
- Department of Nutrition and Department of Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Davis, California
| | - Kyle W. Selcer
- Department of Biological Sciences, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Yan Guo
- Center for Pharmacogenetics and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,Department of Pathology, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Jinhan He
- Department of Pharmacy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Xiuhui Zhang
- Department of Pathology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Qiujin Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Shanghai Cancer Institute, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Wenxin Qin
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Shanghai Cancer Institute, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Jiang Li
- Center for Pharmacogenetics and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Song Li
- Center for Pharmacogenetics and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Wen Xie
- Center for Pharmacogenetics and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Pharmacology & Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
| | - Wen Xie
- Center for Pharmacogenetics and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Pharmacology & Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
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Mueller JW, Gilligan LC, Idkowiak J, Arlt W, Foster PA. The Regulation of Steroid Action by Sulfation and Desulfation. Endocr Rev 2015; 36:526-63. [PMID: 26213785 PMCID: PMC4591525 DOI: 10.1210/er.2015-1036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 265] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2015] [Accepted: 07/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Steroid sulfation and desulfation are fundamental pathways vital for a functional vertebrate endocrine system. After biosynthesis, hydrophobic steroids are sulfated to expedite circulatory transit. Target cells express transmembrane organic anion-transporting polypeptides that facilitate cellular uptake of sulfated steroids. Once intracellular, sulfatases hydrolyze these steroid sulfate esters to their unconjugated, and usually active, forms. Because most steroids can be sulfated, including cholesterol, pregnenolone, dehydroepiandrosterone, and estrone, understanding the function, tissue distribution, and regulation of sulfation and desulfation processes provides significant insights into normal endocrine function. Not surprisingly, dysregulation of these pathways is associated with numerous pathologies, including steroid-dependent cancers, polycystic ovary syndrome, and X-linked ichthyosis. Here we provide a comprehensive examination of our current knowledge of endocrine-related sulfation and desulfation pathways. We describe the interplay between sulfatases and sulfotransferases, showing how their expression and regulation influences steroid action. Furthermore, we address the role that organic anion-transporting polypeptides play in regulating intracellular steroid concentrations and how their expression patterns influence many pathologies, especially cancer. Finally, the recent advances in pharmacologically targeting steroidogenic pathways will be examined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan W Mueller
- Centre for Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom
| | - Lorna C Gilligan
- Centre for Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom
| | - Jan Idkowiak
- Centre for Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom
| | - Wiebke Arlt
- Centre for Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom
| | - Paul A Foster
- Centre for Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom
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Schaafsma SM, Pfaff DW. Etiologies underlying sex differences in Autism Spectrum Disorders. Front Neuroendocrinol 2014; 35:255-71. [PMID: 24705124 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2014.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2013] [Revised: 02/06/2014] [Accepted: 03/17/2014] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The male predominance of Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) is one of the best-known, and at the same time, one of the least understood characteristics of these disorders. In this paper we review genetic, epigenetic, hormonal, and environmental mechanisms underlying this male preponderance. Sex-specific effects of Y-linked genes (including SRY expression leading to testicular development), balanced and skewed X-inactivation, genes that escape X-inactivation, parent-of-origin allelic imprinting, and the hypothetical heterochromatin sink are reviewed. These mechanisms likely contribute to etiology, instead of being simply causative to ASD. Environments, both internal and external, also play important roles in ASD's etiology. Early exposure to androgenic hormones and early maternal immune activation comprise environmental factors affecting sex-specific susceptibility to ASD. The gene-environment interactions underlying ASD, suggested here, implicate early prenatal stress as being especially detrimental to boys with a vulnerable genotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara M Schaafsma
- Laboratory of Neurobiology and Behavior, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, NY 10065, USA.
