Effect of chlorogenic acid on LPS-induced proinflammatory signaling in hepatic stellate cells

Lipopolysaccharide, arbiter of the gut-liver axis, modulates hepatic cell pathophysiology in alcoholism

Over the last four decades, clinical research and experimental studies have established that lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-a component of the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria-is a potent hepatotoxic molecule in humans and animals. Alcohol abuse is commonly associated with LPS endotoxemia. This review highlights LPS molecular structures and modes of release from bacteria, plasma LPS concentrations, induction of microbiota dysbiosis, disruption of gut epithelial barrier, and translocation of LPS into the portal circulation impacting the pathophysiology of hepatic cells via the gut-liver axis. We describe and illustrate the portal vein circulation and its distributaries draining the gastrointestinal tract. We also elaborate on the gut-liver axis coupled with enterohepatic circulation that represents a bidirectional communication between the gut and liver. The review also updates the data on how circulating LPS is cleared in a coordinated effort between Kupffer cells, hepatocytes, and liver sinusoidal endothelial cells. Significantly, the article reviews and updates the modes/mechanisms of action by which LPS mediates the diverse pathophysiology of Kupffer cells, hepatocytes, sinusoidal endothelial cells, and hepatic stellate cells primarily in association with alcohol consumption. Specifically, we review the intricate linkages between ethanol, microbiota dysbiosis, LPS production, gut-liver axis, and pathophysiology of various hepatic cells. The maintenance of the gut barrier structural and functional integrity and microbiome homeostasis is essential in mitigating alcoholic liver disease and improving liver health.

Cytotoxicity of allyl isothiocyanate and its metabolites in hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 cells

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the mechanisms by which allyl isothiocyanate (AITC) exerts its anticancer effects, the present study investigated the cytotoxic effects of AITC and its metabolites on hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 cells.

METHODS

The AITC metabolites, S-(N-allylthiocarbamoyl)-L-glutathione (AITC-GSH), N-acetyl-S-(N-allylthiocarbamoyl)-L-cysteine (NAC-AITC), S-(N-allylthiocarbamoyl)-L-cysteinylglycine (AITC-Cys-Gly), and S-(N-allylthiocarbamoyl)-L-cysteine (AITC-Cys) were synthesized. HepG2 cells were treated with these compounds and AITC and subjected to a cell cycle analysis, HPLC analysis for intracellular AITC metabolites, and intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) analysis.

RESULTS

AITC, AITC-GSH, and NAC-AITC significantly induced cell cycle arrest in the G2/M phase and subsequently enhanced apoptotic cell death. The AITC metabolites, AITC-Cys-Gly and AITC-Cys did not induce cell cycle arrest. A correlation was observed between the intracellular concentration of AITC-GSH and the percentage of cells under G2/M arrest after the treatments with AITC, AITC-GSH, and NAC-AITC. AITC derived from HepG2 cells treated with AITC-GSH and NAC-AITC conjugated with endogenous GSH, resulting in an increase in ROS levels. A treatment with a ROS inhibitor canceled cell cycle arrest.

CONCLUSION

The conjugation of intracellular GSH with AITC decreased free reduced GSH levels and increased intracellular ROS levels in HepG2 cells, resulting in cytotoxicity, including cell cycle arrest and apoptosis.

Honey Bioactive Molecules: There Is a World Beyond the Sugars

Honey's many bioactive compounds have been utilized historically to cure infectious diseases. Beneficial effects are its antiviral, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immune-stimulating qualities. The bee species, geographic location, botanical origin, harvest season, processing, and storage conditions all affect honey's potential for therapeutic use. Honey contains a number of antioxidants and active compounds, such as polyphenols, which have been shown to have disease-preventive properties. Based on their origins, categories, and functions, the main polyphenols found in various honey varieties are examined in this review.

Treatment Options and Continuity of Care in Metabolic-associated Fatty Liver Disease: A Multidisciplinary Approach

The terms non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis have some limitations as they use exclusionary confounder terms and the use of potentially stigmatising language. Recently, a study with content experts and patients has been set to change this nomenclature. The term chosen to replace non-alcoholic fatty liver disease was metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD), which avoids stigmatising and helps improve awareness and patient identification. MASLD is the most common cause of chronic liver disease with an increasing prevalence, accounting for 25% of the global population. It is considered the hepatic manifestation of the metabolic syndrome with lifestyle playing a fundamental role in its physiopathology. Diet change and physical activity are the cornerstones of treatment, encompassing weight loss and healthier behaviours and a holistic approach. In Europe, there is no approved drug for MASLD to date and there is a substantial unmet medical need for effective treatments for patients with MASLD. This review not only provides an update on advances in evidence for nutrition and physical activity interventions but also explores the different therapeutic options that are being investigated and whose development focuses on the restitution of metabolic derangements and halting inflammatory and fibrogenic pathways.

Osteogenic Induction and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Calcium-Chlorogenic Acid Nanoparticles Remodel the Osteoimmunology Microenvironment for Accelerating Bone Repair

Successful bone regeneration requires close cooperation between bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) and macrophages, but the low osteogenic differentiation efficiency of stem cells and the excessive inflammatory response of immune cells hinder the development of bone repair. It is necessary to develop a strategy that simultaneously regulates the osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs and the anti-inflammatory polarization of macrophages for accelerating the bone regeneration. Herein, calcium-chlorogenic acid nanoparticles (Ca-CGA NPs) are synthesized by combining the small molecules of chlorogenic acid (CGA) with Ca2+. Ca-CGA NPs internalized by cells can be dissolved to release free CGA and Ca2+ under low pH conditions in lysosomes. In vitro results demonstrate that Ca-CGA NPs can not only enhance the osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs but also promote the phenotype transformation of macrophages from M1 to M2. Furthermore, in vivo experiments confirm that Ca-CGA NPs treatment facilitates the recovery of rat skull defect model through both osteoinduction and immunomodulation. This study develops a new Ca-CGA NPs-based strategy to induce the differentiation of BMSCs into osteoblasts and the polarization of macrophages into M2 phenotype, which is promising for accelerating bone repair.

Dietary and pharmacological treatment in patients with metabolic-dysfunction associated steatotic liver disease

Metabolic-dysfunction Associated Steatotic Liver Disease (MASLD) is a disease spectrum encompassing liver injury with progressive severity, tightly connected to the metabolic syndrome. Management of MASLD mostly relies on lifestyle change aiming at improving metabolic homeostasis and insulin resistance. A Mediterranean-like dietary pattern and individualized lifestyle interventions are the cornerstone of MASLD treatment. A careful evaluation of alcohol intake and active treatment of all metabolic co-morbidities are recommended. In the MASLD spectrum, the population with liver inflammation and enhanced fibrogenesis (MASH - Metabolic-dysfunction associated steatohepatitis) can progress to advanced liver disease and has been addressed as "at-risk MASH", eligible to pharmacological treatment according to FDA and EMA. Currently there is a robust therapeutic pipeline across a variety of new targets to resolve MASH or reverse fibrosis, or both. Some of these therapies have beneficial effects that extend beyond the liver, such as effects on glycaemic control, lipid profile and weight loss. For "at-risk" MASH, reversal of fibrosis by one stage or resolution of MASH with no worsening in fibrosis as a surrogate end-point will need to be accompanied by overall survival benefits. In this review, we summarize the current evidence on lifestyle interventions in MASLD as well as pharmacological approaches for fibrosing MASH that have progressed to phase II and phase III clinical trials.

Research Progress of Natural Products with the Activity of Anti-nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis

Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), a multi-target disease, is becoming a global epidemic. Although several anti-NASH drug candidates are being evaluated in late-stage clinical trials, none have been approved by the FDA to date. Given the global prevalence of the disease, the lack of effective drugs, and the very limited therapeutic efficacy of most of the existing synthetic drugs focusing on a single target, there is an urgent need to continue to develop new therapeutic agents. In contrast, many natural products, including pure compounds and crude extracts, possess hepatoprotective activities. Usually, these natural components are characterized by multi-targeting and low side effects. Therefore, natural products are important resources for the development of new anti- NASH drugs. In this paper, we focus on reviewing the anti-NASH potential, structure, and some of the side effects of natural products based on structural classification. We hope this mini-review will help researchers design and develop new anti-NASH drugs, especially based on the structure of natural products.

