Autophagy in hypoxic ovary

Exposure to nicotine regulates prostaglandin E2 secretion and autophagy of granulosa cells to retard follicular maturation in mammals

Exposure to nicotine by cigarette smoking have shown strongly defectives on the physiological function of ovaries, which in turn leads to disorders of fertility in women. However, the potential molecular mechanisms remain to be elucidated. In this study, we notably found that nicotine was likely to specifically raise the expression of histone deacetylase 3 (HDAC3) to promote the apoptosis and autophagy of granulosa cells (GCs) and block follicular maturation. Moreover, prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) inhibited the apoptosis of GCs and facilitated follicular maturation, and nicotine appeared to inhibit PGE2 secretion by freezing the expression of cyclooxygenase 1 (COX1), which was the rate-limiting and essential enzyme for PGE2 synthesis. Epigenetically, the nicotine was observed to diminish the histone H3 lysine 9 acetylation (H3K9ac) level and compact the chromatin accessibility in -1776/-1499 bp region of COX1 by evoking the expression of HDAC3, with the deactivated Cas9-HDAC3/sgRNA system. Mechanistically, the COX1 protein was found to pick up and degrade the autophagy related protein beclin 1 (BECN1) to control the autophagy of GCs. These results provided a potential new molecular therapy to recover the damage of female fertility induced by nicotine from cigarette smoking.

Perinatal bisphenol S exposure exacerbates the oxidative burden and apoptosis in neonatal ovaries by suppressing the mTOR/autophagy axis

Bisphenol S (BPS) is an emerging environmental endocrine disruptor capable of crossing the placental barrier, resulting in widespread exposure to pregnant women due to its extensive usage. However, the impact of perinatal maternal exposure to BPS on reproductive health in offspring and the underlying molecular mechanism remain underexplored. In this study, gestational ICR mice were provided with drinking water containing 3.33 mg/L BPS to mimic possible human exposure in some countries. Results demonstrated that BPS accelerated the breakdown of germ-cell cysts and the assembly of primordial follicles in neonates, leading to oocyte over-loss. Furthermore, the expression levels of folliculogenesis-related genes (Kit, Nobox, Gdf9, Sohlh2, Kitl, Bmp15, Lhx8, Figla, and Tgfb1) decreased, thus compromising oocyte quality and disrupting early folliculogenesis dynamics. BPS also disrupted other aspects of offspring reproduction, including advancing puberty onset, disrupting the estrus cycle, and impairing fertility. Further investigation found that BPS exposure inhibited the activities and expression levels of antioxidant-related enzymes in neonatal ovaries, leading to the substantial accumulation of MDA and ROS. The increased oxidative burden exacerbated the intracellular apoptotic signaling, manifested by increased expression levels of pro-apoptotic markers (Bax, Caspase 3, and Caspase 9) and decreased expression levels of anti-apoptotic marker (Bcl2). Concurrently, BPS inhibited autophagy by increasing p-mTOR/mTOR and decreasing p-ULK1/ULK1, subsequently down-regulating autophagy flux-related biomarkers (LC3b/LC3a and Beclin-1) and impeding the degradation of autophagy substrate p62. However, the imbalanced crosstalk between autophagy, apoptosis and oxidative stress homeostasis was restored after rapamycin treatment. Collectively, the findings demonstrated that BPS exposure induced reproductive disorders in offspring by perturbing the mTOR/autophagy axis, and such autophagic dysfunction exacerbated redox imbalance and promoted excessive apoptosis. These results provide novel mechanistic insights into the role of autophagy in mitigating BPS-induced intergenerational reproductive dysfunction.

Hypobaric hypoxia causes low fecundity in zebrafish parents and impairment of skeletal development in zebrafish embryos and rat offspring

Hypobaric Hypoxia (HH) negatively affects the cardiovascular and respiratory systems as well as gonadal development and the therefore next generation. This study investigated the effects of HH on zebrafish and SD rats, by exposing them to a low-pressure environment at 6000 m elevation for 30 days to simulate high-altitude conditions. It was indicated that parental zebrafish reared amh under HH had increased embryo mortality, reduced hatchability, and abnormal cartilage development in the offspring. Furthermore, the HH-exposed SD rats had fewer reproductive cells and smaller litters. Moreover, the transcriptome analysis revealed the down-regulation of steroid hormone biosynthesis pathways. The expression of the gonad-associated genes (amh, pde8a, man2a2 and lhcgr), as well as the gonad and cartilage-related gene bmpr1a, were also down-regulated. In addition, Western blot analysis validated reduced bmpr1a protein expression in the ovaries of HH-treated rats. In summary, these data indicate the negative impact of HH on reproductive organs and offspring development, emphasizing the need for further research and precautions to protect future generations' health.

Melatonin regulates autophagy in granulosa cells from patients with premature ovarian insufficiency via activating Foxo3a

Premature ovarian insufficiency (POI) is a diverse form of female infertility characterized by a decline in ovarian function before the age of 40. Melatonin (MT) is a potential clinical treatment for restoring or safeguarding ovarian function in POI. However, the specific therapeutic mechanism underlying this effect remains unclear. To address this, we conducted experiments using human granulosa cells (GCs) from both POI and normal patients. We examined the expression levels of autophagy-related genes and proteins in GCs through qRT-PCR and western blot analysis. Autophagy flux was monitored in GCs infected with GFP-LC3-adenovirus, and the regulatory function of MT in autophagy was investigated. Additionally, we employed pharmacological intervention of autophagy using 3-Methyladenine (3-MA) and RNA interference of Forkhead box O-3A (FOXO3A) to elucidate the mechanism of MT in the autophagy process. Compared to GCs from normal patients, GCs from POI patients exhibited irregular morphology, decreased proliferation, increased apoptosis, and elevated ROS levels. The expression of autophagy-related genes was downregulated in POI GCs, resulting in reduced autophagic activity. Furthermore, MT levels were decreased in POI GCs, but exogenous MT effectively activated autophagy. Mechanistically, melatonin treatment downregulated FOXO3A expression and induced phosphorylation in POI GCs. Importantly, silencing FOXO3A abolished the protective effect of melatonin on GCs. These findings indicate that autophagy is downregulated in POI GCs, accompanied by a deficiency in MT. Moreover, we demonstrated that supplementing MT can rescue autophagy levels and enhance GC viability through the activation of FOXO3A signaling. Thus, MT-FOXO3A may serve as a potential therapeutic target for POI treatment.

Endoplasmic reticulum stress-mediated autophagy alleviates lipopolysaccharide-induced nucleus pulposus cell pyroptosis by inhibiting CHOP signaling in vitro

Pyroptosis, a newly discovered pro-inflammatory programmed necrosis of cells, serves as an initiating and promoting event that leads to intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration (IDD). Endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) and autophagy are vital regulatory mechanisms of cellular homeostasis, which is also closely related to IDD. However, the role and relationship of ERS and autophagy in the pyroptosis of nucleus pulposus cell (NPC) are not well understood. In this research, we aimed to elucidate the role and mechanism of ERS-C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced cell pyroptosis and determine its interaction with autophagy. ERS and autophagy inducers or inhibitors were used or not in the preconditioning of rat NPCs. Cell viability, pyroptosis-related protein expression, caspase-1 activity assay, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay were performed to observe rat NPC pyroptosis after the treatment of LPS. Activation of the ERS pathway and autophagy were assessed by quantitative real-time PCR, western blot analyses, and immunofluorescence staining assay to classify the molecular mechanisms. Our results showed that LPS stimulation induced NPC pyroptosis with concomitant activation of the ERS-CHOP pathway and initiated autophagy. Activation of the ERS-CHOP pathway exacerbated rat NPC pyroptosis, whereas autophagy inhibited cell pyroptosis. LPS-induced cell pyroptosis and CHOP upregulation were negatively regulated by autophagy. LPS-induced autophagy was depressed by the ERS inhibitor but aggravated by the ERS inducer. Taken together, our findings suggested that LPS induced NPC pyroptosis by activating ERS-CHOP signaling and ERS mediated LPS-induced autophagy, which in turn alleviated NPC pyroptosis by inhibiting CHOP signaling.

Autophagy-dependent ferroptosis is involved in the development of endometriosis

OBJECTIVE

Endometriosis (EMS) is an estrogen-dependent condition with unclear pathogenesis. Recent findings suggest implicate autophagy and ferroptosis in EMS development.

METHODS

We assessed autophagy and ferroptosis proteins in EMS patients using immunohistochemistry and western blot and established an EMS rat model through allograft endometrial transplantation, confirmed via hematoxylin and eosin staining and epithelial-mesenchymal transition -related proteins. Primary EMS cells were isolated from the model rats and cultured under five conditions: control, EMS, EMS with Rapamycin (autophagy inducer), EMS with si-Atg5 (autophagy inhibitor), and EMS with si-Atg5 plus Erastin (ferroptosis inducer). We evaluated cell viability, iron content, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial morphologyin EMS cells, and detected autophagy and ferroptosis proteins through immunofluorescence, western blot, and monodansylcadaverine staining.