| | - Donald W Pfaff
- Laboratory of Neurobiology and Behavior, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, NY 10065, USA
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Elias PM, Williams ML, Choi EH, Feingold KR. Role of cholesterol sulfate in epidermal structure and function: lessons from X-linked ichthyosis. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2013; 1841:353-61. [PMID: 24291327 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2013.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2013] [Revised: 11/13/2013] [Accepted: 11/20/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
X-linked ichthyosis is a relatively common syndromic form of ichthyosis most often due to deletions in the gene encoding the microsomal enzyme, steroid sulfatase, located on the short area of the X chromosome. Syndromic features are mild or unapparent unless contiguous genes are affected. In normal epidermis, cholesterol sulfate is generated by cholesterol sulfotransferase (SULT2B1b), but desulfated in the outer epidermis, together forming a 'cholesterol sulfate cycle' that potently regulates epidermal differentiation, barrier function and desquamation. In XLI, cholesterol sulfate levels my exceed 10% of total lipid mass (≈1% of total weight). Multiple cellular and biochemical processes contribute to the pathogenesis of the barrier abnormality and scaling phenotype in XLI. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled The Important Role of Lipids in the Epidermis and their Role in the Formation and Maintenance of the Cutaneous Barrier. Guest Editors: Kenneth R. Feingold and Peter Elias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter M Elias
- Dermatology Service, Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, and Department of Dermatology, University of California, San Francisco, CA USA.
| | - Mary L Williams
- Departments of Dermatology and Pediatrics, University of California, San Francisco, CA USA
| | - Eung-Ho Choi
- Department of Dermatology, Yonsei University, Wonju College of Medicine, Wonju, South Korea
| | - Kenneth R Feingold
- Medical Service, Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, and Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
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Sung CH, Im HJ, Park N, Kwon Y, Shin S, Ye DJ, Cho NH, Park YS, Choi HK, Kim D, Chun YJ. Induction of steroid sulfatase expression in PC-3 human prostate cancer cells by insulin-like growth factor II. Toxicol Lett 2013; 223:109-15. [PMID: 24055520 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2013.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2012] [Revised: 09/03/2013] [Accepted: 09/10/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Human steroid sulfatase (STS) plays an important role in regulating the formation of biologically active estrogens and may be a promising target for treating estrogen-mediated carcinogenesis. The molecular mechanism of STS gene expression, however, is still not clear. Growth factors are known to increase STS activity but the changes in STS expression have not been completely understood. To determine whether insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-II can induce STS gene expression, the effects of IGF-II on STS expression were studied in PC-3 human prostate cancer cells. RT-PCR and Western blot analysis showed that IGF-II treatment significantly increased the expression of STS mRNA and protein in concentration- and time-dependent manners. To understand the signaling pathway by which IGF-II induces STS gene expression, the effects of specific PI3-kinase/Akt and NF-κB inhibitors were determined. When the cells were treated with IGF-II and PI3-kinase/Akt inhibitors, such as LY294002, wortmannin, or Akt inhibitor IV, STS expression induced by IGF-II was significantly blocked. Moreover, we found that NF-κB inhibitors, such as MG-132, bortezomib, Bay 11-7082 or Nemo binding domain (NBD) binding peptide, also strongly prevented IGF-II from inducing STS gene expression. We assessed whether IGF-II activates STS promoter activity using transient transfection with a luciferase reporter. IGF-II significantly stimulated STS reporter activity. Furthermore, IGF-II induced expression of 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (HSD) 1 and 3, whereas it reduced estrone sulfotransferase (EST) gene expression, causing enhanced estrone and β-estradiol production. Taken together, these results strongly suggest that IGF-II induces STS expression via a PI3-kinase/Akt-NF-κB signaling pathway in PC-3 cells and may induce estrogen production and estrogen-mediated carcinogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chul-Hoon Sung
- College of Pharmacy, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 156-756, Republic of Korea