Roles of Gut Microbiota in Alcoholic Liver Disease

Alcoholic liver disease (ALD)-one of the most common liver diseases - involves a wide range of disorders, including asymptomatic hepatic steatosis, alcoholic hepatitis (AH), liver fibrosis, and cirrhosis. Alcohol consumption induces a weakened gut barrier and changes in the composition of the gut microbiota. The presence of CYP2E1 and its elevated levels in the gastrointestinal tract after alcohol exposure lead to elevated levels of ROS and acetaldehyde, inducing inflammation and oxidative damage in the gut. At the same time, the influx of harmful molecules such as the bacterial endotoxin LPS and peptidogly from gut dysbiosis can induce intestinal inflammation and oxidative damage, further compromising the intestinal mucosal barrier. In this process, various oxidative stress-mediated post-translational modifications (PTMs) play an important role in the integrity of the barrier, eg, the presence of acetaldehyde will result in the sustained phosphorylation of several paracellular proteins (occludin and zona occludens-1), which can lead to intestinal leakage. Eventually, persistent oxidative stress, LPS infiltration and hepatocyte damage through the enterohepatic circulation will lead to hepatic stellate cell activation and hepatic fibrosis. In addition, probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics, fecal microbial transplantation (FMT), bioengineered bacteria, gut-restricted FXR agonists and others are promising therapeutic approaches that can alter gut microbiota composition to improve ALD. In the future, there will be new challenges to study the interactions between the genetics of individuals with ALD and their gut microbiome, to provide personalized interventions targeting the gut-liver axis, and to develop better techniques to measure microbial communities and metabolites in the body.

An In Vitro and In Vivo Assessment of Antitumor Activity of Extracts Derived from Three Well-Known Plant Species

One of the objectives of this study consists of the assessment of the antitumor activity of several extracts from three selected plant species: Xanthium spinosum L., Trifolium pratense L., and Coffea arabica L. and also a comparative study of this biological activity, with the aim of establishing a superior herbal extract for antitumor benefits. The phytochemical profile of the extracts was established by HPLC-MS analysis. Further, the selected extracts were screened in vitro for their antitumor activity and antioxidant potential on two cancer cell lines: A549-human lung adenocarcinoma and T47D-KBluc-human breast carcinoma and on normal cells. One extract per plant was selected for in vivo assessment of antitumor activity in an Ehrlich ascites mouse model. The extracts presented high content of antitumor compounds such as caffeoylquinic acids in the case of X. spinosum L. (7.22 µg/mL-xanthatin, 4.611 µg/mL-4-O-caffeoylquinic acid) and green coffee beans (10.008 µg/mL-cafestol, 265.507 µg/mL-4-O-caffeoylquinic acid), as well as isoflavones in the case of T. pratense L. (6806.60 ng/mL-ononin, 102.78 µg/mL-biochanin A). Concerning the in vitro results, the X. spinosum L. extracts presented the strongest anticancerous and antioxidant effects. In vivo, ascites cell viability decreased after T. pratense L. and green coffee bean extracts administration, whereas the oxidative stress reduction potential was important in tumor samples after T. pratense L. Cell viability was also decreased after administration of cyclophosphamide associated with X. spinosum L. and T. pratense L. extracts, respectively. These results suggested that T. pratense L. or X. spinosum L. extracts in combination with chemotherapy can induce lipid peroxidation in tumor cells and decrease the tumor viability especially, T. pratense L. extract.

Protective effects of chlorogenic acid on growth, intestinal inflammation, hepatic antioxidant capacity, muscle development and skin color in channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus fed an oxidized fish oil diet

Under oxidative stress condition, the protective effects of dietary chlorogenic acid (CGA) supplementation on liver antioxidant capacity, intestinal inflammation and barrier function, muscle development and skin coloration in channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus were explored in the current study. With that purpose, I. punctatus were fed five experimental diets containing 2% fresh fish oil (FFO, 9.2 meqO₂/kg) or 2% oxidized fish oil (OFO, 897.4 meqO₂/kg) without or with CGA supplementation (0.02%, 0.04% and 0.08%) for 8 weeks. Upon comparative analysis, the oxidized fish oil consumption significantly lowered weight gain rate, decreased intestinal villi length and muscular thickness values and the tight junction proteins mRNA abundance, augmented the intestinal proinflammatory factors, attenuated hepatic antioxidant enzymes activities and related genes mRNA expression levels, influenced the myogenic regulatory factors expression profile and impacted the myocyte density, myocyte area values as well as the skin pigments contents compared to the FFO treatment. Collectively, long-term feeding of the oxidized fish oil diet suppressed the growth performance, destroyed intestinal structural integrity, caused intestinal inflammation and hepatic oxidative stress, impacted the skeletal development and skin color of I. punctatus. Whereas CGA supplementation in oxidized fish oil diets partially counteracted the negative effects of the oxidized fish oil on I. punctatus in terms of increasing the growth performance, improving the intestinal mucosal structure, alleviating hepatic oxidative stress and intestinal inflammation, recompiling the myogenic regulatory factors expression and improving skin color. In conclusion, CGA has great potential to be an aquatic feed additive.

Ginsenoside AD-2 Ameliorating Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Activation in HSC-T6 Cells and Carbon Tetrachloride-Induced Hepatic Fibrosis in Mice via Regulation of VD-VDR Axis

Ginsenoside 25-hydroxy protopanaxadiol (AD-2) isolated from ginseng was proved to have anti-hepatic fibrosis (HF) effect in our previous study. But the mechanism is unknown. The present study investigated the anti-HF effects and mechanisms of AD-2 on the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced activation in HSC-T6 cells and carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced hepatic fibrosis (HF) in mice. Results showed that AD-2 significantly inhibited the LPS-induced activated HSC-T6 cells in vitro and markedly reduced the serum transaminase and hydroxyproline levels, pathological changes, and hepatic body ratio in CCl4-induced HF mice, indicating AD-2 ameliorated liver injury and reversed HF notably. Moreover, AD-2 decreased the expression of TGF-β1, α-SMA, and MMP2, and maintained TIMP1/MMP9 in balance with the level of vitamin D (VD) and the expression of VD nuclear receptor (VDR) and Sirt3 increased. In conclusion, the anti-HF mechanism of AD-2 is related to the inhibition of HSC activation, promotion of collagen degradation, and regulation of the VD/VDR axis.

Chlorogenic acid enhances alveolar macrophages phagocytosis in acute respiratory distress syndrome by activating G protein-coupled receptor 37 (GPR 37)

BACKGROUND

Impaired alveolar macrophages phagocytosis can contribute to pathogenesis of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and negatively impacts clinical outcomes. Chlorogenic acid (CGA) is a naturally occurring polyphenolic compound with potential anti-inflammatory and antioxidant bioactivities. Studies have shown that CGA plays a protective role in ARDS, however, the precise protective mechanism of CGA against ARDS, is still unclear.

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to investigate whether CGA enhances alveolar macrophages phagocytosis to attenuate lung injury during ARDS.

METHODS

RAW264.7 cells were stimulated with lipopolysaccharides (100 μg/ml for 24 h) and treated with CGA (100, 200, and 400 μM CGA for 1 h) to measure pro-inflammatory cytokine levels, GPR37 expression and macrophages phagocytosis. Mouse models of ARDS induced by cecal ligation and perforation (CLP) surgery were treated with CGA (100 or 200 mg/kg) to investigate lung inflammatory injury and alveolar macrophages phagocytosis. Computational modeling was performed to examine potential binding sites of G protein-coupled receptor 37 (GPR37) with CGA, and the results were validated by interfering with the binding sites.

RESULT

In vitro, CGA notably ameliorated inflammatory response and increased phagocytosis in lipopolysaccharides-induced RAW264.7 cells. In vivo, CGA administration significantly alleviated lung inflammatory injury, decreased the bacteria load in the lung, promoted alveolar macrophages phagocytosis and improved the survival rate in mice with CLP-induced ARDS. Moreover, CGA markedly upregulated the expression of GPR37 in vivo and in vitro. However, the protective effect of CGA against ARDS were reversed after silencing the expression of GPR37.