RESULTS

Autophagy proteins Beclin1 and LC3 were highly expressed, whereas p62, glutathione peroxidase 4, and p53 were lowly expressed in EMS patients. Rapamycin decreased cell viability but increased iron content, reactive oxygen species, lipid peroxide production, the number of ferroptotic mitochondria, and the expression of autophagy proteins in EMS cells, while si-Atg5 showed opposite effects. Additionally, Erastin reversed the impact of si-Atg5 on EMS cells.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that autophagy-dependent ferroptosis plays a role in EMS progression.

Overactivation or Apoptosis: Which Mechanisms Affect Chemotherapy-Induced Ovarian Reserve Depletion?

Dormant primordial follicles (PMF), which constitute the ovarian reserve, are recruited continuously into the cohort of growing follicles in the ovary throughout female reproductive life. Gonadotoxic chemotherapy was shown to diminish the ovarian reserve pool, to destroy growing follicle population, and to cause premature ovarian insufficiency (POI). Three primary mechanisms have been proposed to account for this chemotherapy-induced PMF depletion: either indirectly via over-recruitment of PMF, by stromal damage, or through direct toxicity effects on PMF. Preventative pharmacological agents intervening in these ovotoxic mechanisms may be ideal candidates for fertility preservation (FP). This manuscript reviews the mechanisms that disrupt follicle dormancy causing depletion of the ovarian reserve. It describes the most widely studied experimental inhibitors that have been deployed in attempts to counteract these affects and prevent follicle depletion.

Melatonin-Mediated Suppression of mtROS-JNK-FOXO1 Pathway Alleviates Hypoxia-Induced Apoptosis in Porcine Granulosa Cells

Numerous studies have established that the hypoxic conditions within ovarian follicles induce apoptosis in granulosa cells (GCs), a pivotal hallmark of follicular atresia. Melatonin (N-acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine, MT), a versatile antioxidant naturally present in follicular fluid, acts as a safeguard for maintaining GCs' survival during stress exposure. In this study, we unveil an innovative protective mechanism of melatonin against hypoxia-triggered GC apoptosis by selectively inhibiting mitochondrial ROS (mtROS) generation. Specifically, under hypoxic conditions, a gradual accumulation of mitochondrial ROS occurred, consequently activating the JNK-FOXO1 pathway, and driving GCs toward apoptosis. The blocking of JNK or FOXO1 diminished hypoxia-induced GC apoptosis, but this effect was nullified in the presence of GSH, indicating that mtROS instigates apoptosis through the JNK-FOXO1 pathway. Consistent with this, hypoxic GCs treated with melatonin exhibited decreased levels of mtROS, reduced JNK-FOXO1 activation, and mitigated apoptosis. However, the protective capabilities of melatonin were attenuated upon inhibiting its receptor MTNR1B, accompanied by the decreased expression of antioxidant genes. Notably, SOD2, a key mitochondrial antioxidant gene modulated by the melatonin-MTNR1B axis, effectively inhibited the activation of mtROS-JNK-FOXO1 and subsequent apoptosis, whereas SOD2 knockdown abrogated the protective role of melatonin in hypoxic GCs. In conclusion, our study elucidates that melatonin, through MTNR1B activation, fosters SOD2 expression, effectively quelling mtROS-JNK-FOXO1-mediated apoptosis in follicular GCs under hypoxic stress.

Autophagy regulation by inorganic, organic, and organic/inorganic hybrid nanoparticles: Organelle damage, regulation factors, and potential pathways

The rapid development of nanotechnology requires a more thorough understanding of the potential health effects caused by nanoparticles (NPs). As a programmed cell death, autophagy is one of the biological effects induced by NPs, which maintain intracellular homeostasis by degrading damaged organelles and removing aggregates of defective proteins through lysosomes. Currently, autophagy has been shown to be associated with the development of several diseases. A significant number of research have demonstrated that most NPs can regulate autophagy, and their regulation of autophagy is divided into induction and blockade. Studying the autophagy regulation by NPs will facilitate a more comprehensive understanding of the toxicity of NPs. In this review, we will illustrate the effects of different types of NPs on autophagy, including inorganic NPs, organic NPs, and organic/inorganic hybrid NPs. The potential mechanisms by which NPs regulate autophagy are highlighted, including organelle damage, oxidative stress, inducible factors, and multiple signaling pathways. In addition, we list the factors influencing NPs-regulated autophagy. This review may provide basic information for the safety assessment of NPs.

MicroRNA-129-1-3p attenuates autophagy-dependent cell death by targeting MCU in granulosa cells of laying hens under H2O2-induced oxidative stress

The present study aimed to investigate the mechanism of microRNA-129-1-3p (miR-129-1-3p) in regulating hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)-induced autophagic death of chicken granulosa cell by targeting mitochondrial calcium uniporter (MCU). The results indicated that the exposure of hens' ovaries to H2O2 resulted in a significant elevation in reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, as well as the apoptosis of granulosa cells and follicular atresia. This was accompanied by an upregulation of glucose-regulated protein 75 (GRP75), voltage-dependent anion-selective channel 1 (VDAC1), MCU, mitochondria fission factor (MFF), microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 (LC3) I, and LC3II expression, and a downregulation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1 alpha (PGC-1α) and mitofusin-2 (MFN2) expression. In hens' granulosa cells, a luciferase reporter assay confirmed that miR-129-1-3p directly regulates MCU. The induction of oxidative stress through H2O2 resulted in the activation of the permeability transition pore, an overload of calcium, depolarization of the mitochondrial membrane potential, dysfunction of mitochondria-associated endoplasmic reticulum membranes (MAMs), and ultimately, autophagic cell death. The overexpression of miR-129-1-3p effectively mitigated these H2O2-induced changes. Furthermore, miR-129-1-3p overexpression in granulosa cells prevented the alterations induced by H2O2 in the expression of key proteins that play crucial roles in maintaining the integrity of MAMs and regulating autophagy, such as GRP75, VDAC1, MFN2, PTEN-induced kinase 1 (Pink1), and parkin RBR E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase (Parkin). Together, these in vitro- and in vivo-based experiments suggest that miR-129-1-3p protects granulosa cells from oxidative stress-induced autophagic cell death by downregulating the MCU-mediated mitochondrial autophagy. miR-129-1-3p/MCU calcium signaling pathway may act as a new target to alleviate follicular atresia caused by oxidative stress in laying hens.

Network analysis and experimental approach to investigate the potential therapeutic mechanism of zishen yutai pills on premature ovarian insufficiency

Background

As society continues to develop, women are more at risk of gonadotoxic substance exposure. Consequently, the incidence of premature ovarian insufficiency (POI) has increased significantly in the past decades. Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) is recommended as the standard treatment to relieve hypoestrogenic symptoms; however, its potential side effects and contraindications have drawn widespread controversy and concern. As such, the Chinese medicine Zishen Yutai Pill (ZSYTP) commonly used for treating miscarriage and menoxenia, is a highly promising alternative drug candidate against POI, however its therapeutic mechanism has not been completely elucidated.

Objective

To systematically analyze the potential therapeutic targets of ZSYTP on POI, we combined network pharmacology analysis and molecular docking to predict critical target genes, with experimental validation on POI murine models.

Methods

The active compounds of ZSYTP were collected from three online databases, and the candidate targets were predicted based on the chemical structure. The POI-related targets were obtained from four databases. A PPI network was constructed to find the key target genes between ZSYTP and POI, while GO and KEGG enrichment analyses were employed to study the mechanism of ZSYTP against POI. The binding capability of the key co-targets with active components was examined by molecular docking. We used a cyclophosphamide (CTX)-inducible POI mouse model to verify our predictions by histopathological observation, immunohistochemical staining (caspase-3, TUNEL assay), hormone determination (FSH, AMH) and ribonucleic acid sequencing (RNA Seq). Progynova was also used to study the difference between ZSYTP and HRT.

Result

We identified 21 target genes as the hub between ZSYTP and POI. The GO and KEGG analyses revealed that the molecular mechanism of ZSYTP against POI were mainly based on the regulation of gene and protein expression. A variety of signaling pathways may be involved in the treatment of ZSYTP against POI, especially PI3K-AKT, HIF-1 and the AGE-RAGE cascades. Docking simulation showed that G1, C1, SR5, and F1 had relatively lower binding energy. In vivo, ZSYTP significantly reversed CTX-induced ovarian damage in follicle number, hormone level and apoptosis, with an overall improved therapeutic effect compared to Progynova. Results from RNA-Seq revealed that the PI3K-AKT, Hippo, AGE-RAGE, and Rap1 signaling pathways and regulation of inflammation, immune response, and lipid metabolism may mediate the protective effects of ZSYTP against POI, which is different than Progynova's mechanism of action.

Conclusions

Collectively, this study indicates that ZSYTP could be a highly promising alternative as a non-HRT-based therapy for POI. Its mechanism involves multiple signaling pathways, alleviating ovarian apoptosis and recovering AMH and FSH level. However, the discrepancy between different research techniques highlight the necessity of further experimental verification from other aspects such as translation and posttranslational modification.

SIRT6 reduces the symptoms of premature ovarian failure and alleviates oxidative stress and apoptosis in granulosa cells by degrading p66SHC via H3K9AC

CONTEXT

Substantial evidence suggests that ovarian oxidative stress can result in severe ovarian dysfunction.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this article is to investigate the potential of SIRT6 in alleviating premature ovarian failure (POF) by inhibiting oxidative stress.