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Matsumoto J, Ariyoshi N, Ishii I, Kitada M. Functional characterization of seven single-nucleotide polymorphisms of the steroid sulfatase gene found in a Japanese population. J Hum Genet 2013; 58:267-72. [PMID: 23466819 DOI: 10.1038/jhg.2013.12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Steroid sulfatase (STS) is an enzyme that hydrolyzes steroid sulfates such as dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S) and estrone sulfate. STS has a key role in the synthesis of steroid hormones in placenta and breast cancer cells. Recently, we have identified six novel single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and one nonsynonymous SNP (V476M) in the STS gene in a Japanese population. To clarify the effects of SNPs in the 5'-flanking region or 5' untranslated region on transcriptional activity, a reporter gene assay was conducted. In addition, DHEA-S desulfatase activity of a variant (Met at codon 476)-type enzyme was compared with that of the wild (Wd)-type enzyme in COS-1 cells. The transcriptional activities were significantly decreased (155A) and increased (-2837A and -1588C) in MCF-7 cells. On the other hand, no significant difference was found in expression levels of STS protein or specific activities of DHEA-S desulfation between Wd and the variant enzymes. This is the first report on the effects of various SNPs in the STS gene detected in Japanese healthy subjects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Matsumoto
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba University, Chiba, Japan
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8
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Using mouse models to investigate sex-linked genetic effects on brain, behaviour and vulnerability to neuropsychiatric disorders. Brain Res Bull 2013; 92:12-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2011.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2011] [Revised: 06/17/2011] [Accepted: 06/27/2011] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Matsumoto J, Ariyoshi N, Ishii I, Kitada M. Six novel single nucleotide polymorphisms of the steroid sulfatase gene in a Japanese population. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2010; 25:403-7. [PMID: 20814163 DOI: 10.2133/dmpk.dmpk-10-sc-027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Steroid sulfatase (STS) is a microsomal enzyme responsible for the formation of 3beta-hydroxysteroid from the corresponding sulfate conjugates. Screening of all exons, exon-intron boundaries and the 5'-flanking region of the STS gene in 93 healthy Japanese individuals was carried out. Among seven single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) identified in this study, six were novel, including one in the untranslated region of exon 1, one in exon 10, and four in the 5'-flanking region. The nonsynonymous SNP (1647G>A) in exon 10 caused amino-acid replacement, Val476Met, with a frequency of 0.014. The allele frequencies of the other SNPs were 0.071 for 155G>A, 0.007 for -21G>A, 0.014 for -1117T>C, 0.106 for -1588G>A, 0.007 for -2427G>A and 0.007 for -2837T>C.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Matsumoto
- Laboratory of Clinical Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba University
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10
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Götte M, Kalkhake K, Ploeger S, Kiesel L, Stute P. Effect of testosterone on E1S-sulfatase activity in non-malignant and cancerous breast cells in vitro. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2009; 117:168-75. [PMID: 19778611 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2009.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2009] [Revised: 08/28/2009] [Accepted: 09/15/2009] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Testosterone (T) is a therapeutic option for women with hypoactive sexual desire disorder. T may have an impact on the mammary gland by altering local estrogen synthesis. The aim of the present study was to measure the effect of T on estrone-sulfate (E1S)-sulfatase (STS) expression, and activity using hormone-dependent BC cells with high and low aggressive potential (BT-474, MCF-7), and HBL-100 as a breast cell line of non-malignant origin. METHODS Cells were incubated in RPMI 1640 medium containing 5% steroid-depleted fetal calf serum for 3d, and subsequently incubated in absence or presence of T alone, and combined with anastrozole (A) at 10(-8)M, and 10(-6)M at 37 degrees C for either 24h or directly in cell extracts ("direct"). STS protein expression was measured by dot-blot (immunoblotting), and STS, HSD17B1 and HSD17B2 mRNA levels by quantitative RT-PCR. STS activity was evaluated by incubating homogenized breast cells with [(3)H]-E1S and separating the products E1, and E2 by thin layer chromatography. RESULTS Basal STS mRNA expression did not reveal group differences. However, STS mRNA was decreased by T+A in MCF-7 cells. 17HSDB1 expression was decreased by T+A in BT-474 cells, and 17HSDB2 expression was decreased by A and T+A treatment in MCF-7 cells. Basal and T treated STS protein expression was significantly higher in malignant compared to non-malignant breast cells. However, T did not induce significant intra-cell line differences. Similarly, basal and T treated STS activity was significantly higher in highly malignant compared to non-malignant breast cells. Regardless of cell lines, T slightly decreased STS activity after "direct" incubation, but led to an increase of local estrogen formation after 24h which was attenuated, and partly reversed by A, respectively. CONCLUSIONS The more aggressive the breast cell line, the higher the local estrogen formation. The transition from normal to malignant seems to be accompanied by an altered autoregulation. The given local endocrine milieu seems to be essential for response to T.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Götte
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, University Clinic of Muenster, Muenster, Germany.