CONCLUSION

CGA has a protective effect against ARDS and may enhance alveolar macrophages phagocytosis and attenuate lung inflammatory injury by upregulating GPR37 expression.

A review of the protective effects of chlorogenic acid against different chemicals

Chlorogenic acid (CGA) is a naturally occurring non-flavonoid polyphenol found in green coffee beans, teas, certain fruits, and vegetables, that exerts antiviral, antitumor, antibacterial, and antioxidant effects. Several in vivo and in vitro studies have demonstrated that CGA can protect against toxicities induced by chemicals of different classes such as fungal/bacterial toxins, pharmaceuticals, metals, pesticides, etc., by preservation of cell survival via reducing overproduction of nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species and suppressed pro-apoptotic signaling. CGA antioxidant effects mediated through the Nrf2-heme oxygenase-1 signaling pathway were shown to enhance the levels of antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione-S-transferases, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione reductase as well as glutathione content. Also, CGA could suppress inflammation via inhibition of toll-like receptor 4 and MyD88, and the phosphorylation of inhibitor of kappa B and p65 subunit of NF-κB, resulting in diminished levels of downstream inflammatory factors including interleukin (IL)-1 β, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-α, macrophage inflammatory protein 2, cyclooxygenase-2, and prostaglandin E2. Moreover, CGA inhibited apoptosis by reducing Bax, cytochrome C, and caspase 3 and 9 expression while increasing Bcl-2 levels. The present review discusses several mechanisms through which CGA may exert its protective role against such agents. Chemical and natural toxic agents affect human health. Phenolic antioxidant compounds can suppress free radical production and combat these toxins. Chlorogenic acid is a plant polyphenol present in the human diet and exerts strong antioxidant properties that can effectively help in the treatment of various toxicities.

Mesenchymal Stromal/Stem Cells and Their Extracellular Vesicles Application in Acute and Chronic Inflammatory Liver Diseases: Emphasizing on the Anti-Fibrotic and Immunomodulatory Mechanisms

Various factors, including viral and bacterial infections, autoimmune responses, diabetes, drugs, alcohol abuse, and fat deposition, can damage liver tissue and impair its function. These factors affect the liver tissue and lead to acute and chronic liver damage, and if left untreated, can eventually lead to cirrhosis, fibrosis, and liver carcinoma. The main treatment for these disorders is liver transplantation. Still, given the few tissue donors, problems with tissue rejection, immunosuppression caused by medications taken while receiving tissue, and the high cost of transplantation, liver transplantation have been limited. Therefore, finding alternative treatments that do not have the mentioned problems is significant. Cell therapy is one of the treatments that has received a lot of attention today. Hepatocytes and mesenchymal stromal/stem cells (MSCs) are used in many patients to treat liver-related diseases. In the meantime, the use of mesenchymal stem cells has been studied more than other cells due to their favourable characteristics and has reduced the need for liver transplantation. These cells increase the regeneration and repair of liver tissue through various mechanisms, including migration to the site of liver injury, differentiation into liver cells, production of extracellular vesicles (EVs), secretion of various growth factors, and regulation of the immune system. Notably, cell therapy is not entirely excellent and has problems such as cell rejection, undesirable differentiation, accumulation in unwanted locations, and potential tumorigenesis. Therefore, the application of MSCs derived EVs, including exosomes, can help treat liver disease and prevent its progression. Exosomes can prevent apoptosis and induce proliferation by transferring different cargos to the target cell. In addition, these vesicles have been shown to transport hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) and can promote the hepatocytes'(one of the most important cells in the liver parenchyma) growths.

Medicinal plants used against hepatic disorders in Bangladesh: A comprehensive review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Liver disease is a major cause of illness and death worldwide which accounts for approximately 2 million deaths per year worldwide, 1 million due to complications of cirrhosis and 1 million due to viral hepatitis and hepatocellular carcinoma. That's why it is seeking the researchers' attention to find out the effective treatment strategies. Phytochemicals from natural resources are the main leads for the development of noble hepatoprotective drugs. The majority of the natural sources whose active compounds are currently employed actually have an ethnomedical use. Ethnopharmacological research is essential for the development of these bioactive compounds. These studies not only provide scientific evidence on medicinal plants utilized for particular therapeutic purposes, but they also ensure cultural heritage preservation. Plenty of experimental studies have been well-documented that the ethnomedicinal plants are of therapeutics' interest for the advanced pharmacological intervention in terms of hepatic disorders.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study summarizes the processes of hepatotoxicity induced by various toxins and explores identified hepatoprotective plants and their phytoconstituents, which can guide the extraction of novel phytochemical constituents from plants to treat liver injury. This review aimed to summarize the hepatoprotective activity of Bangladeshi medicinal plants where the bioactive compounds may be leads for the drug discovery in future.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Literature searches in electronic databases, such as Web of Science, Science Direct, SpringerLink, PubMed, Google Scholar, Semantic Scholar, Scopus, BanglaJOL, and so on, were performed using the keywords 'Bangladesh', 'ethnomedicinal plants', 'Hepatoprotective agents' as for primary searches, and secondary search terms were used as follows, either alone or in combination: traditional medicine, medicinal plants, folk medicine, liver, hepatitis, therapeutic uses, and anti-inflammatory. Besides, several books, including the book entitled "Medicinal plants of Bangladesh: chemical constituents and uses" authored by Abdul Ghani, were carefully considered, which contained pharmacological properties and phytoconstituents of many medicinal plants growing and traditionally available in Bangladesh. Among them, the most promising plant species with their latest therapeutic effects against hepatic disorders were deeply considered in this review.

RESULTS

The results of this study revealed that in most cases, therapy using plant extracts stabilized altered hepatic biochemical markers induced by hepatotoxins. Initially, we investigated 32 plant species for hepatoprotective activity, however after extensive literature searching; we observed that 20 plants offer good pharmacological evidence of hepatoprotective function. Consequently, most bioactive compounds derived from the herbs including berberine, thymoquinone, andrographolide, ursolic acid, luteolin, naringenin, genistein, quercetin, troxerutin, morin, epigallocatechin-3-gallate, chlorogenic acid, emodin, curcumin, resveratrol, capsaicin, ellagic acid, etc. are appeared to be effective against hepatic disorders.

CONCLUSIONS

Flavonoids, phenolic acids, monoterpenoids, diterpenoids, triterpenoids, alkaloids, chromenes, capsaicinoids, curcuminoids, and anthraquinones are among the phytoconstituents were appraised to have hepatoprotective activities. All the actions displayed by these ethnomedicinal plants could make them serve as leads in the formulation of drugs with higher efficacy to treat hepatic disorders.

Polyphenols: Potential anti-inflammatory agents for treatment of metabolic disorders

Ample evidence highlights the potential benefits of polyphenols in health status especially in obesity-related metabolic disorders such as insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases. Mechanistically, due to the key role of "Metainflammation" in the pathomechanism of metabolic disorders, recently much focus has been placed on the properties of polyphenols in obesity-related morbidities. This narrative review summarizes the current knowledge on the role of polyphenols, including genistein, chlorogenic acid, ellagic acid, caffeic acid, and silymarin in inflammatory responses pertinent to metabolic disorders and discusses the implications of this evidence for future directions. This review provides evidence that the aforementioned polyphenols benefit health status in metabolic disorders via direct and indirect regulation of a variety of target proteins involved in inflammatory signaling pathways. However, due to limitations of the in vitro and in vivo studies and also the lack of long-term human clinical trials studies, further high-quality investigations are required to firmly establish the clinical efficacy of the polyphenols for the prevention and management of metabolic disorders.