METHODS

To mimic POF, mice were administered daily subcutaneous injections of d-galactose. The levels of E2, FSH, LH, AMH, and progesterone in serum were measured, along with changes in follicles and SIRT6 levels. Mice were treated with the SIRT6 agonist MDL-800, SIRT6 levels, follicles, and aforementioned hormones were reassessed. The effects of MDL-800 on oxidative stress and apoptosis were subsequently identified. Primary granulosa cells were isolated from mice, and the effects of H2O2 and MDL-800 on cell viability, oxidative stress, SIRT6 level, and apoptosis were evaluated. In addition, the regulation of SIRT6 on H3K9AC/p66SHC was verified by examining changes in protein levels, promoter activity, and the reversal effects of p66SHC overexpression.

RESULTS

MDL-800 mitigated hormone fluctuations, reduced follicle depletion in ovarian tissue, and attenuated oxidative stress and apoptosis in mice. In vitro experiments demonstrated that MDL-800 enhanced the resilience of primary granulosa cells against H2O2, as evidenced by increased cell viability and reduced oxidative stress and apoptosis. Furthermore, SIRT6 was found to decrease H3K9AC and p66SHC levels, as well as attenuate p66SHC promoter activity. The protective effects of MDL-800 on cells were reversed upon p66SHC overexpression.

CONCLUSION

In summary, this study highlights that activation of SIRT6 can alleviate POF and reduce oxidative stress by degrading H3K9AC and suppressing p66Shc levels in granulosa cells.

Expression and Clinical Significance of HIF-1α in Follicular Fluid and Granulosa Cells in Infertile PCOS Patients

The present study aimed to determine the clinical predictive significance of HIF-1α in follicular development and assisted reproductive technology (ART). We collected follicular fluid (FF) and granulosa cells (GCs) from PCOS (polycystic ovary syndrome) patients (experimental group) and other patients who were infertile due to tubal factors or male factors (control group) with IVF/ICSI-ET. The localization and expression of HIF-1α in GCs were determined by immunofluorescence staining. HIF-1α protein and mRNA expression were detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and quantitative real-time PCR, respectively. To clarify the regulation of HIF-1α by TGF-β1, we added the HIF-1α-specific blocker YC-1 to GCs. The serum AMH, LH, LH/FSH, testosterone, BMI and the number of oocytes retrieved in the PCOS group were significantly higher, while the cleavage rate was significantly lower, than those in the control group. HIF-1α protein was expressed in the cytoplasm of GCs. The expression of HIF-1α protein in the FF of the PCOS group was significantly lower than that in the control group. However, the expression of HIF-1α protein in GCs between the two groups was not significantly different. HIF-1α protein was highly expressed in large FF (follicular diameter ≥ 14 mm). Compared with the control group, the expression of HIF-1α mRNA in GCs of the PCOS group was significantly lower. The results showed a significant positive correlation between HIF-1α and TGF-β1 expression. We found that both HIF-1α and TGF-β1 were involved in the development of PCOS follicular development. The mutual regulation of HIF-1α and TGF-β1 may be one of the important mechanisms of the occurrence and development of PCOS.

miR-484 mediates oxidative stress-induced ovarian dysfunction and promotes granulosa cell apoptosis via SESN2 downregulation

Ovarian dysfunction is a common cause of female infertility, which is associated with genetic, autoimmune and environmental factors. Granulosa cells (GCs) constitute the largest cell population of ovarian follicles. Changes in GCs, including oxidative stress (OS) and excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS), are involved in regulating ovary function. miR-484 is highly expressed in 3-NP-induced oxidative stress models of ovaries and GCs. miR-484 overexpression aggravated GCs dysfunction and thereby intensified ovarian oxidative stress injury in mice. Moreover, bioinformatic analyses, luciferase assays and pull-down assays indicated that LINC00958 acted as a competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) for miR-484 and formed a signaling axis with Sestrin2(SESN2) under oxidative stress conditions, which in turn regulated mitochondrial functions and mitochondrial-related apoptosis in GCs. Additionally, the inhibition of miR-484 alleviated GCs dysfunction under ovarian oxidative stress condition. Our present study revealed the role of miR-484 in oxidative stress of ovaries and GCs and the function of LINC00958/miR-484/SESN2 axis in mitochondrial function and mitochondria-related apoptosis.

Mechanisms of and Potential Medications for Oxidative Stress in Ovarian Granulosa Cells: A Review

Granulosa cells are essential for follicle initiation and development, and their abnormal function or apoptosis is a crucial factor leading to follicular atresia. A state of oxidative stress occurs when the balance between the production of reactive oxygen species and the regulation of the antioxidant system is disturbed. Oxidative stress is one of the most important causes of the abnormal function and apoptosis of granulosa cells. Oxidative stress in granulosa cells causes female reproductive system diseases, such as polycystic ovary syndrome and premature ovarian failure. In recent years, studies have confirmed that the mechanism of oxidative stress in granulosa cells is closely linked to the PI3K-AKT signaling pathway, MAPK signaling pathway, FOXO axis, Nrf2 pathway, NF-κB signaling pathway, and mitophagy. It has been found that drugs such as sulforaphane, Periplaneta americana peptide, and resveratrol can mitigate the functional damage caused by oxidative stress on granulosa cells. This paper reviews some of the mechanisms involved in oxidative stress in granulosa cells and describes the mechanisms underlying the pharmacological treatment of oxidative stress in granulosa cells.

Molecular mechanism of modified Huanglian Wendan decoction in the treatment of polycystic ovary syndrome

To investigate the mechanism of modified Huanglian Wendan decoction in the intervention of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) by network pharmacology and molecular docking. The ingredients and targets of modified Huanglian Wendan decoction were retrieved from the traditional Chinese medicine Systems Pharmacology database. Related targets of PCOS were screened by Comparative Toxicogenomics Database database. Cytoscape 3.7.2 (https://cytoscape.org/) was used to draw the target network diagram of "traditional Chinese medicine - ingredient - PCOS," STRING database was used to construct the target protein interaction network. NCA tool of Cystoscape 3.7.2 was used to carried out topology analysis on PPI network, core components and key targets were obtained. Gene ontology and Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes enrichment analysis were carried out for the intersection targets by David database. AutoDockTools 1.5.6 software (https://autodock.scripps.edu/) was used to conduct molecular docking verification of key components and key targets. Ninety-one ingredients of the modified Huanglian Wendan decoction and 23,075 diseases targets were obtained, 155 Intersection targets of the drug and disease were obtained by R language, Veen plot was drawn. Gene ontology enrichment analysis obtained 432 biological processes, 67 cell components, 106 molecular functions. Fifty-four Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes enrichment pathways (P < .05) including tumor necrosis factor, hypoxia-induced factors-1, calcium, and drug metabolism-cytochrome P450 signaling pathway. Molecular docking showed quercetin, luteolin, kaempferol, and baicalein were stable in docking with core targets. Network pharmacology and molecular docking were used to preliminarily study the mechanism of action of modified Huanglian Wendan decoction in the treatment of PCOS, which laid foundation for future experimental research and clinical application.

Reactive oxygen species and ovarian diseases: Antioxidant strategies

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are mainly produced in mitochondria and are involved in various physiological activities of the ovary through signaling and are critical for regulating the ovarian cycle. Notably, the imbalance between ROS generation and the antioxidant defense system contributes to the development of ovarian diseases. These contradictory effects have critical implications for potential antioxidant strategies that aim to scavenge excessive ROS. However, much remains to be learned about how ROS causes various ovarian diseases to the application of antioxidant therapy for ovarian diseases. Here, we review the mechanisms of ROS generation and maintenance of homeostasis in the ovary and its associated physiological effects. Additionally, we have highlighted the pathological mechanisms of ROS in ovarian diseases and potential antioxidant strategies for treatment.

BNIP3-mediated autophagy via the mTOR/ULK1 pathway induces primordial follicle loss after ovarian tissue transplantation

PURPOSE

To explore the underlying mechanism of primordial follicle loss in the early period following ovarian tissue transplantation (OTT).

METHODS

BNIP3 was selected through bioinformatic protocols, as the hub gene related to autophagy during OTT. BNIP3 and autophagy in mice ovarian grafts and in hypoxia-mimicking KGN cells were detected using immunohistochemistry, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), western blotting, qPCR, and fluorescence staining. The regulatory role played by BNIP3 overexpression and the silencing of KGN cells in autophagy via the mTOR/ULK1 pathway was investigated.

RESULTS

Ultrastructure examination showed that autophagic vacuoles increased after mice ovarian auto-transplantation. The BNIP3 and autophagy-related proteins (Beclin-1, LC3B, and SQSTM1/p62) in mice ovarian granulosa cells of primordial follicle from ovarian grafts were altered compared with the control. Administration of an autophagy inhibitor in mice decreased the depletion of primordial follicles. In vitro experiments indicated that BNIP3 and autophagy activity were upregulated in KGN cells treated with cobalt chloride (CoCl2). The overexpression of BNIP3 activated autophagy, whereas the silencing of BNIP3 suppressed it and reversed the autophagy induced by CoCl2 in KGN cells. Western blotting analysis showed the inhibition of mTOR and activation of ULK1 in KGN cells treated with CoCl2 and in the overexpression of BNIP3, and the opposite results following BNIP3 silencing. The activation of mTOR reversed the autophagy induced by BNIP3 overexpression.