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Kopsida E, Stergiakouli E, Lynn PM, Wilkinson LS, Davies W. The Role of the Y Chromosome in Brain Function. OPEN NEUROENDOCRINOLOGY JOURNAL (ONLINE) 2009; 2:20-30. [PMID: 20396406 PMCID: PMC2854822 DOI: 10.2174/1876528900902010020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
In mammals, sex differences are evident in many aspects of brain development, brain function and behaviour. Ultimately, such differences must arise from the differential sex chromosome complements in males and females: males inherit a single X chromosome and a Y chromosome, whilst females inherit two X chromosomes. One possible mechanism for sexual differentiation of the brain is via male-limited expression of genes on the small Y chromosome. Many Y-linked genes have been implicated in the development of the testes, and therefore could theoretically contribute to sexual differentiation of the brain indirectly, through influencing gonadal hormone production. Alternatively, Y-linked genes that are expressed in the brain could directly influence neural masculinisation. The present paper reviews evidence from human genetic studies and animal models for Y-linked effects (both direct and indirect) on neurodevelopment, brain function and behaviour. Besides enhancing our knowledge of the mechanisms underlying mammalian neural sexual differentiation, studies geared towards understanding the role of the Y chromosome in brain function will help to elucidate the molecular basis of sex-biased neuropsychiatric disorders, allowing for more selective sex-specific therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleni Kopsida
- Henry Wellcome Building, School of Medicine, Heath Park Site, Cardiff University, UK
- MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics and Department of Psychological Medicine and Neurology, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, UK
| | - Evangelia Stergiakouli
- MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics and Department of Psychological Medicine and Neurology, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, UK
| | - Phoebe M. Lynn
- Henry Wellcome Building, School of Medicine, Heath Park Site, Cardiff University, UK
- MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics and Department of Psychological Medicine and Neurology, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, UK
| | - Lawrence S. Wilkinson
- Henry Wellcome Building, School of Medicine, Heath Park Site, Cardiff University, UK
- MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics and Department of Psychological Medicine and Neurology, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, UK
| | - William Davies
- Henry Wellcome Building, School of Medicine, Heath Park Site, Cardiff University, UK
- MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics and Department of Psychological Medicine and Neurology, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, UK
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Dalla Valle L, Toffolo V, Nardi A, Fiore C, Armanini D, Belvedere P, Colombo L. The expression of the human steroid sulfatase-encoding gene is driven by alternative first exons. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2007; 107:22-9. [PMID: 17601726 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2007.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
We have analyzed steroid sulfatase (STS) gene transcription in 10 human tissues: ovary, adrenal cortex, uterus, thyroid, liver, pancreas, colon, mammary gland, dermal papilla of the hair follicle, and peripheral mononuclear leukocytes. Overall, six different promoters were found to drive STS expression, giving rise to transcripts with unique first exons that were labeled 0a, 0b, 0c, 1a, 1c, and 1d, of which the last two and 0c are newly reported. All of them, except exon 1d, vary in length owing to the occurrence of multiple transcriptional start sites. While placental exon 1a is partially coding, the other five first exons are all untranslated. Three of these (0a, 0b, and 0c) are spliced to the common partially coding exon 1b, whereas the other two (1c and 1d) are spliced to the coding exon 2, which occurs in all transcripts. Whatever the ATG actually used, the differences are restricted to the signal peptide which is post-transcriptionally cleaved. Transcripts with exons 0a and 0b have the broadest tissue distribution, occurring, in 6 out of the 12 tissues so far investigated, while the other first exons are restricted to one or two tissues. The proximal promoter of each first exon was devoid of TATA box or initiator element and lacked consensus elements for transcription factors related to steroidogenesis, suggesting that regulatory sequences are probably placed at greater distance. In conclusion, the regulation of STS transcription appears to be more complex than previously thought, suggesting that this enzyme plays a substantial role in intercellular integration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luisa Dalla Valle
- Comparative Endocrinology Laboratory, Department of Biology, University of Padova, Via U. Bassi 58/B, 35131 Padova, Italy.