The Pharmacological Effects and Pharmacokinetics of Active Compounds of Artemisia capillaris

Artemisia capillaris Thunb. (A.capillaris, Yin-Chen in Chinese) is a traditional medicinal herb with a wide spectrum of pharmacological properties ranging from effects against liver dysfunction to treatments of severe cirrhosis and cancer. We used relevant keywords to search electronic databases, including PubMed, Medline, and Google Scholar, for scientific contributions related to this medicinal herb and the pharmacokinetics of its components. The pharmaceutical effects of A.capillaris contribute to the treatment not only of viral hepatitis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular hepatoma, but also metabolic syndrome, psoriasis, and enterovirus in the clinic. The bioactive compounds, including scoparone, capillarisin, scopoletin, and chlorogenic acid, exhibit antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antisteatotic, antiviral, and antitumor properties, reflecting the pharmacological effects of A.capillaris. The pharmacokinetics of the main bioactive compounds in A. capillaris can achieve a maximum concentration within 1 hour, but only chlorogenic acid has a relatively long half-life. Regarding the use of the A. capillaris herb by health professionals to treat various diseases, the dosing schedule of this herb should be carefully considered to maximize therapeutic outcomes while lessening possible side effects.

Diet and exercise in NAFLD/NASH: Beyond the obvious

Lifestyle represents the most relevant factor for non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) as the hepatic manifestation of the metabolic syndrome. Although a tremendous body of clinical and preclinical data on the effectiveness of dietary and lifestyle interventions exist, the complexity of this topic makes firm and evidence-based clinical recommendations for nutrition and exercise in NAFLD difficult. The aim of this review is to guide readers through the labyrinth of recent scientific findings on diet and exercise in NAFLD and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), summarizing "obvious" findings in a holistic manner and simultaneously highlighting stimulating aspects of clinical and translational research "beyond the obvious". Specifically, the importance of calorie restriction regardless of dietary composition and evidence from low-carbohydrate diets to target the incidence and severity of NAFLD are discussed. The aspect of ketogenesis-potentially achieved via intermittent calorie restriction-seems to be a central aspect of these diets warranting further investigation. Interactions of diet and exercise with the gut microbiota and the individual genetic background need to be comprehensively understood in order to develop personalized dietary concepts and exercise strategies for patients with NAFLD/NASH.

The Gut Microbiota-Bile Acids-TGR5 Axis Mediates Eucommia ulmoides Leaf Extract Alleviation of Injury to Colonic Epithelium Integrity

Eucommia ulmoides leaves (EL) are rich in phenolic acids and flavonoids, showing enhancing intestinal health effects. The intestinal microbiota-bile acid axis plays important roles in the occurrence and recovery of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). However, whether EL extract (ELE) has regulatory effects on the intestinal microbiota, bile acid metabolism, and IBD is still unclear. To fill this gap, 2% dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced mild IBD in a C57BL/6J mouse model that was treated with 200 or 400 mg/kg (intake dose/body weight) ELE was used. Oral ELE supplementation alleviated DSS-induced shortening of colon and colonic epithelial injury. Compared with the DSS group, ELE supplementation significantly decreased Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and interlukin-6 (IL-6) and increased occludin and claudin-1 mRNA expression level in the colon (p < 0.05). Combined 16S rRNA gene sequencing and targeted metabolomic analyses demonstrated that ELE significantly improved the diversity and richness of the intestinal microbiota, decreased the abundance of Bacteroidaceae, and increased Akkermansiaceae and Ruminococcaceae abundance (p < 0.05) compared with DSS-induced IBD mice. Moreover, ELE significantly increased the serum contents of deoxycholic acid (DCA) and tauroursodeoxycholic acid (TUDCA), which were highly positively correlated with Akkermansia and unidentified_Ruminococccaceae relative to the DSS group. We then found that ELE increased Takeda G-protein coupled receptor 5 (TGR5), claudin-1, and occludin mRNA expression levels in the colon. In the Caco-2 cell model, we confirmed that activation of TGR5 improved the reduction in transepithelial electoral resistance (TEER) and decreased the permeability of FITC-dextran on monolayer cells induced by LPS (p < 0.05). siRNA interference assays showed that the decrease in TGR5 expression led to the decrease in TEER, an increase in FITC-dextran permeability, and a decrease in claudin-1 protein expression in Caco-2 cells. In summary, ELE alleviated IBD by influencing the intestinal microbiota structure and composition of bile acids, which in turn activated the colonic TGR5 gene expression in the colon and promoted the expression of tight junction proteins. These findings provide new insight for using ELE as a functional food with adjuvant therapeutic effects in IBD.

Effects of a Chlorogenic Acid-Containing Herbal Medicine (LASNB) on Colon Cancer

Background

Plant polyphenols, which contain phenolic acids such as chlorogenic acid (CGA), can be used for the treatment of gastrointestinal cancer and have gained increasing attention in recent years. In this study, we explored a novel CGA-containing herbal medicine named LAS^NB, which was extracted from Lonicera japonica Thunb., Agrimonia eupatoria L., and Scutellaria barbata D.Don.

Methods

CGA in LAS^NB was analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The biological functions and molecular mechanisms of LAS^NB were investigated in colon cancer cell lines (HCT116, HCT15, and CT26), a normal colon cell line (NCM460), and a CT26 xenograft model. To assess safety, hematological toxicity and pathology of the liver, kidney, and lung were evaluated.

Results

LAS^NB suppressed HCT116, HCT15, and CT26 colon cancer progression by inhibiting proliferation capacity, promoting cell apoptosis, and suppressing cell migration both in vitro and in vivo. Investigation into the underlying molecular mechanism indicated that LAS^NB suppressed the activation of receptor tyrosine kinase- (RTK-) MEK-ERK and NF-κB pathways. With regard to safety, slight interstitial vascular congestion in the lung was observed, but no severe pathological or hematological toxicity was detected.

Conclusions

We found that LAS^NB suppressed the progression of colon cancer via the RTK-MEK-ERK and NF-κB pathways, with no severe toxicity observed. Therefore, LAS^NB has the potential to be used as a supplementary herbal medicine for the treatment of colon cancer.

Translational Approaches with Antioxidant Phytochemicals against Alcohol-Mediated Oxidative Stress, Gut Dysbiosis, Intestinal Barrier Dysfunction, and Fatty Liver Disease

Emerging data demonstrate the important roles of altered gut microbiomes (dysbiosis) in many disease states in the peripheral tissues and the central nervous system. Gut dysbiosis with decreased ratios of Bacteroidetes/Firmicutes and other changes are reported to be caused by many disease states and various environmental factors, such as ethanol (e.g., alcohol drinking), Western-style high-fat diets, high fructose, etc. It is also caused by genetic factors, including genetic polymorphisms and epigenetic changes in different individuals. Gut dysbiosis, impaired intestinal barrier function, and elevated serum endotoxin levels can be observed in human patients and/or experimental rodent models exposed to these factors or with certain disease states. However, gut dysbiosis and leaky gut can be normalized through lifestyle alterations such as increased consumption of healthy diets with various fruits and vegetables containing many different kinds of antioxidant phytochemicals. In this review, we describe the mechanisms of gut dysbiosis, leaky gut, endotoxemia, and fatty liver disease with a specific focus on the alcohol-associated pathways. We also mention translational approaches by discussing the benefits of many antioxidant phytochemicals and/or their metabolites against alcohol-mediated oxidative stress, gut dysbiosis, intestinal barrier dysfunction, and fatty liver disease.

Chlorogenic acid: A comprehensive review of the dietary sources, processing effects, bioavailability, beneficial properties, mechanisms of action, and future directions

Chlorogenic acids (CGAs), a group of hydroxycinnamates, are generally abundant in everyday foods and beverages, most prominently in certain coffee drinks. Among them, the chlorogenic acid (CGA), also termed as 5-O-caffeoylquinic acid (5-CQA), is one of the most abundant, highly functional polyphenolic compounds in the human diet. The evidence of its health benefits obtained from clinical studies, as well as basic research, indicates an inverse correlation between 5-CQA consumption and a lower risk of metabolic syndromes and chronic diseases. This review focuses on the beneficial properties for health and mechanisms of action of 5-CQA, starting with its history, isomers, dietary sources, processing effects, preparation methods, pharmacological safety evaluation, and bioavailability. It also provides the possible molecular mechanistic bases to explain the health beneficial effects of 5-CQA including neuroprotective, cardiovascular protective, gastrointestinal protective, renoprotective, hepatoprotective, glucose and lipid metabolism regulatory, and anticarcinogenic effects. The information summarized here could aid in the basic and clinical research on 5-CQA as a natural dietary additive, potential drug candidate, as well as a natural health promoter.