CONCLUSIONS

BNIP3-induced autophagy is crucial in primordial follicle loss during OTT procedure, and BNIP3 is a potential therapeutic target for primordial follicle loss after OTT.

Iron overload modulates follicular microenvironment via ROS/HIF-1α/FSHR signaling

Iron is essential for the health of reproductive system, and women with iron overload suffer from ovarian dysfunction and lack effective treatment in fertility preservation. However, the underlying mechanism of the detrimental effects of iron overload on ovarian function remains ambiguous. Here, we confirmed the excess iron in the circumjacent follicle near endometriomas, which negatively impacted the oocyte development in the affected ovaries. Further, by integrating cell line and chronic iron overload mice model, we demonstrated that iron overload can function as a ROS inducer to amplify mitochondria damage, which significantly elevated the release of cytochrome C and ultimately induced the apoptosis of granular cells. Besides, for the first time, our findings revealed that disruption of HIF-1α/FSHR/CYP19A1 signaling was critical for decreased estrogen synthesis of granular cells in response to iron overload, which can lead to apparent oocyte maldevelopment and subfertility. Overall. this study uncovered that iron overload modulated the follicular microenvironment and generated a deleterious effect on female infertility via ROS/HIF-1α/FSHR signaling. These results might provide potential implications for future clinical risk management of patients with endometrioma and hemopathy.

Role of apoptosis and autophagy in ovarian follicle pool decline in children and women diagnosed with benign or malignant extra-ovarian conditions

STUDY QUESTION

Which biological mechanisms are responsible for physiological ovarian reserve decline owing to aging, or pathological follicle depletion triggered by inflammation or a pro-oxidant environment throughout a woman's lifetime?

SUMMARY ANSWER

Ovarian follicle pool size is modulated by both apoptosis and autophagy, the first responsible for its physiological decline over time and increasing in the event of prior chemotherapy in children, and the latter playing a major role in physiological ovarian follicle pool diminution before puberty.

WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY

Among the different pathways of controlled cell death, apoptosis and autophagy are implicated in follicle loss. Apoptosis participates in eliminating damaged follicles, such as those impaired by chemotherapy (CHT), but its involvement in physiological age-related follicle decline is less well understood. Autophagy has proved crucial in follicle quiescence maintenance in murine models, but its contribution to human follicle pool modulation is still unclear.

STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION

This retrospective study included 84 patients with benign or malignant extra-ovarian conditions aged between 1 and 35 years, with ovarian tissue stored for histological analyses at the time of cryopreservation (between 2012 and 2021) at a tertiary care center.

PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS

Ovarian fragments were used for the following analyses: hematoxylin and eosin staining for follicle count and classification; cleaved caspase-3 immunostaining to identify follicle apoptosis; and microtubule-associated proteins 1A/1B light chain 3B immunolabeling to detect follicle autophagy. Transmission electron microscopy was also carried out to investigate ultrastructural features of oocytes and granulosa cells. All analyses stratified patients by age, menarchal status (premenarchal = 32; postmenarchal = 52), potentially gonadotoxic CHT before cryopreservation (n = 14), presence of endometriosis and use of hormonal treatment.

MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE

Premenarchal patients had a larger follicle pool in terms of total follicle density [mean, range 4979.98 (342.2-21789) versus 918.8 (26.18-3983), P < 0.001], but higher rates of morphologically abnormal [8.52 (0-25.37)% versus 3.54 (0-17.5)%, P < 0.001] and atretic [15.8 (0‒31.85)% versus 10.6 (0-33.33)%, P < 0.01] follicles than postmenarchal subjects. Apoptosis rates did not change with increasing age [27.94 (0-93.2)% in prepubertal subjects and 29.5 (0-100)% in postpubertal subjects], but autophagic follicles were around 10 times more common in premenarchal than postmenarchal subjects [10.21 (0-62.3)% versus 1.34 (0-25)%, P < 0.001], playing a crucial role in age-related follicle decline and elimination of 'abnormal' follicles, that are rarely seen after menarche. The impact of diagnosis and previous CHT varied according to age. In premenarchal patients with previous CHT, significantly more apoptotic [40.22 (0-100)% versus 26.79 (0-87)%, P < 0.05] and fewer abnormal [3.84 (0-10-76)% versus 9.83 (0-25.37)%, P < 0.01] follicles were detected than in subjects with no CHT prior to ovarian tissue cryopreservation, suggesting a direct effect on follicle elimination, especially of those with abnormalities. In postmenarchal subjects with previous CHT, quiescent follicle rates were lower than in patients with no CHT before tissue freezing [71.57 (0-100)% versus 85.89 (50-100)%, P < 0.05], suggesting accelerated follicle activation and growth. Moreover, increased autophagic activity was observed in the event of a cancer diagnosis compared to benign conditions after puberty [26.27 (0-100)% versus 9.48 (0-29.41)%, respectively, P < 0.05].

LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION

The impact of specific CHT protocols could not be investigated since the group of patients with previous CHT was highly heterogeneous.

WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS

This study yields a deeper understanding of regulation of the follicle pool decline, showing for the first time that both apoptosis and autophagy pathways are involved in physiological follicle depletion, the latter being crucial before puberty. Moreover, our data showed a different response to non-physiological damage according to age, with higher apoptosis rates only in premenarchal subjects with previous CHT, confirming that this pathway is activated by drugs known to induce DNA damage in oocytes, such as alkylating agents, but not by cancer itself.

STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S)

This study was supported by grants from the Fonds National de la Recherche Scientifique de Belgique (F.R.S.-FNRS/FRIA FC29657 awarded to L.C., CDR J.0063.20 and grant 5/4/150/5 awarded to M.M.D.), grants from the Fondation contre le Cancer (grant 2018-042 awarded to A.Ca.), the Fondazione Comunitaria del Varesotto and Provincia di Varese ('Amalia Griffini' Fellowship in Gynecology and Obstetrics awarded to A.Ce.), Fonds Spéciaux de Recherche, Fondation St Luc and donations from the Ferrero family. The authors have no competing interests to declare.

TRIAL REGISTRAION NUMBER

N/A.

Investigation of the optimal culture time for warmed bovine ovarian tissues before transplantation

Ovarian tissue cryopreservation by vitrification is an effective technique, but there are still many unresolved issues related to the procedure. The aim of this study was to investigate the optimal culture time of post-warmed ovarian tissues and their viability before ovarian tissue transplantation. The bovine ovarian tissues were used to evaluate the effect of post-warming culture periods (0, 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 5 and 24 hours) in the levels of residual cryoprotectant, LDH release, ROS generation, gene and protein abundance, and follicle viability and its mitochondrial membrane potential. Residual cryoprotectant (CPA) concentration decreased significantly after 1 hour of culture. The warmed ovarian tissues that underwent between 0 to 2 hours of culture time showed similar LDH and ROS levels compared to fresh non-frozen tissues. The AMH transcript abundance did not differ in any of the groups. No increase in the relative transcript abundance and protein level of Caspase 3 and Cleaved-Caspase 3, respectively, in the first 2 hours of culture after warming. On the other hand, an increased protein level of double stranded DNA breaks (gamma-H2AX) was observed in post-warmed tissues disregarding the length of culture time, and a temporary reduction in pan-AKT was detected in post-warming tissues between 0 to 0.25 hours of culture time. Prolonged culture time lowered the percentage of viable follicles in warmed tissues, but it did not seem to affect the follicular mitochondrial membrane potential. In conclusion, 1 to 2 hours of culture time would be optimal for vitrified-warmed tissues before transplantation.

Therapeutic effects of isosteviol sodium on non-alcoholic fatty liver disease by regulating autophagy via Sirt1/AMPK pathway

Isosteviol sodium (STVNa) is a beyerane diterpene synthesized via acid hydrolysis of stevioside, which can improve glucose and lipid metabolism in animals with diabetes. However, it remains unknown whether STVNa can exhibit a therapeutic effect on nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and its underlying mechanism. We hypothesize that autophagic initiation may play a key role in mediating the development of NAFLD. Herein, we assessed the effects of STVNa on NAFLD and its underlying mechanisms. The results demonstrated that STVNa treatment effectively ameliorated NAFLD in rats fed high-fat diet (HFD). Moreover, STVNa decreased the expression of inflammation-related genes and maintained a balance of pro-inflammatory cytokines in NAFLD rats. STVNa also reduced lipid accumulation in free fatty acid (FFA)-exposed LO2 cells. In addition, STVNa attenuated hepatic oxidative stress and fibrosis in NAFLD rats. Furthermore, STVNa enhanced autophagy and activated Sirtuin 1/adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (Sirt1/AMPK) pathway both in vivo and in vitro, thus attenuating intracellular lipid accumulation. In summary, STVNa could improve lipid metabolism in NAFLD by initiating autophagy via Sirt1/AMPK pathway. Therefore, STVNa may be an alternative therapeutic agent for treatment of NAFLD.