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Davies W, Humby T, Isles AR, Burgoyne PS, Wilkinson LS. X-monosomy effects on visuospatial attention in mice: a candidate gene and implications for Turner syndrome and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2007; 61:1351-60. [PMID: 17161381 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2006] [Revised: 08/11/2006] [Accepted: 08/15/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The loss of all, or part of an X chromosome, in Turner syndrome (TS, 45,XO) results in deficits in attentional functioning. METHODS Using a 39,XO mouse model, we tested the hypothesis that X-monosomy and/or parental origin of the single X chromosome may influence visuospatial attentional functioning in a 5-choice serial reaction time task (5-CSRTT). RESULTS Under attentionally demanding conditions 39,XO mice displayed impaired discriminative response accuracy and slowed correct reaction times relative to 40,XX mice; these deficits were alleviated in a version of the task with reduced attentional demands. Parental origin of the X did not affect performance of the 5-CSRTT. In contrast, the attentional phenotype was rescued in 40,XY*X mice possessing a single maternally inherited X chromosome and a small Y*X chromosome that comprises a complete pseudoautosomal region (PAR), and a small X-specific segment. CONCLUSIONS Our findings are consistent with an X-monosomy effect on attention and suggest the existence of X-linked gene(s) that escape X-inactivation, are present on the small Y*X chromosome and impact on attentional functioning; the strongest candidate gene is Sts, encoding steroid sulfatase. The data inform the TS literature and indicate novel genetic mechanisms that may be of general significance to the neurobiology of attention.
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Affiliation(s)
- William Davies
- Laboratories of Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience and Developmental Genetics and Imprinting, The Babraham Institute, Babraham Research Campus, Babraham, United Kingdom
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Stute P, Götte M, Kiesel L. Differential effect of hormone therapy on E1S-sulfatase activity in non-malignant and cancerous breast cells in vitro. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2007; 108:363-74. [PMID: 17546497 DOI: 10.1007/s10549-007-9615-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2007] [Accepted: 05/07/2007] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Breast tissue possesses the enzymes for local estrogen biosynthesis. We measured the effect of Estradiol (E2), Tibolone (OrgOD14) and its metabolite Org4094 on estrone sulfate (E1S)-sulfatase (STS) using breast cancer (MCF-7) and non-malignant breast cells (HBL-100). Cells were cultured in 5% steroid depleted fetal calf serum for 3 days and subsequently incubated with each steroid for either 24 h or directly in cell extracts. STS mRNA and protein expression, and its subcellular localization were determined by semi-quantitative RT-PCR, immunoblotting, and confocal immunofluorescence microscopy. STS activity was evaluated by incubating homogenized breast cells with [(3)H]-E1S. The products E1 and E2 were separated by thin layer chromatography. STS was co-localized with the Golgi marker protein GM130 and the endoplasmic reticulum marker protein calnexin. Treatment did not significantly alter STS mRNA expression. STS protein expression was increased by each steroid in HBL-100 cells but by E2 only in MCF-7 cells. 24 h incubation with OrgOD14 and Org4094 did not alter STS activity in both cell lines. However, STS activity was significantly diminished in HBL-100 but slightly increased in MCF-7 cells by 24 h treatment with E2. "Direct" incubation of cell extracts, eliminating cellular regulation of metabolism, reduced estrogen biosynthesis regardless of cell line and treatment. In conclusion, the immediate reduction of estrogen biosynthesis by OrgOD14 is counteracted by an increased STS protein expression. On the contrary, E2 exerts a differential effect on STS in HBL-100 and MCF-7 cells. The transition from normal to malignant breast cells may be accompanied by an abolished autoregulation of local estrogen formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petra Stute
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Münster University Hospital, Muenster, Germany.