Study on the Anticancer Effect of an Astragaloside- and Chlorogenic Acid-Containing Herbal Medicine (RLT-03) in Breast Cancer

Background

Although surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and endocrine therapy are widely used in clinical practice for breast cancer treatment, herbal medicines (HMs) are considered as an alternative to palliative treatments because of their coordinated intervention effects and relatively low side effects. Astragaloside (AS) and chlorogenic acid (CGA) are major active ingredients of Radix Astragali and Lonicera japonica, which have shown antitumorigenic properties in certain cancers, but the role of HMs containing both AS and CGA remains unclear in breast cancer. In this study, we explored an AS- and CGA-containing HM (RLT-03) extracted from Radix Astragali, Lonicerae Japonicae Flos, Trichosanthin, and Rhizoma imperatae.

Methods

RLT-03 was extracted using water and n-butanol, and the AS and CGA ingredients in RLT-03 were identified by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and evaporative light-scattering detector (ELSD). 4T1, EMT6, BT-549, and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell lines were used, and an EMT6 xenograft model was established. Cell proliferation, migration, and apoptosis were measured in vitro, and tumor volume and weight were observed in vivo. The expression of VEGF, EGF, IL-10, TGF-β, and CD34 and cell apoptosis in tumors were examined.

Results

RLT-03 inhibited cell viability and induced apoptosis in a dose- and time-dependent manner. In vivo, tumor volume and weight were reduced, and the expression of VEGF, EGF, IL-10, TGF-β, and CD34 was suppressed in the tumor microenvironment, while cell apoptosis was induced.

Conclusion

RLT-03 exhibited therapeutic effects against breast cancer by regulating the expression of ligands of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) and inflammatory factors. Thus, RLT-03 represents a potential supplementary HM that can be used in breast cancer therapy.

Chlorogenic Acid Decreases Malignant Characteristics of Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells by Inhibiting DNMT1 Expression

Background

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common malignant tumor of the adult liver, exhibiting rapid progression and poor prognosis. Chlorogenic acid (CGA), a polyphenol, has several biological activities, including the suppression of liver cancer cell invasion and metastasis. Increased levels or alterations in the function of DNMT1 are associated with the inactivation of tumor suppressor genes. However, the CGA-affected DNMT1 expression mediated mechanism is still unclear.

Methods

The human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) HepG2 cells were treated with a positive control drug (5-AZA) or varying doses of CGA. DNA methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1) protein levels and other relevant proteins were evaluated using Western blotting and immunocytochemistry. Cell-cycle analysis was performed by flow cytometry-based PI staining, and cell viability was assessed using 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. The transwell invasion and wound healing assays were used to evaluate cell migration and invasion. In vivo proliferation of the HCC cells was detected. We investigated the expression of DNMT1, p53, p21, p-ERK, MMP-2, and MMP-9 in tumors using immunohistochemical analysis.

Results

Our results showed that CGA inhibited the proliferation, colony formation, invasion, and metastasis of HepG2 cells both in vitro and in vivo by down-regulating DNMT1 protein expression, which enhanced p53 and p21 activity, and resulting in a significant reduction in cell proliferation and metastasis. Moreover, CGA inactivated ERK1/2 and reduced MMP-2 and MMP-9 expression in HepG2 cells.

Conclusions

CGA can suppress liver cancer cell proliferation, invasion, and metastasis through several pathways. CGA could serve as a candidate chemopreventive agent for HCC.

A new method of ultra-performance liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry for determination of chlorogenic acid in human plasma and urine

RATIONALE

Chlorogenic acid (CA) is well known for its various biological activities. Here, a clinical study was performed in patients with advanced malignant cancer to explore its therapeutic effects. We aimed to develop a method to quantify CA in human plasma and urine to assist the clinical pharmacokinetic study.

METHODS

Ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) coupled with a triple quadruple mass spectrometry was used to separate and detect CA, with puerarin serving as the internal standard.

RESULTS

The method presents an excellent linearity ranging from 5 to 2000 ng/mL for plasma analysis and 50 to 20 000 ng/mL for urine analysis. Intra- and inter-day precision and accuracy were both less than 15% for plasma and urine.

CONCLUSIONS

These results showed that the novel UPLC method was robust and sensitive, and fulfilled the requirements for a clinical pharmacokinetic study of CA in patients with advanced cancer.

Elsholtzia ciliata (Thunb.) Hyl. Extracts from Different Plant Parts: Phenolic Composition, Antioxidant, and Anti-Inflammatory Activities

Polyphenols play an important role on the health-promoting properties of humans. Plants belonging to Lamiaceae family are known as rich source of phenolic compounds. The current work aimed to evaluate the phenolic compounds, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activity of Elsholtzia ciliata (Thunb.) Hyl. ethanolic extracts from leaf, stem, flower, and whole herb. Twelve compounds were identified in ethanolic extracts using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The HPLC analysis revealed that chlorogenic acid, rosmarinic acid, and rutin were predominant compounds in ethanolicic extracts. Using HPLC-ABTS (2,2’-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)) post-column assay, avicularin, chlorogenic, and rosmarinic acids were identified as the predominant radical scavengers in all ethanolic extracts. All tested preparations significantly reduced the level of secretion of proinflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-6, and prostaglandin E2 induced by lipopolysaccharide treatment in mouse peritoneal macrophage cell culture. Stem and flower extracts were most efficient in reducing cytokine release, but leaf extract demonstrated stronger effect on prostaglandin E2 secretion. This is the first study exploring antioxidant efficiency by HPLC–ABTS post-column method and investigating anti-inflammatory activity of ethanolic extracts from E. ciliata different plant parts.

Literature data based systems pharmacology uncovers the essence of "body fire" in traditional Chinese medicine: A case by Huang-Lian-Jie-Du-Tang

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY RELEVANCE

Like other concepts in traditional Chinese medical theory, "body fire", a concept that has already been well-known and widely used in describing the symptoms and the treatment of corresponding diseases, is, however, still under suspicions in the western medicine due to its vague essence and symptoms. Presently, Huang-Lian-Jie-Du-Tang (HLJDT), a typical popular TCM formula in cleansing the "body fire", is studied as a probe by a systems pharmacology method we produced, with purpose to explore the mechanisms of the potion, as well as to interpret the essence of "body fire" disease.

METHODS

The systematic process includes a pharmacokinetics prescreening, pharmacodynamics targets and pathways identification, and candidate-target-pathway network construction.

RESULTS

Through this method, 145 chemicals and 91 proteins are identified as active ingredients and "body fire"-related targets. And we find that the mechanism of HLJDT prescription for cleansing "body fire" lies in three, i.e., anti-OS/NS, anti-inflammation and anti-infection function modules, which are mainly executed through four, i.e., PI3K-AKT, MAPK, VEGF as well as Calcium signaling pathways.

CONCLUSIONS

Accordingly, the essence of "body fire" is a gradual process which is an integration of OS/NS, inflammation and infection. This work, we hope, may not only offer a systemic methodology for exploring and elucidating TCM concepts from a multi-scale perspective, but also provide an efficient way for herbal drug discovery.

Targeted proteomic response to coffee consumption

PURPOSE

Coffee is widely consumed and implicated in numerous health outcomes but the mechanisms by which coffee contributes to health is unclear. The purpose of this study was to test the effect of coffee drinking on candidate proteins involved in cardiovascular, immuno-oncological and neurological pathways.

METHODS

We examined fasting serum samples collected from a previously reported single blinded, three-stage clinical trial. Forty-seven habitual coffee consumers refrained from drinking coffee for 1 month, consumed 4 cups of coffee/day in the second month and 8 cups/day in the third month. Samples collected after each coffee stage were analyzed using three multiplex proximity extension assays that, after quality control, measured a total of 247 proteins implicated in cardiovascular, immuno-oncological and neurological pathways and of which 59 were previously linked to coffee exposure. Repeated measures ANOVA was used to test the relationship between coffee treatment and each protein.