Iron-overloaded follicular fluid increases the risk of endometriosis-related infertility by triggering granulosa cell ferroptosis and oocyte dysmaturity

Endometriosis (EMs) occurs in approximately 50% of women with infertility. The main causes of EMs-related infertility are follicle dysplasia and reduced oocyte quality. Iron overload occurs in ovarian follicular fluid (FF) of patients with EMs, and this condition is associated with oocyte maturation disorder. However, the underlying molecular mechanism remains largely unknown. In the present study, we identified the mechanism underlying ferroptosis in ovarian granulosa cells and oocyte maturation failure in EMs based on a retrospective review of in vitro fertilization/intracytoplasmic sperm injection-frozen embryo transfer outcomes in infertile patients with EMs. Mouse granulosa cells were treated with EMs-related infertile patients' follicular fluid (EMFF) in vitro. Western blot analysis, quantitative polymerase chain reaction, fluorescence staining, and transmission electron microscopy were used to assess granulosa cells ferroptosis. The effects of exosomes were examined by nanoparticle tracking analysis, RNA-seq, and Western blot analysis. Finally, the therapeutic values of vitamin E and iron chelator (deferoxamine mesylate) in vivo were evaluated in an EMs-related infertility model. Patients with ovarian EMs experienced poorer oocyte fertility than patients with non-ovarian EMs. We observed that EMFF with iron overload-induced granulosa cell ferroptosis in vitro and in vivo. Mechanically, nuclear receptor coactivator four-dependent ferritinophagy was involved in this process. Notably, granulosa cells undergoing ferroptosis further suppressed oocyte maturation by releasing exosomes from granulosa cells. In therapeutic studies, vitamin E and iron chelators effectively alleviated EMs-related infertility models. Our study indicates a novel mechanism through which EMFF with iron overload induces ferroptosis of granulosa cells and oocyte dysmaturity in EMs-related infertility, providing a potential therapeutic strategy for EMs-related infertility.

Protective effect of C-phycocyanin and apo-phycocyanin subunit on programmed necrosis of GC-1 spg cells induced by H2 O2

C-phycocyanin (C-PC) is an effective antioxidant and has an important value in medical research. Oxidative stress is considered to be one of the main underlying mechanisms of cell death, and reducing oxidative stress is one of the strategies to enhance germ cell viability. Herein, we investigated the protective effect and the mechanism of C-PC and apo-phycocyanin subunit on oxidative stress damage induced by H₂ O₂ in GC-1 spg cells. C-PC genes were cloned into the pGEX-4T-1 vectorand transformed into Escherichia coli BL21 to achieve the efficient expression of C-PC subunit. GC-1 spg cells were treated with 600 μM H₂ O₂ for 24 h to establish the oxidative stress damage model. Cell viability was detected by CCK-8. The degree of oxidative stress was detected by testing Superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activities and glutathione (GSH) and Malondialdehyde (MDA) levels. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) was evaluated utilizingby 2', 7'-dichlorofluorescent-diacetate (DCFH-DA). Mitochondrial membrane potential was determined by JC-1. Cell necrosis rate was detected by Annexin V-FITC/PI. Expression of protein was detected by western blot. We found that C-PC and GST-CPC β significantly inhibited H₂ O₂ -induced oxidative damage of GC-1 spg cells, improved the ability of antioxidation, reduced ROS overproduction, and mitochondrial membrane potential loss, and inhibited the RIP-1/RIP-3/ p-MLKL signaling pathway to reduce the necrosis rate. The results demonstrated that C-PC played a protective role against H₂ O₂ -induced cell damage, especially its β subunit. This study provides a theoretical basis for C-PC as a potential protective agent of reproductive system.

Increased homocysteine regulated by androgen activates autophagy by suppressing the mammalian target of rapamycin pathway in the granulosa cells of polycystic ovary syndrome mice

The purpose of this study was to explore the potential molecular mechanisms of excess homocysteine in relation to autophagic activity in the ovarian tissue of polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) with hyperandrogenism.A PCOS model was constructed using ICR mice. ELISA was used to detect the Hcy levels in the serum and ovarian tissues of PCOS model. The expression level of key enzymes (Methionine synthase and Betaine-homocysteine methyltransferase, MTR and BHMT) in homocysteine metabolism and autophagy-related proteins were detected in ovarian tissues and mouse granulosa cells (mGCs) that were treated with homocysteine, androgen, autophagy inhibitors or BHMT-expressing plasmid by western blot and immunohistochemistry. Electron microscope experiments were used to evaluate autophagosomes in Hcy-treated mGCs. The prenatally androgenized (PNA) PCOS mouse model showed hyperhomocysteinemia and hyperandrogenism. Homocysteine levels displayed a significant increase, while its metabolic enzymes levels were significantly decreased in ovarian tissues of PCOS mice and dihydrotestosterone (DHT)-stimulated mGCs. The LC3II and Beclin1 expression levels were increased and the P62 and p-mTOR levels were decreased in vivo in ovarian tissue from the PCOS mice. The in vitro data were similarly with the in vivo by stimulation of mGCs with DHT or homocysteine. These effects could be diminished by the autophagy inhibitor (MHY1485), androgen receptor antagonists (ARN509) or BHMT-expressing plasmid. Androgen increases homocysteine concentration by downregulating the key enzymes in homocysteine metabolism. And then Hcy promotes GCs autophagy via the mTOR signal pathway.

Menstrual blood-derived endometrial stem cells ameliorate the viability of ovarian granulosa cells injured by cisplatin through activating autophagy

Although the cancer incidence showed a yearly increasing trend, the long-term survival rate of cancer patients significantly increased with the continuous improvements in cancer diagnosis and treatment. Therefore, recent strategies for cancer treatment not only focus on improving the survival rate of patients but also simultaneously consider the life quality of cancer patients, especially for those with fertility requirements. Stem cell-based therapies have exhibited promising improvement in various disease treatments, and provide hope for diseases without effective treatment. Menstrual blood-derived endometrial stem cells (MenSCs) can be noninvasively and periodically obtained from discarded menstrual blood samples and exhibit high proliferative capacity, low immunogenicity and autologous transplantation. As expected, MenSCs treatment effectively improved the viability of cisplatin-injured ovarian granulosa cells (GCs) and significantly upregulated their antiapoptotic capacity. Further results demonstrated that MenSCs treatment significantly upregulated autophagy activity in cisplatin-injured ovarian GCs, and the degree of autophagy activation was positively correlated with the viability improvement of ovarian GCs, while autophagy inhibitors significantly impaired MenSC-promoted viability improvement of cisplatin-injured ovarian GCs. Additionally, MenSCs treatment can also significantly promote the proliferation of normal GCs by activating the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. Conclusively, MenSCs treatment not only enhanced the antiapoptotic capacity and survival of cisplatin-injured ovarian GCs by upregulating autophagy activity but also improved the viability of normal ovarian GCs by activating the PI3K/Akt signal pathway. These results provide a theoretical and experimental foundation for the clinical application of MenSCs in improving chemotherapy-induced ovarian injury and delaying ovarian senescence.

DDX4 + stem cells in the ovaries of postmenopausal women: existence and differentiation potential

Ovarian aging is a pacemaker with multiple organ dysfunction. Recently, stem cells with the ability to generate new oocytes have been identified, which provides the possibility of stem cell therapy for ovarian aging. Several studies have revealed the existence of stem cells in human postmenopausal ovary. In this study, we describe a new method using magnetic activated cell sorting combined with differential adhesion to isolate DDX4 + stem cells from ovaries of postmenopausal women and show that the cells exhibit similar gene expression profiles and growth characteristics with primitive germ cells. Furthermore, the DDX4 + stem cells could enter meiosis stage and differentiation into oocytes. The RNA-seq data of the differentiated oocytes shows that mitochondrial metabolism may play an important role in the oogenesis process of the DDX4 + stem cells. Through using human ovarian cortical fragments transplantation model, we indicated that the GFP-DDX4 + stem cells differentiated into some GFP positive oocyte-like structure in vivo. Our study provided a new method for the isolation of DDX4 + stem cells from the ovaries of postmenopausal women and confirmed the ability of these stem cells to differentiate into oocytes.

Tumor metastasis: Mechanistic insights and therapeutic interventions

Cancer metastasis is responsible for the vast majority of cancer-related deaths worldwide. In contrast to numerous discoveries that reveal the detailed mechanisms leading to the formation of the primary tumor, the biological underpinnings of the metastatic disease remain poorly understood. Cancer metastasis is a complex process in which cancer cells escape from the primary tumor, settle, and grow at other parts of the body. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition and anoikis resistance of tumor cells are the main forces to promote metastasis, and multiple components in the tumor microenvironment and their complicated crosstalk with cancer cells are closely involved in distant metastasis. In addition to the three cornerstones of tumor treatment, surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy, novel treatment approaches including targeted therapy and immunotherapy have been established in patients with metastatic cancer. Although the cancer survival rate has been greatly improved over the years, it is still far from satisfactory. In this review, we provided an overview of the metastasis process, summarized the cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in the dissemination and distant metastasis of cancer cells, and reviewed the important advances in interventions for cancer metastasis.