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15
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Zaichuk T, Ivancic D, Scholtens D, Schiller C, Khan SA. Tissue-specific transcripts of human steroid sulfatase are under control of estrogen signaling pathways in breast carcinoma. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2007; 105:76-84. [PMID: 17596930 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2006.12.101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2006] [Accepted: 12/18/2006] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Steroid sulfatase (STS) increases the pool of precursors of biologically active steroids, thereby playing an important role in breast cancer development. Mechanisms that control STS expression remain poorly understood. In present study we investigated alterations in the 5' region of STS gene to gain insight into the mechanism(s) that regulates its expression in mammary epithelial cells. We found that at least four alternatively spliced transcripts of STS gene can be produced from at least four different leader exons. Distinct expression patterns of the STS variants were observed in human tissues. Expression profiles of estrogen receptor alpha (ERalpha)-positive and ERalpha-negative breast carcinomas showed that these two categories of tumors and their adjacent benign tissues display remarkably different expression of STS isoforms. Coexpression of STS isoforms with ER isotypes suggests their cell-type specific coregulation. In addition, we identified ERalpha as essential regulator of STS transcription and provide evidence of direct estradiol-dependent binding of ERalpha to multiple STS cis-regulatory regions in vivo. Our results indicate that STS isoforms are under control of estrogen signaling pathways and their differential expression may play a significant role in breast cancer biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tetiana Zaichuk
- Department of Surgery, Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA.
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16
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Hughes PJ, Brown G. 1Alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3-mediated stimulation of steroid sulphatase activity in myeloid leukaemic cell lines requires VDRnuc-mediated activation of the RAS/RAF/ERK-MAP kinase signalling pathway. J Cell Biochem 2006; 98:590-617. [PMID: 16440327 DOI: 10.1002/jcb.20787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
1Alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) (1alpha,25(OH)(2)D(3)) stimulates the activity of steroid sulphatase (STS) in myeloid cells [Hughes et al., 2001, 2005]. This was attenuated by inhibitors of phospholipase D (PLD) (n-butanol, 2,3-diphosphoglyceric acid, C(2)-ceramide) and phosphatidate phosphohydrolase (PAP) (propranolol and chlorpromazine), but was unaffected by inhibitors of phospholipase C. The 1alpha,25(OH)(2)D(3)-induced STS activity was also attenuated by inhibitors of protein kinase Calpha and protein kinase Cdelta (Go 6976, HBDDE and rottlerin), but not by an inhibitor of protein kinase Cbeta (LY379196). Additionally, 1alpha,25(OH)(2)D(3)-induced STS activity was attenuated by inhibitors of RAS (manumycin A), RAF (GW5074), MEK (PD098059 and U1026) and JNK (SP600125), but not p38 (PD169316). 1alpha,25(OH)(2)D(3) produced a rapid and long lasting stimulation of the ERK-MAP kinase signalling cascade in HL60 myeloid leukaemic cells. This 'non-genomic' effect of 1alpha,25(OH)(2)D(3) blocked by pharmacological antagonists of nuclear vitamin D receptors (VDR(nuc)) and does not appear to require hetero-dimerisation with the retinoid-X receptor (RXR). Inhibitors of the Src tyrosine kinase (PP1), RAS (manumycin A), RAS-RAF interactions (sulindac sulphide and RAS inhibitory peptide), RAF (GW5074 or chloroquine), and protein kinase Calpha (HBDDE) abrogated the 1alpha,25(OH)(2)D(3)-stimulated increase in ERK-MAP kinase activity. Taken together, these results show that 1alpha,25(OH)(2)D(3)/VDR(nuc) activation of the RAS/RAF/ERK-MAP kinase signalling pathway plays an important role in augmenting STS activity in human myeloid leukaemic cell lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip J Hughes
- Division of Immunity and Infection, The Medical School, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom.