RESULTS

Two neurology-related proteins including carboxypeptidase M (CPM) and neutral ceramidase (N-CDase or ASAH2), significantly increased after coffee intake (P < 0.05 and Q < 0.05). An additional 46 proteins were nominally associated with coffee intake (P < 0.05 and Q > 0.05); 9, 8 and 29 of these proteins related to cardiovascular, immuno-oncological and neurological pathways, respectively, and the levels of 41 increased with coffee intake.

CONCLUSIONS

CPM and N-CDase levels increased in response to coffee intake. These proteins have not previously been linked to coffee and are thus novel markers of coffee response worthy of further study. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRY: http://www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN12547806.

Drinking for protection? Epidemiological and experimental evidence on the beneficial effects of coffee or major coffee compounds against gastrointestinal and liver carcinogenesis

Recent meta-analyses indicate that coffee consumption reduces the risk for digestive tract (oral, esophageal, gastric and colorectal) and, especially, liver cancer. Coffee bean-derived beverages, as the widely-consumed espresso and "common" filtered brews, present remarkable historical, cultural and economic importance globally. These drinks have rich and variable chemical composition, depending on factors that vary from "seeding to serving". The alkaloids caffeine and trigonelline, as well as the polyphenol chlorogenic acid, are some of the most important bioactive organic compounds of these beverages, displaying high levels in both espresso and common brews and/or increased bioavailability after consumption. Thus, we performed a comprehensive literature overview of current knowledge on the effects of coffee beverages and their highly bioavailable compounds, describing: 1) recent epidemiological and experimental findings highlighting the beneficial effects against gastrointestinal/liver carcinogenesis, and 2) the main molecular mechanisms in these in vitro and in vivo bioassays. Findings predominantly address the protective effects of coffee beverages and their most common/bioavailable compounds individually on gastrointestinal and liver cancer development. Caffeine, trigonelline and chlorogenic acid modulate common molecular targets directly implicated in key cancer hallmarks, what could stimulate novel translational or population-based mechanistic investigations.

Anti-inflammatory effects of ivy leaves dry extract: influence on transcriptional activity of NFκB

EA 575® is an ivy leaves dry extract (DER 5-7.5:1, 30% ethanol) used against diseases of the lower respiratory tract associated with productive cough. EA 575® improves symptoms associated with chronic inflammatory bronchial conditions. Compared to its bronchospasmolytic and secretolytic properties, the anti-inflammatory effects of EA 575® are mostly untried. Therefore, we addressed the question of whether the anti-inflammatory effect of EA 575® is due to an impact on the NFκB pathway. NFκB nuclear translocation was visualized by immunofluorescence in J774.2 as well as HEK293 cells. In the latter, a luciferase-based reporter was used to monitor NFκB transcriptional activity. Phosphorylation of RelA and its inhibitor IκB was measured by Western blot analysis. Additionally, changes in the stability of NFκB:IκB complex were shown by protein fragment complementation. Decreased transcriptional activity of NFκB under treatment with EA 575® was also shown for a human monocytic as well as a human lung epithelial cell line. EA 575® is able to inhibit NFκB transcriptional activity by partially inhibiting its translocation to the nucleus after stimulation with TNFα. Furthermore, phosphorylation of IκBα is reduced while phosphorylation of RelA is enhanced after pre-incubation with EA 575®, leading to an enhanced stability of NFκB:IκBα complex. EA 575® has an regulatory impact on the NFκB pathway, possibly by switching specificity of IKK from IκBα to RelA, resulting in enhanced stability of NFκB:IκBα complex and reduced RelA translocation into the nucleus.

Re-Du-Ning inhalation solution exerts suppressive effect on the secretion of inflammatory mediators via inhibiting IKKα/β/IκBα/NF-κB, MAPKs/AP-1, and TBK1/IRF3 signaling pathways in lipopolysaccharide stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages

Background: Re-Du-Ning inhalation solution (RIS) is a novel preparation derived from the Re-Du-Ning injection, which has been clinically used to treat respiratory diseases such as pneumonia for more than twenty years in China. However, scant reports have been issued on its anti-inflammatory mechanisms. Aim: we investigated the suppressive effect of RIS on inflammatory mediators and explored the underlying mechanism of action. Methods: RIS freeze dried powder was characterized by HPLC analysis. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophage was selected as the cell model. The cell viability was determined by using the MTT assay. Moreover, the production of nitric oxide (NO) was measured by the Griess reaction. The protein secretions from inflammatory mediators were determined by the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The protein levels and enzyme activities were examined by Western blotting. The nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), AP-1, and IRF3 was further explored by immunofluorescence assay. Results: the viability of the RAW 264.7 cells was not significantly changed after 24 h incubation with RIS concentration up to 400 μg mL-1. The RIS remarkably reduced the production of NO and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), and downregulated the expression of iNOS and COX-2. The concentrations of cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α) and chemokines (MCP-1, CCL-5, and MIP-1α) in the culture medium were significantly decreased by the RIS treatment. Furthermore, the phosphorylation of IκB-α, IKKα/β, TBK1, ERK, p38, JNK, NF-κB, AP-1, and IRF3 was downregulated by the RIS treatment. The nuclear translocation of NF-κB, AP-1, and IRF3 was also inhibited after the RIS treatment. Conclusion: the suppressive effect of RIS is associated with the regulated NF-κB, AP-1, and IRF3 and their upstream proteins. This study provides a pharmacological basis for the application of RIS in the treatment of inflammatory disorders.

Chlorogenic acid protects against aluminum toxicity via MAPK/Akt signaling pathway in murine RAW264.7 macrophages

Aluminum (Al), which may bring about damage to the macrophages, has been implicated in the development of immunological diseases. It has been reported that chlorogenic acid (CGA, 5‑caffeoylquinic acid, chemical formula: C₁₆H₁₈O₉) is a natural antioxidant and chelating agent with the capacity against Al (III)-induced biotoxicity. The present study was carried out to investigate whether CGA could reduce AlCl₃-induced cellular damage in RAW264.7 cells. After treatment with AlCl₃, the inhibition rate of viability and phagocytic activity of RAW264.7 cells was 54.5% and 27.6%, respectively. Administration of CGA significantly improved the integrity and phagocytic activity, and attenuated the accumulation of intracellular Al(III) level and oxidative stress in Al(III)-treated cells. Furthermore, CGA significantly inhibited Al(III)-induced increase of phospho-Jun N-terminal kinase (p-JNK), a pro-apoptotic Bcl-2 family protein (Bad), cytochrome c and decrease of extracellular regulated protein kinases (ERK1/2), protein kinase B (Akt) protein expressions. These results showed that CGA has a protective effect against Al(III)-induced cytotoxicity through mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)/Akt-mediated caspase pathways in RAW264.7 cells.

Protective effect of chlorogenic acid on lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory response in dairy mammary epithelial cells

Mastitis is a major disease of dairy cattle. Given the recent emergence of antibiotics resistance to mastitis, new intramammary treatments are urgently required. In the present study, we investigated whether lipopolysaccharide (LPS) could induce the increase in the proinflammatory cytokines in bovine mammary epithelial cells (MECs), and whether a natural antimicrobial compound Chlorogenic acid (CGA) could attenuate the inflammatory responses induced by LPS and thus could be a potential therapeutic compound for bovine mastitis. Our results indicated that LPS could induce the expression of proinflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukine (IL)-1β and IL-6, and the activation of NF-κB p65 and p-p65 in primary bovine MECs. Furthermore, CGA significantly inhibited not only the protein expression of NF-κB p65 and p-p65 but also the mRNA expression of TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 after LPS treatment in primary bovine MECs. These results suggested that CGA had anti-inflammatory role by inhibiting NF-κB activation. In conclusion, CGA could be possibly used as a potential therapeutic compound for bovine mastitis.