Reactive oxygen species may influence on the crossroads of stemness, senescence, and carcinogenesis in a cell via the roles of APRO family proteins

Excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) may cause oxidative stress which is involved in aging and in the pathogenesis of various human diseases. Whereas unregulated levels of the ROS may be harmful, regulated basal level of ROS are even necessary to support cellular functions as a second messenger for homeostasis under physiological conditions. Therefore, redox medicine could develop as a new therapeutic concept for human health-benefits. Here, we introduce the involvement of ROS on the crossroads of stemness, senescence, and carcinogenesis in a stem cell and cancer cell biology. Amazingly, the anti-proliferative (APRO) family anti-proliferative proteins characterized by immediate early growth responsive genes may also be involved in the crossroads machinery. The biological functions of APRO proteins (APROs) seem to be quite intricate, however, which might be a key modulator of microRNAs (miRNAs). Given the crucial roles of ROS and APROs for pathophysiological functions, upcoming novel therapeutics should include vigilant modulation of the redox state. Next generation of medicine including regenerative medicine and/or cancer therapy will likely comprise strategies for altering the redox environment with the APROs via the modulation of miRNAs as well as with the regulation of ROS of cells in a sustainable manner.

GnRHa protects the ovarian reserve by reducing endoplasmic reticulum stress during cyclophosphamide-based chemotherapy

Chemotherapy-induced ovarian dysfunction is a serious adverse effect in premenopausal patients with cancer. Gonadotrophin-releasing hormone analogs (GnRHa) protect ovarian function, but its molecular mechanisms have not yet been determined. In this study, we attempted to determine the previously unknown molecular mechanism by which such protection occurs. Serum anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) levels were tested in tumor-bearing nude mice, a series of exploratory experiments were conducted. We discovered that GnRHa protects granulosa cells from chemotherapeutic toxicity in vivo and in vitro. We also showed that CTX-induced endoplasmic reticulum stress inhibits the secretion of AMH, and treatment with GnRHa relieves ER stress and the subsequent unfolded-protein response by modulating mTOR signaling to induce autophagy. The results of mechanistic studies indicated that GnRHa-modulated mTOR signaling to induce autophagy, which alleviated CTX-induced ER stress and promoted the secretion of AMH.

Effects of Environmental and Pathological Hypoxia on Male Fertility

Male infertility is a widespread health problem affecting approximately 6%-8% of the male population, and hypoxia may be a causative factor. In mammals, two types of hypoxia are known, including environmental and pathological hypoxia. Studies looking at the effects of hypoxia on male infertility have linked both types of hypoxia to poor sperm quality and pregnancy outcomes. Hypoxia damages testicular seminiferous tubule directly, leading to the disorder of seminiferous epithelium and shedding of spermatogenic cells. Hypoxia can also disrupt the balance between oxidative phosphorylation and glycolysis of spermatogenic cells, resulting in impaired self-renewal and differentiation of spermatogonia, and failure of meiosis. In addition, hypoxia disrupts the secretion of reproductive hormones, causing spermatogenic arrest and erectile dysfunction. The possible mechanisms involved in hypoxia on male reproductive toxicity mainly include excessive ROS mediated oxidative stress, HIF-1α mediated germ cell apoptosis and proliferation inhibition, systematic inflammation and epigenetic changes. In this review, we discuss the correlations between hypoxia and male infertility based on epidemiological, clinical and animal studies and enumerate the hypoxic factors causing male infertility in detail. Demonstration of the causal association between hypoxia and male infertility will provide more options for the treatment of male infertility.

Autophagy in ovary and polycystic ovary syndrome: role, dispute and future perspective

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a unification of endocrine and metabolic disorders and has become immensely prevalent among women of fertile age. The prime organ affected in PCOS is the ovary and its distressed functioning elicits disturbed reproductive outcomes. In the ovary, macroautophagy/autophagy performs a pivotal role in directing the chain of events starting from oocytes origin until its fertilization. Recent discoveries demonstrate a significant role of autophagy in the pathogenesis of PCOS. Defective autophagy in the follicular cells during different stages of follicles is observed in the PCOS ovary. Exploring different autophagy pathways provides a platform for predicting the possible cause of altered ovarian physiology in PCOS. In this review, we have emphasized autophagy's role in governing follicular development under normal circumstances and in PCOS, including significant abnormalities associated with PCOS such as anovulation, hyperandrogenemia, metabolic disturbances, and related abnormality. So far, few studies have linked autophagy and PCOS and propose its essential role in PCOS progression. However, detailed knowledge in this area is lacking. Here we have summarized the latest knowledge related to autophagy associated with PCOS. This review's main objective is to provide a background of autophagy in the ovary, its possible connection with PCOS and suggested a novel proposal for future studies to aid a better understanding of PCOS pathogenesis.Abbreviations: AE: androgen excess; AF: antral follicle; AKT/PKB: AKT serine/threonine kinase; AMH: anti-Mullerian hormone; AMPK: AMP-activated protein kinase; ATG: autophagy-related; BCL2: BCL2 apoptosis regulator; BECN1: beclin 1; BMP: bone morphogenetic protein; CASP3: caspase 3; CL: corpus luteum; CYP17A1/P450C17: cytochrome P450 family 17 subfamily A member 1; CYP19A1: cytochrome P450 family 19 subfamily A member 1; DHEA: dehydroepiandrosterone; EH: endometrial hyperplasia; FF: follicular fluid; FOXO: forkhead box O; FSH: follicle stimulating hormone; GC: granulosa cell; GDF: growth differentiation factor; HA: hyperandrogenemia; HMGB1: high mobility group box 1; IGF1: insulin like growth factor 1; INS: insulin; IR: insulin resistance; LHCGR/LHR: luteinizing hormone/choriogonadotropin receptor; MAP1LC3B/LC3B: microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3 beta; MAPK/ERK: mitogen-activated protein kinase; MAPK8/JNK: mitogen-activated protein kinase 8; MTOR: mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase; MTORC: mechanistic target of rapamycin complex; NAFLD: nonalcoholic fatty liver disease; NFKB: nuclear factor kappa B; OLR1/LOX-1: oxidized low density lipoprotein receptor 1; oxLDL: oxidized low-density lipoproteins; PA: palmitic acid; PCOS: polycystic ovary syndrome; PF: primary follicle; PGC: primordial germ cell; PI3K: phosphoinositide 3-kinase; PMF: primordial follicle; ROS: reactive oxygen species; RP: resting pool; SIRT1: sirtuin 1; SQSTM1/p62: sequestosome 1; T2DM: type 2 diabetes mellitus; TC: theca cell; TUG1: taurine up-regulated 1.

Perinatal hypoxia leads to primordial follicle activation and premature depletion of ovarian reserve

BACKGROUND

The human ovary contains 6-million follicles during the 20th week of embryonic development and 1 million at birth. Girls born at small for gestational age weight demonstrate higher FSH levels during infancy, an earlier onset of puberty, and menarche. In light of these observations, we hypothesized that exposure to hypoxia at the early neonatal period might impact the primordial follicular pool and lead to premature depletion of ovarian reserve.

METHODS

Ovarian development in the rat model at days 1-5 postpartum reflects its human counterpart in the late perinatal period. We exposed newborn rat pups (n = 5) to controlled hypoxia, (5% oxygen/95% nitrogen) for 10 min three times daily for days 1-5 postpartum. On day 5, ovaries were harvested, H&E, Ki-67, and TUNEL staining were performed.

RESULTS

The percentage of primordial follicles out of total follicles in ovaries of pups exposed to hypoxia was lower compared to control (76 ± 8.2% and 90.33 ± 6.3% respectively, p < .05). Correspondingly the percentage of primary and secondary follicles was higher than in control. The mean stromal Ki67 staining score was significantly lower in the study group (1.67 ± 0.58 and 2.5 ± 0.55 respectively, p < .05). TUNEL staining demonstrated no difference in stromal apoptosis rates between both groups.

CONCLUSIONS

We provide evidence for the first time that perinatal hypoxia causes premature activation and growth initiation of dormant follicles. These changes were associated with decreased stromal cell proliferation, suggesting hypoxia-induced impairment of the support cell pool as a possible mechanism for accelerated follicular activation.

The Molecular Regulation in the Pathophysiology in Ovarian Aging

The female reproductive system is of great significance to women’s health. Aging of the female reproductive system occurs approximately 10 years prior to the natural age-associated functional decline of other organ systems. With an increase in life expectancy worldwide, reproductive aging has gradually become a key health issue among women. Therefore, an adequate understanding of the causes and molecular mechanisms of ovarian aging is essential towards the inhibition of age-related diseases and the promotion of health and longevity in women. In general, women begin to experience a decline in ovarian function around the age of 35 years, which is mainly manifested as a decrease in the number of ovarian follicles and the quality of oocytes. Studies have revealed the occurrence of mitochondrial dysfunction, reduced DNA repair, epigenetic changes, and metabolic alterations in the cells within the ovaries as age increases. In the present work, we reviewed the possible factors of aging-induced ovarian insufficiency based on its clinical diagnosis and performed an in-depth investigation of the relevant molecular mechanisms and potential targets to provide novel approaches for the effective improvement of ovarian function in older women.