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17
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Reed MJ, Purohit A, Woo LWL, Newman SP, Potter BVL. Steroid sulfatase: molecular biology, regulation, and inhibition. Endocr Rev 2005; 26:171-202. [PMID: 15561802 DOI: 10.1210/er.2004-0003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 372] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Steroid sulfatase (STS) is responsible for the hydrolysis of aryl and alkyl steroid sulfates and therefore has a pivotal role in regulating the formation of biologically active steroids. The enzyme is widely distributed throughout the body, and its action is implicated in physiological processes and pathological conditions. The crystal structure of the enzyme has been resolved, but relatively little is known about what regulates its expression or activity. Research into the control and inhibition of this enzyme has been stimulated by its important role in supporting the growth of hormone-dependent tumors of the breast and prostate. STS is responsible for the hydrolysis of estrone sulfate and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate to estrone and dehydroepiandrosterone, respectively, both of which can be converted to steroids with estrogenic properties (i.e., estradiol and androstenediol) that can stimulate tumor growth. STS expression is increased in breast tumors and has prognostic significance. The role of STS in supporting tumor growth prompted the development of potent STS inhibitors. Several steroidal and nonsteroidal STS inhibitors are now available, with the irreversible type of inhibitor having a phenol sulfamate ester as its active pharmacophore. One such inhibitor, 667 COUMATE, has now entered a phase I trial in postmenopausal women with breast cancer. The skin is also an important site of STS activity, and deficiency of this enzyme is associated with X-linked ichthyosis. STS may also be involved in regulating part of the immune response and some aspects of cognitive function. The development of potent STS inhibitors will allow investigation of the role of this enzyme in physiological and pathological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J Reed
- Endocrinology and Metabolic Medicine, Imperial College, St. Mary's Hospital, London W2 1NY, United Kingdom.
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18
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19
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Hughes PJ, Twist LE, Durham J, Choudhry MA, Drayson M, Chandraratna R, Michell RH, Kirk CJ, Brown G. Up-regulation of steroid sulphatase activity in HL60 promyelocytic cells by retinoids and 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. Biochem J 2001; 355:361-71. [PMID: 11284723 PMCID: PMC1221747 DOI: 10.1042/0264-6021:3550361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
HL60 promyeloid cells express both classes of oestrogen receptor (ERalpha and ERbeta). We show that hydrolysis of oestrone sulphate by steroid sulphatase is a major source of oestrone in HL60 cells, and that most of the released oestrone is not metabolized further to 17beta-oestradiol. Treatment of HL60 cells with retinoids or 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 increased steroid sulphatase mRNA and activity in parallel with the induction of CD11b, an early marker of myeloid differentiation that is expressed before the differentiating cells stop proliferating. Use of agonists and antagonists against retinoid receptor-alpha and retinoid receptor-X revealed that both classes of retinoid receptor can drive steroid sulphatase up-regulation. Steroid sulphatase activity fluctuates during the cell cycle, being highest around the transition from G1 to S phase. During the differentiation of HL60 cells induced by all-trans-retinoic acid or 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3, there is increased conversion of 17beta-oestradiol into oestrone by an oxidative 17beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase. Treatment of Caco-2 colon adenocarcinoma cells with all-trans-retinoic acid or 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 also increases 17beta-oestradiol oxidation to oestrone. An increase in local oestrone production therefore occurs in multiple cell types following treatment with retinoids and 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. The possible involvement of locally produced oestrogenic steroids in regulating the proliferation and differentiation of myeloid cells is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- P J Hughes
- LRF Differentiation Programme, Division of Immunity and Infection, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK.
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20
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Snyder VL, Turner M, Li PK, El-Sharkawy A, Dunphy G, Ely DL. Tissue steroid sulfatase levels, testosterone and blood pressure. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2000; 73:251-6. [PMID: 11070353 DOI: 10.1016/s0960-0760(00)00075-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to examine the response of tissue steroid sulfatase (STS) levels in hypertensive rat strains, when blood pressure (BP) was lowered by different techniques at an early age. A 4x3 factoral design was used, in which males (n=6-8) from four rat strains (WKY, SHR, SHR/a, SHR/y) at 4 weeks of age, were randomly assigned to one of three treatment groups: a hydralazine group, a castration group and a control group. BP was measured by the tail cuff technique and verified by tail catheter at the end of the experiment. BP was significantly reduced by both treatments in the hypertensive strains (SHR, SHR/a, SHR/y) compared to respective control groups. At 15-17 weeks of age, animals were euthanized and heart, kidney, adrenal glands and liver were assayed for STS levels. The major trend in tissue STS was that castration significantly lowered: adrenal, heart and liver STS in specific strains. In conclusion, castration and hydralazine significantly lowered the BP in the hypertensive rat strains, but only castration consistently lowered STS levels across strains implicating testosterone as a regulator of tissue STS.