Niemann-Pick Type C2 Protein Regulates Free Cholesterol Accumulation and Influences Hepatic Stellate Cell Proliferation and Mitochondrial Respiration Function

Liver fibrosis is the first step toward the progression to cirrhosis, portal hypertension, and hepatocellular carcinoma. A high-cholesterol diet is associated with liver fibrosis via the accumulation of free cholesterol in hepatic stellate cells (HSCs). Niemann-Pick type C2 (NPC2) plays an important role in the regulation of intracellular free cholesterol homeostasis via direct binding with free cholesterol. Previously, we reported that NPC2 was downregulated in liver cirrhosis tissues. Loss of NPC2 enhanced the accumulation of free cholesterol in HSCs and made them more susceptible to transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1. In this study, we showed that knockdown of NPC2 resulted in marked increases in platelet-derived growth factor BB (PDGF-BB)-induced HSC proliferation through enhanced extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK), p38, c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK), and protein kinase B (AKT) phosphorylation. In contrast, NPC2 overexpression decreased PDGF-BB-induced cell proliferation by inhibiting p38, JNK, and AKT phosphorylation. Although NPC2 expression did not affect caspase-related apoptosis, the autophagy marker light chain 3β (LC3B) was decreased in NPC2 knockdown, and free cholesterol accumulated in the HSCs. The mitochondrial respiration functions (such as oxygen consumption rate, ATP production, and maximal respiratory capacity) were decreased in NPC2 knockdown, and free cholesterol accumulated in the HSCs, while NPC2-overexpressed cells remained normal. In addition, NPC2 expression did not affect the susceptibility of HSCs to lipopolysaccharides (LPS), and U18666A treatment induced free cholesterol accumulation, which enhanced LPS-induced Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) p65 phosphorylation, interleukin (IL)-1 and IL-6 expression. Our study demonstrated that NPC2-mediated free cholesterol homeostasis controls HSC proliferation and mitochondrial function.

Clinical significance of expression of TLR3 and TLR4 in liver tissue of patients with chronic hepatitis B

AIM

To investigate the correlation of the expression of Toll-like receptors 3 and 4 (TLR3, TLR4) with liver inflammation and liver fibrosis degree in the liver tissue of patients with chronic hepatitis B (CHB).

METHODS

One hundred and fifty-six CHB liver tissues obtained by liver biopsy were subjected to immunohistochemical staining for TLR3 and TLR4. Ten normal liver tissues served as controls. Then, immunohistochemical staining was quantified, and its correlation liver inflammatory activity and liver fibrosis degree was analyzed statistically.

RESULTS

TLR3 was strongly expressed in liver tissue of patients with CHB, mainly in the cytoplasm of liver cells and occasionally in the nucleus. The expression of TLR3 in liver tissue had a significant positive correlation with inflammation grade (r_s = 0.528, P < 0.01), and there was a significant linear relationship between them (χ² = 16.679, P < 0.01). The expression of TLR3 was also correlated with liver fibrosis degree (r_s = 0.510, P < 0.01), and there was a significant linear relationship between them (χ² = 16.654, P < 0.01). TLR4 was obviously expressed in liver cells, mainly in the cytoplasm and occasionally on cell membrane The expression of TLR4 had a significant positive correlation of liver fibrosis degree (r_s = 0.354, P < 0.01), and there was a significant linear relationship between them (χ² = 10.124, P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

High expression of TLR3 and TRL4 is positively correlated with liver inflammation and liver fibrosis degree in CHB patients, suggesting that they might participate in the pathogenesis of CHB.

Treatment of NAFLD with diet, physical activity and exercise

Lifestyle intervention can be effective when treating non-alcoholic fatty liver diseases (NAFLD) patients. Weight loss decreases cardiovascular and diabetes risk and can also regress liver disease. Weight reductions of ⩾10% can induce a near universal non-alcoholic steatohepatitis resolution and fibrosis improvement by at least one stage. However, modest weight loss (>5%) can also produce important benefits on the components of the NAFLD activity score (NAS). Additionally, we need to explore the role of total calories and type of weight loss diet, micro- and macronutrients, evidence-based benefits of physical activity and exercise and finally support these modifications through established behavioural change models and techniques for long-term maintenance of lifestyle modifications. Following a Mediterranean diet can reduce liver fat even without weight loss and is the most recommended dietary pattern for NAFLD. The Mediterranean diet is characterised by reduced carbohydrate intake, especially sugars and refined carbohydrates (40% of the calories vs. 50-60% in a typical low fat diet), and increased monounsaturated and omega-3 fatty acid intake (40% of the calories as fat vs. up-to 30% in a typical low fat diet). Both TV sitting (a reliable marker of overall sedentary behaviour) and physical activity are associated with cardio-metabolic health, NAFLD and overall mortality. A 'triple hit behavioural phenotype' of: i) sedentary behaviour, ii) low physical activity, and iii) poor diet have been defined. Clinical evidence strongly supports the role of lifestyle modification as a primary therapy for the management of NAFLD and NASH. This should be accompanied by the implementation of strategies to avoid relapse and weight regain.

Moringa Leaves Prevent Hepatic Lipid Accumulation and Inflammation in Guinea Pigs by Reducing the Expression of Genes Involved in Lipid Metabolism

To investigate the mechanisms by which Moringa oleifera leaves (ML) modulate hepatic lipids, guinea pigs were allocated to either control (0% ML), 10% Low Moringa (LM) or 15% High Moringa (HM) diets with 0.25% dietary cholesterol to induce hepatic steatosis. After 6 weeks, guinea pigs were sacrificed and liver and plasma were collected to determine plasma lipids, hepatic lipids, cytokines and the expression of genes involved in hepatic cholesterol (CH) and triglyceride (TG) metabolism. There were no differences in plasma lipids among groups. A dose-response effect of ML was observed in hepatic lipids (CH and TG) with the lowest concentrations in the HM group (p < 0.001), consistent with histological evaluation of lipid droplets. Hepatic gene expression of diglyceride acyltransferase-2 and peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-γ, as well as protein concentrations interleukin (IL)-1β and interferon-γ, were lowest in the HM group (p < 0.005). Hepatic gene expression of cluster of differentiation-68 and sterol regulatory element binding protein-1c were 60% lower in both the LM and HM groups compared to controls (p < 0.01). This study demonstrates that ML may prevent hepatic steatosis by affecting gene expression related to hepatic lipids synthesis resulting in lower concentrations of cholesterol and triglycerides and reduced inflammation in the liver.

Influence of the Form of Administration of Chlorogenic Acids on Oxidative Stress Induced by High fat Diet in Rats

Green coffee is one of health-promoting supplements of the diet, applied in the form of either preparations or enriched food products. Its positive impact is manifested by mitigation of the development of certain tumors, e.g., in the colon and liver, and type 2 diabetes. Many studies proved that chlorogenic acids are the main active substances in green coffee. The bioavailability of these compounds depends among others on their interactions with other components of the diet, mainly proteins. When they are used as food ingredients, their bioavailability is additionally decreased because of the decomposition or interactions with other ingredients during food processing. The undesirable changes may be limited among others by microencapsulation, for example with β-cyclodextrin. In this study, rats were fed the pro-oxidative high fat diet, which was supplemented with chlorogenic acids from green coffee that were used in four forms such as: a purified extract, complexes of chlorogenic acids and β-cyclodextrin, and bread supplemented with either the extract or the β-cyclodextrin inclusion complex. Chlorogenic acids added to bread because of the reduced absorption from the crumb in the small intestine and increased passage to the colon, contributed to the beneficial modification of enzymatic activities of intestinal microbiota. When added directly to the diet, they contributed to the improved antioxidant status in the liver and kidneys, lowered glucose level and increased HDL level. A high ratio of reduced to oxidized glutathione in the liver and a high concentration of antioxidants in the blood serum were observed after administration of chlorogenic acids in the form of inclusion complexes with β-cyclodextrin, indicating that microencapsulation increased their bioaccessibility due to the limited interactions with other components of the diet.