Hypoxia Induced by Cobalt Chloride Triggers Autophagic Apoptosis of Human and Mouse Drug-Resistant Glioblastoma Cells through Targeting the PI3K-AKT-mTOR Signaling Pathway

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most aggressive brain tumor. Drug resistance mainly drives GBM patients to poor prognoses because drug-resistant glioblastoma cells highly defend against apoptotic insults. This study was designed to evaluate the effects of cobalt chloride (CoCl2) on hypoxic stress, autophagy, and resulting apoptosis of human and mouse drug-resistant glioblastoma cells. Treatment of drug-resistant glioblastoma cells with CoCl2 increased levels of hypoxia-inducible factor- (HIF-) 1α and triggered hypoxic stress. In parallel, the CoCl2-induced hypoxia decreased mitochondrial ATP synthesis, cell proliferation, and survival in chemoresistant glioblastoma cells. Interestingly, CoCl2 elevated the ratio of light chain (LC)3-II over LC3-I in TMZ-resistant glioblastoma cells and subsequently induced cell autophagy. Analyses by loss- and gain-of-function strategies further confirmed the effects of the CoCl2-induced hypoxia on autophagy of drug-resistant glioblastoma cells. Furthermore, knocking down HIF-1α concurrently lessened CoCl2-induced cell autophagy. As to the mechanisms, the CoCl2-induced hypoxia decreased levels of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) and successive phosphorylations of AKT and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) in TMZ-resistant glioblastoma cells. Interestingly, long-term exposure of human chemoresistant glioblastoma cells to CoCl2 sequentially triggered activation of caspases-3 and -6, DNA fragmentation, and cell apoptosis. However, pretreatment with 3-methyladenine, an inhibitor of autophagy, significantly attenuated the CoCl2-induced autophagy and subsequent apoptotic insults. Taken together, this study showed that long-term treatment with CoCl2 can induce hypoxia and subsequent autophagic apoptosis of drug-resistant glioblastoma cells via targeting the PI3K-AKT-mTOR pathway. Thus, combined with traditional prescriptions, CoCl2-induced autophagic apoptosis can be clinically applied as a de novo strategy for therapy of drug-resistant GBM patients.

Current mechanisms of primordial follicle activation and new strategies for fertility preservation

Premature ovarian insufficiency (POI) is characterized by symptoms caused by ovarian dysfunction in patients aged <40 years. It is associated with a shortened reproductive lifespan. The only effective treatment for patients who are eager to become pregnant is IVF/Embryo Transfer (ET) using oocytes donated by young women. However, the use of the technique is constrained by the limited supply of oocytes and ethical issues. Some patients with POI still have some residual follicles in the ovarian cortex, which are not regulated by gonadotropin. These follicles are dormant. Therefore, activating dormant primordial follicles (PFs) to obtain high-quality oocytes for assisted reproductive technology may bring new hope for patients with POI. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the factors related to PF activation, such as the intercellular signaling network, the internal microenvironment of the ovary and the environment of the organism. In addition, we discussed new strategies for fertility preservation, such as in vitro activation and stem cell transplantation.

HIF-1α/BNIP3-Mediated Autophagy Contributes to the Luteinization of Granulosa Cells During the Formation of Corpus Luteum

During the luteinization after ovulation in mammalian ovary, the containing cells undergo an energy consuming function re-determination process to differentiate into luteal cells under avascular environment. Previous evidences have delineated the contribution of autophagy to the cell differentiation and the catabolic homeostasis in various types of mammalian cells, whereas few interest had been focused on the involvement of autophagy in the luteinization of granulosa cells during the formation of early corpus luteum. Herein, the present study investigated that expression and contribution of autophagy during granulosa cell luteinization and early luteal development through in vivo and in vitro experiments. The results clearly demonstrated that HIF-1α/BNIP3-mediated autophagy plays a vital role in the luteinization of granulosa cells during the early luteal formation in vivo and in vitro. In the neonatal corpus luteum, HIF-1α up-regulated BNIP3 expressions, which contributed to the autophagic initiation by disrupting beclin1 from Bcl-2/beclin1 complex and protected cells from apoptosis by curbing the skew of mitochondria balance under avascular niche. Notably, Inhibition of HIF-1α activity by echinomycin enhanced the levels of cytoplasmic cytochrome c and cell apoptosis in the nascent corpus luteum. These findings revealed that HIF-1α/BNIP3-mediated autophagy enabled the process of granulosa cell luteinization and protected the granulosa-lutein cells from further apoptosis under hypoxia niche. To our knowledge, the present study firstly clarified that HIF-1α/BNIP3-mediated autophagy contributes to the luteinization of granulosa cells during the formation of pregnant corpus luteum, which will help us further understanding the luteal biology and provide us new clues for the treatment of luteal insufficiency.

Hypoxia and its possible relationship with endometrial receptivity in adenomyosis: a preliminary study

BACKGROUND

Adenomyosis (AM) is an important cause of female infertility. However, the underlying mechanism remains unclear. This report describes a preliminary study of hypoxia and its possible association with endometrial receptivity in AM.

METHODS

The study was divided into in vitro and in vivo experiments. In vitro, expression levels of the endometrial receptivity markers HOXA10 and HOXA11 in the implantation period were examined using real-time PCR and western blotting. Endometrial expression of hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1α, HIF-2α, and HIF-3α was determined using immunohistochemistry. In vivo, using an AM mouse model established by oral administration of tamoxifen, we inhibited expression of HIF-2α using an HIF-2α antagonist (PT2399; 30 mg/kg body weight, twice daily by oral gavage for 2 days) and then examined expression levels of Hoxa10 and Hoxa11 using real-time PCR and western blotting.

RESULTS

Endometrial mRNA and protein expression levels of HOXA10 and HOXA11 were significantly lower in patients with AM than in control patients. Expression of HIF-2α was significantly higher in the AM group than in the control group, whereas that of HIF-1α and HIF-3α was equivalent in both groups. In vivo analysis showed that administration of the HIF-2α antagonist resulted in increased expression of Hoxa10 and Hoxa11 at both the mRNA and protein levels in AM model mice.

CONCLUSIONS

HIF-2α overexpression may be one reason for decreased endometrial receptivity in AM. The current findings provide insight into HIF-2α-mediated AM-related infertility and suggest that PT2399 has potential as a treatment for AM.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

This trial was retrospectively registered.

Adipose tissue-derived stem cells protect the primordial follicle pool from both direct follicle death and abnormal activation after ovarian tissue transplantation

PURPOSE

To investigate whether adipose tissue-derived stem cells (ASCs) protect the primordial follicle pool, not only by decreasing direct follicle loss but also by modulating follicle activation pathways.

METHODS

Twenty nude mice were grafted with frozen-thawed human ovarian tissue from 5 patients. Ten mice underwent standard ovarian tissue transplantation (OT group), while the remaining ten were transplanted with ASCs and ovarian tissue (2-step/ASCs+OT group). Ovarian grafts were retrieved on days 3 (n = 5) and 10 (n = 5). Analyses included histology (follicle count and classification), immunohistochemistry (c-caspase-3 for apoptosis and LC3B for autophagy), and immunofluorescence (FOXO1 for PI3K/Akt activation and YAP for Hippo pathway disruption). Subcellular localization was determined in primordial follicles on high-resolution images using structured illumination microscopy.

RESULTS

The ASCs+OT group showed significantly higher follicle density than the OT group (p = 0.01). Significantly increased follicle atresia (p < 0.001) and apoptosis (p = 0.001) were observed only in the OT group. In primordial follicles, there was a significant shift in FOXO1 to a cytoplasmic localization in the OT group on days 3 (p = 0.01) and 10 (p = 0.03), indicating follicle activation, while the ASCs+OT group and non-grafted controls maintained nuclear localization, indicating quiescence. Hippo pathway disruption was encountered in primordial follicles irrespective of transplantation, with nuclear YAP localized in their granulosa cells.

CONCLUSION

We demonstrate that ASCs exert positive effects on the ovarian reserve, not only by protecting primordial follicles from direct death but also by maintaining their quiescence through modulation of the PI3K/Akt pathway.

HIF-1α-Mediated Mitophagy Determines ZnO Nanoparticle-Induced Human Osteosarcoma Cell Death both In Vitro and In Vivo

Although ZnO nanoparticles (NPs) can kill human osteosarcoma cells, the underlying upstream regulatory mechanisms remain unclear. Since hypoxia inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) regulates the tumor microenvironment, here we explored the interplay between HIF-1α regulation and mitophagy in ZnO NP-induced osteosarcoma inhibition both in vivo and in vitro. We found that ZnO NPs upregulated HIF-1α protein levels when they killed four common human osteosarcoma cell lines. This finding was consistent with our observations that additional HIF-1α upregulation by a hypoxia inducer CoCl₂ or under a 1% hypoxia environment enhanced NP-induced cell death, but concurrent HIF-1α suppression by a hypoxia inhibitor YC-1 or HIF-1α siRNA inhibited NP-induced cell death. We discovered an interplay between HIF-1α and the autophagy-Zn²⁺-reactive oxygen species (ROS)-autophagy cycle axis and revealed that NP-induced cancer cell killing followed a HIF-1α-BNIP3-LC3B-mediated mitophagy pathway. We confirmed that NP-upregulated HIF-1α protein expression was attributed to prolyl hydroxylase inhibition by both ROS and Zn²⁺. In addition, the in vivo assay confirmed the therapeutic effectiveness and safety of ZnO NPs on a nude mice osteosarcoma model. Collectively, our findings clarified the upstream regulatory mechanism of autophagy induced by the NPs and further demonstrated their antitumor ability in vivo. This work provides new targets and strategies for enhancing NP-based osteosarcoma treatment.