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Affiliation(s)
- V L Snyder
- Department of Biology, The University of Akron, 185 S. Forge Street, Akron, OH 44325-3908, USA
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21
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Valigora SD, Lib PK, Dunphy G, Turner M, Ely DL. Steroid sulfatase inhibitor alters blood pressure and steroid profiles in hypertensive rats. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2000; 73:113-22. [PMID: 10925210 DOI: 10.1016/s0960-0760(00)00062-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Our hypothesis is that the steroid sulfatase gene (Sts) may indirectly contribute to the modulation of blood pressure (BP) in rats with genetic hypertension. The steroid sulfatase enzyme (STS) catalyzes the conversion of estrone sulfate, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate, cholesterol sulfate and glucocorticoid sulfates to their active nonconjugated forms. This causes the elevation of biologically active steroids, such as glucocorticoids, mineralcorticoids as well as testosterone, which may lead to increased BP. The main objective was to examine the effects of a steroid sulfatase inhibitor on blood pressure and steroid levels in rats with hypertensive genetic backgrounds. Three treatment groups, 5-15 weeks of age were used: controls, estrone and STS inhibitor (estrone-3-O-sulfamate), (n=8 per group). BP was taken weekly by tail cuff, and serum testosterone (T), estrogens (E), and plasma corticosterone (C) levels were measured by radioimmunoassay. BP was significantly reduced by the STS inhibitor in the strains with genetically elevated BP. Also the inhibitor alone significantly reduced plasma corticosterone in all strains compared to estrone treatment with a concomitant as well as significant rise in estrogens and reduction in testosterone and body weight.
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Affiliation(s)
- S D Valigora
- Department of Biology, The University of Akron, OH 44325-3908, USA
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22
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Coughtrie MW, Sharp S, Maxwell K, Innes NP. Biology and function of the reversible sulfation pathway catalysed by human sulfotransferases and sulfatases. Chem Biol Interact 1998; 109:3-27. [PMID: 9566730 DOI: 10.1016/s0009-2797(97)00117-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Sulfation and sulfate conjugate hydrolysis play an important role in metabolism, and are catalysed by members of the sulfotransferase and sulfatase enzyme super-families. In general, sulfation is a deactivating, detoxication pathway, but for some chemicals the sulfate conjugates are much more reactive than the parent compound. The range of compounds which are sulfated is enormous, yet we still understand relatively little of the function of this pathway. This review summarises current knowledge of the sulfation system and the enzymes involved, and illustrates how heterologous expression of sulfotransferases (SULTs) and sulfatases is aiding our appreciation of the properties of these important proteins. The role of sulfation in the bioactivation of procarcinogens and promutagens is discussed, and new data on the inhibition of the sulfotransferase(s) involved by common dietary components such as tea and coffee are presented. The genetic and environmental factors which are known to influence the activity and expression of human SULTs and sulfatases are also reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- M W Coughtrie
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Pathology, University of Dundee, Ninewells Hospital and Medical School, UK.
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23
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Alperin ES, Shapiro LJ. Characterization of point mutations in patients with X-linked ichthyosis. Effects on the structure and function of the steroid sulfatase protein. J Biol Chem 1997; 272:20756-63. [PMID: 9252398 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.272.33.20756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
X-linked ichthyosis is the result of steroid sulfatase (STS) deficiency. While most affected individuals have extensive deletions of the STS gene, point mutations have been reported in three patients (1). In this study, we identify an additional three point mutations and characterize the effects of all six mutations on STS activity and expression. All six are unique single base pair substitutions. The mutations are located in a 105-amino acid region of the C-terminal half of the polypeptide. Five of the six mutations involve the substitutions of Pro or Arg for Trp372, Arg for His444, Tyr for Cys446, or Leu for Cys341. The other mutation is in a splice junction and results in a frameshift causing premature termination of the polypeptide at residue 427. All the affected residues are conserved to some degree within the sulfatase family. The six mutations were reproduced in normal STS cDNA and transiently expressed in STS-deficient cells. All six mutant vectors direct the expression of STS protein that lacks enzymatic activity. The mutant polypeptides show a shift in mobility on SDS-PAGE and resistance to proteinase K digestion when translated in the presence of dog pancreas microsomes, indicating glycosylation and normal translocation.
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Affiliation(s)
- E S Alperin
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94143, USA
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