Protective effect of Chlorogenic acid against methotrexate induced oxidative stress, inflammation and apoptosis in rat liver: An experimental approach

Methotrexate (MTX) is a drug which is used to treat different types of cancers but hepatotoxicity limits its clinical use. Chlorogenic acid (CGA) is one of the most abundant naturally occurring polyphenols in the human diet. Here, we assessed the effect of CGA against MTX-induced hepatotoxicity and investigated the underlying possible mechanisms in Wistar Rats. Rats were pre-treated with CGA (50 or 100 mg kg/b.w) and administered a single dose of MTX (20 mg/kg, b.w.). MTX caused hepatotoxicity as evidenced by significant increase in serum toxicity markers, histopathological changes. decreased activities of anti-oxidant armory (SOD, CAT, GPx, GR) and GSH content. MTX significantly causes upregulation of iNOS, Cox-2, Bax and downregulation of Bcl-2 expressions, it causes higher caspase 3, 9 activities. However CGA pretreatment alleviates the hepatotoxicity by decreasing the oxidative stress. CGA inhibited Cox-2, iNOS, Bax, Bcl-2 and Caspases 3, 9 mediated inflammation and apoptosis, and improve the histology induced by MTX. Thus, these findings demonstrated the hepatoprotective nature of CGA by attenuating the pro-inflammatory and apoptotic mediators and improving antioxidant competence in hepatic tissue. These results imply that CGA has perfective effect against MTX-induced liver injury. Hence CGA supplementation might be helpful in abrogation of MTX toxicity.

Chlorogenic acid inhibits hepatocellular carcinoma in vitro and in vivo

Curative treatment of patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is poor. There is an urgent need to develop more effective strategies for the chemoprevention of HCC. Chlorogenic acid (CGA), a type of polyphenol present in the diet, especially from coffee, has many biological activities. Patients with viral hepatitis who drank coffee everyday experienced a reduction in the incidence of HCC. In the present study, we evaluated the effects of CGA on HCC. CGA inhibited the proliferation of HepG2 cells in vitro and the progression of HepG2 xenograft in vivo. CGA induced the inactivation of ERK1/2 and suppressed the expression of MMP-2 and MMP-9 in HepG2 xenograft tissue. These data demonstrate that CGA can prevent the progression of HCC through multiple pathways. CGA appears to be an effective chemopreventive agent for hepatocellular carcinoma.

Inhibition effects of chlorogenic acid on benign prostatic hyperplasia in mice

This study aimed to evaluate the inhibitory effects and explore mechanisms of chlorogenic acid against testosterone-induced benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) in mice. Benign prostatic hyperplasia model was induced in experimental groups by daily subcutaneous injections of testosterone propionate (7.5mg/kg/d) consecutively for 14 d. A total of 60 mice were randomly divided into six groups: (Group 1) normal control group, (Group 2) benign prostatic hyperplasia model control group, (Group 3) benign prostatic hyperplasia mice treated with finasteride at a dose of 1mg/kg, (Group 4) benign prostatic hyperplasia mice treated with chlorogenic acid at dose levels of 0.8mg/kg (low dose group), (Group 5) benign prostatic hyperplasia mice treated with chlorogenic acid at dose levels of 1.6mg/kg (medium dose group) and (Group 6) benign prostatic hyperplasia mice treated with chlorogenic acid at dose levels of 3.2mg/kg (high dose group). Animals were sacrificed on the scheduled termination, pick out the eyeball to get blood, then prostates were weighed and prostatic index were determined. Then the serum acid phosphatase (ACP), prostatic acid phosphatase (PACP) and typeⅡ5-alpha-reductase (SRD5A2) levels were measured and observed morphological changes of the prostate. Comparing with benign prostatic hyperplasia model group, the high and medium dose of chlorogenic acid could significantly reduce prostate index and levels of acid phosphatase, prostatic acid phosphatase and typeⅡ5-alpha-reductase (P<0.05 or P<0.01). These findings were supported by histopathological observations of prostate tissues. Histopathological examination also indicated that chlorogenic acid treatment at the high and medium doses inhibited testosterone-induced prostatic hyperplasia. The results indicated that chlorogenic acid exhibited restraining effect on benign prostatic hyperplasia model animals, and its mechanism might be related to inhibit typeⅡ5-alpha reductase activity.

Molecular Bases Underlying the Hepatoprotective Effects of Coffee

Coffee is the most consumed beverage worldwide. Epidemiological studies with prospective cohorts showed that coffee intake is associated with reduced cardiovascular and all-cause mortality independently of caffeine content. Cohort and case-control studies reported an inverse association between coffee consumption and the degree of liver fibrosis as well as the development of liver cancer. Furthermore, the beneficial effects of coffee have been recently confirmed by large meta-analyses. In the last two decades, various in vitro and in vivo studies evaluated the molecular determinants for the hepatoprotective effects of coffee. In the present article, we aimed to critically review experimental evidence regarding the active components and the molecular bases underlying the beneficial role of coffee against chronic liver diseases. Almost all studies highlighted the beneficial effects of this beverage against liver fibrosis with the most solid results indicating a pivot role for both caffeine and chlorogenic acids. In particular, in experimental models of fibrosis, caffeine was shown to inhibit hepatic stellate cell activation by blocking adenosine receptors, and emerging evidence indicated that caffeine may also favorably impact angiogenesis and hepatic hemodynamics. On the other side, chlorogenic acids, potent phenolic antioxidants, suppress liver fibrogenesis and carcinogenesis by reducing oxidative stress and counteract steatogenesis through the modulation of glucose and lipid homeostasis in the liver. Overall, these molecular insights may have translational significance and suggest that coffee components need clinical evaluation.

Food-Derived Natural Compounds for Pain Relief in Neuropathic Pain

Neuropathic pain, defined as pain caused by a lesion or disease of the somatosensory nervous system, is characterized by dysesthesia, hyperalgesia, and allodynia. The number of patients with this type of pain has increased rapidly in recent years. Yet, available neuropathic pain medicines have undesired side effects, such as tolerance and physical dependence, and do not fully alleviate the pain. The mechanisms of neuropathic pain are still not fully understood. Injury causes inflammation and immune responses and changed expression and activity of receptors and ion channels in peripheral nerve terminals. Additionally, neuroinflammation is a known factor in the development and maintenance of neuropathic pain. During neuropathic pain development, the C-C motif chemokine receptor 2 (CCR2) acts as an important signaling mediator. Traditional plant treatments have been used throughout the world for treating diseases. We and others have identified food-derived compounds that alleviate neuropathic pain. Here, we review the natural compounds for neuropathic pain relief, their mechanisms of action, and the potential benefits of natural compounds with antagonistic effects on GPCRs, especially those containing CCR2, for neuropathic pain treatment.

Dioscin alleviates lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory kidney injury via the microRNA let-7i/TLR4/MyD88 signaling pathway

We previously reported the potent effect of dioscin against renal ischemia/reperfusion injury, but little is known about the role of dioscin in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammatory kidney injury. The present work aimed to investigate the effects and potential mechanisms of dioscin in preventing LPS-induced kidney injury. In vivo injury was induced in rats and mice with an intraperitoneal injection of LPS (10mg/kg), and in vitro studies were performed on NRK-52E and HK-2 cells challenged with LPS (0.5μg/ml). Our results indicated that dioscin significantly protected against renal damage by decreasing blood urea nitrogen and creatinine levels and reversing oxidative stress. Mechanistic studies demonstrated that dioscin markedly up- regulated the level of the microRNA let-7i, resulting in significant inhibition of TLR4 expression. Dioscin significantly down-regulated the levels of MyD88, NOX1 and cleaved caspase-8/3; inhibited the nuclear translocation of NF-κB; inhibited PI3K and Akt phosphorylation; increased the levels of SOD2; and decreased the mRNA levels of IL-1β, IL-6, MIP-1α, Fas and FasL. In vitro, transfection of microRNA let-7i inhibitor and TLR4 DNA were applied, and the results further confirmed the nephroprotective effect of dioscin in suppressing TLR4/MyD88 signaling and subsequently inhibiting inflammation, oxidative stress and apoptosis. Furthermore, the abrogation of cellular MyD88 expression by ST2825 eliminated the inhibitory effect of dioscin on the levels of nuclear NF-κB, cleaved caspase-3, SOD2 and ROS. These data indicated that dioscin exerted a nephroprotective effect against LPS-induced inflammatory renal injury by adjusting the microRNA let-7i/TLR4/MyD88 signaling pathway, which provided novel insights into the mechanisms of this therapeutic candidate for the treatment of inflammatory kidney injury.