Selenium may suppress peripheral blood mononuclear cell apoptosis by modulating HSP70 and regulate levels of SIRT1 through reproductive hormone secretion and oxidant stress in women suffering fluorosis

Excessive taking fluoride (F) causes severe damage to reproductive system through stimulation of apoptosis and oxidant stress. Selenium (Se) may promote anti-oxidant enzymes and invert cell apoptosis. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of Se on peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) apoptosis and oxidant stress in women with fluorosis. Sixty women were divided into three groups according to serum and urine fluoride and hair Se as High F + high Se group, High F group and Control group. The activities of anti-oxidant enzymes, malondialdehyde (MDA) and Se were measured. The levels of sirtuin type 1 (SIRT1), estradiol (E₂), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) were measured by enzyme-linked immune sorbent assay (ELISA) kits. The expression of protein and apoptosis rate were detected by Western blot and Flow cytometry. The levels of E₂, anti-oxidant enzymes in High F group were significantly lower than that in Control group, while the levels of SIRT1 and MDA were significantly higher. The levels of anti-oxidant enzymes and heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) were significantly increased in High Se + high F group while the expression of caspase-3 was significantly increased in high F group. The levels of LH and FSH in serum were significantly increased in High F group and High Se + high F group. Therefore, Se alleviates apoptosis induced by F through improving the expression of HSP70 and reduces oxidative stress by regulating levels of SIRT1 and anti-oxidant enzymes, and the secretion of certain reproductive hormones.

Intraovarian vascular enhancement via stromal injection of platelet-derived growth factors: Exploring subsequent oocyte chromosomal status and in vitro fertilization outcomes

The inverse correlation between maternal age and pregnancy rate represents a major challenge for reproductive endocrinology. The high embryo ploidy error rate in failed in vitro fertilization (IVF) cycles reflects genetic misfires accumulated by older oocytes over time. Despite the application of different follicular recruitment protocols during IVF, gonadotropin modifications are generally futile in addressing such damage. Even when additional oocytes are retrieved, quality is frequently poor. Older oocytes with serious cytoplasmic and/or chromosomal errors are often harvested from poorly perfused follicles, and ovarian vascularity and follicular oxygenation impact embryonic chromosomal competency. Because stimulation regimens exert their effects briefly and immediately before ovulation, gonadotropins alone are an ineffective antidote to long-term hypoxic pathology. In contrast, the tissue repair properties (and particularly the angiogenic effects) of platelet-rich plasma (PRP) are well known, with applications in other clinical contexts. Injection of conventional PRP and/or its components (e.g., isolated platelet-derived growth factors as a cell-free substrate) into ovarian tissue prior to IVF has been reported to improve reproductive outcomes. Any derivative neovascularity may modulate oocyte competence by increasing cellular oxygenation and/or lowering concentrations of intraovarian reactive oxygen species. We propose a mechanism to support intrastromal angiogenesis, improved follicular perfusion, and, crucially, embryo ploidy rescue. This last effect may be explained by mRNA upregulation coordinated by PRP-associated molecular signaling, as in other tissue systems. Additionally, we outline an intraovarian injection technique for platelet-derived growth factors and present this method to help minimize reliance on donor oocytes and conventional hormone replacement therapy.

Autophagy in Female Fertility: A Role in Oxidative Stress and Aging

Significance: The precipitous age-related decline in female fertility is intimately associated with a reduction in both the quantity and quality of the germline (oocytes). Although complex etiologies undoubtedly contribute to the deterioration of oocyte quality, increasing attention has focused on the pervasive impact of oxidative stress. Indeed, the prolonged lifespan of the meiotically arrested oocyte places this cell at heightened risk of oxidative lesions, which commonly manifest in dysregulation of protein homeostasis (proteostasis). Although oocytes are able to mitigate this threat via the mobilization of a sophisticated network of surveillance, repair, and proteolytic pathways, these defenses are themselves prone to age-related defects, reducing their capacity to eliminate oxidatively damaged proteins. Recent Advances: Here, we give consideration to the quality control mechanisms identified within the ovary that afford protection to the female germline. Our primary focus is to review recent advances in our understanding of the autophagy pathway and its contribution to promoting oocyte longevity and modulating pathophysiological responses to oxidative stress. In addition, we explore the therapeutic potential of emerging strategies to fortify autophagic activity. Critical Issues: The complex interplay of oxidative stress and autophagy has yet to be fully elucidated within the context of the aging oocyte and surrounding ovarian environment. Future Directions: Emerging evidence provides a strong impetus to resolve the causal link between autophagy and oxidative stress-driven pathologies in the aging oocyte. Such research may ultimately inform novel therapeutic strategies to combat the age-related loss of female fertility via fortification of intrinsic autophagic activity.

Beclin 1 Interacts With Active Caspase-3 and Bax in Oocytes From Atretic Follicles in the Rat Ovary

Oocyte cell death is a normal process in the mammalian ovary during follicular growth. Recent reports have demonstrated the presence of pro-apoptotic and pro-autophagic proteins during oocyte elimination. The goal of this study was to identify the interactions between proteins involved in different types of programmed cell death in the same oocyte during follicular atresia. We evaluated the presence of Beclin 1 and its interaction with the pro-apoptotic proteins active caspase-3, Bax, and Bak by means of histochemical observations, ultrastructural immunodetection, and immunoprecipitation techniques in ovaries from prepubertal (28- and 33-day-old), juvenile (40-day-old), and young adult (90-day-old) rats. In this study, we identified that oocyte elimination occurred with a high quantity of pro-autophagic protein Beclin 1 and increased the presence of the pro-apoptotic proteins active caspase-3, Bax, and Bak. Conversely, the antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2 was reduced in oocytes from atretic follicles. In addition, Beclin 1 was shown to interact with active caspase-3 and Bax. Our results suggest that the increase in Beclin 1 is directly related to the rise of pro-apoptotic proteins, which could promote the apoptotic process during oocyte elimination.

Fetal liver mesenchymal stem cells restore ovarian function in premature ovarian insufficiency by targeting MT1

Background

With the development of regenerative medicine and tissue engineering technology, almost all stem cell therapy is efficacious for the treatment of premature ovarian failure (POF) or premature ovarian insufficiency (POI) animal models, whereas little stem cell therapy has been practiced in clinical settings. The underlying molecular mechanism and safety of stem cell treatment in POI are not fully understood. In this study, we explored whether fetal mesenchymal stem cells (fMSCs) from the liver restore ovarian function and whether melatonin membrane receptor 1 (MT1) acts as a regulator for treating POI disease.

Methods

We designed an in vivo model (chemotherapy-induced ovary damage) and an in vitro model (human ovarian granulosa cells (hGCs)) to understand the efficacy and molecular cues of fMSC treatment of POI. Follicle development was observed by H&E staining. The concentration of sex hormones in serum (E2, AMH, and FSH) and the concentration of oxidative and antioxidative metabolites and the enzymes MDA, SOD, CAT, LDH, GR, and GPx were measured by ELISA. Flow cytometry (FACS) was employed to detect the percentages of ROS and proliferation rates. mRNA and protein expression of antiapoptotic genes (SURVIVIN and BCL2), apoptotic genes (CASPASE-3 and CASPASE-9), and MT1 and its downstream genes (JNK1, PCNA, AMPK) were tested by qPCR and western blotting. MT1 siRNA and related antagonists were used to assess the mechanism.

Results

fMSC treatment prevented cyclophosphamide (CTX)-induced follicle loss and recovered sex hormone levels. Additionally, fMSCs significantly decreased oxidative damage, increased oxidative protection, improved antiapoptotic effects, and inhibited apoptotic genes in vivo and in vitro. Furthermore, fMSCs also upregulated MT1, JNK1, PCNA, and AMPK at the mRNA and protein levels. With MT1 knockdown or antagonist treatment in normal hGCs, the protein expression of JNK1, PCNA, and AMPK and the percentage of proliferation were impaired.

Conclusions

fMSCs might play a crucial role in mediating follicular development in the POI mouse model and stimulating the activity of POI hGCs by targeting MT1.

Integrated Analysis of miRNA-mRNA Interaction Network in Porcine Granulosa Cells Undergoing Oxidative Stress

Oxidative stress (OS), a common intracellular phenomenon induced by excess reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, has been shown to be associated with mammalian ovarian follicular development blockage and granulosa cell (GC) impairment. However, the mechanism involved in these effects remains unknown, and the effect of OS on the transcriptome profiles in porcine GCs has not been fully characterized. In this study, we found that hydrogen peroxide-mediated oxidative stress induced porcine GC apoptosis and impaired cell viability. Moreover, RNA-seq analysis showed that oxidative stress induced dramatic changes in gene expression in porcine GCs. A total of 2025 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified, including 1940 DEmRNAs and 55 DEmiRNAs. Functional annotation showed that the DEGs were mainly associated with cell states and function regulation. In addition, multiple hub genes (FOXO1, SOD2, BMP2, DICER1, BCL2L11, FZD4, ssc-miR-424, and ssc-miR-27b) were identified by constructing protein-protein interaction and DEmiRNA-DEmRNA regulatory networks. Furthermore, a gene-pathway-function coregulatory network was established and demonstrated that these hub genes were enriched in FoxO, TGF-β, Wnt, PIK3-Akt, MAPK, and cAMP signaling pathways, which play important roles in regulating cell apoptosis, cell proliferation, stress responses, and hormone secretion. The current research provides a comprehensive perspective of the effects of oxidative stress on porcine GCs and also identifies potential therapeutic targets for oxidative stress-induced female infertility.