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Joumaa JP, Raffoul A, Sarkis C, Chatrieh E, Zaidan S, Attieh P, Harb F, Azar S, Ghadieh HE. Mechanisms, Biomarkers, and Treatment Approaches for Diabetic Kidney Disease: Current Insights and Future Perspectives. J Clin Med 2025; 14:727. [PMID: 39941397 PMCID: PMC11818458 DOI: 10.3390/jcm14030727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2024] [Revised: 01/17/2025] [Accepted: 01/20/2025] [Indexed: 02/16/2025] Open
Abstract
Diabetic Kidney Disease (DKD) is the leading cause of end-stage renal disease (ESRD) worldwide. Among individuals with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM), 30-40% are at risk of developing DKD. This review focuses on the mechanistic processes, available and emerging biomarkers for diagnosing, monitoring, and preventing DKD, as well as treatment options targeted at DKD patients. A literature search was conducted on PubMed and Scopus using specific keywords. Inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied to select the articles used for this review. The literature highlights various mechanisms involved in the progression of DKD to more severe stages. Additionally, several biomarkers have been identified, which aid in diagnosing and monitoring the disease. Furthermore, numerous treatment approaches are being explored to address the underlying causes of DKD. Advanced research is exploring new medications to aid in DKD remission; sodium-glucose cotransport (SGLT2) inhibitors and finerenone, in particular, are gaining attention for their novel renoprotective effects. DKD is a major complication of diabetes, marked by complex and multifactorial mechanisms. Thus, understanding these processes is essential for developing targeted therapies to potentially reverse DKD progression. Biomarkers show promise for early diagnosis and monitoring of disease progression, while current treatment strategies underscore the importance of a multifaceted approach.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Hilda E. Ghadieh
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Medical Sciences, University of Balamand, Al-Koura, Tripoli P.O. Box 100, Lebanon; (J.P.J.); (A.R.); (C.S.); (E.C.); (S.Z.); (P.A.); (F.H.); (S.A.)
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Liu F, Yang Z, Li J, Wu T, Li X, Zhao L, Wang W, Yu W, Zhang G, Xu Y. Targeting programmed cell death in diabetic kidney disease: from molecular mechanisms to pharmacotherapy. Mol Med 2024; 30:265. [PMID: 39707216 DOI: 10.1186/s10020-024-01020-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2024] [Accepted: 11/29/2024] [Indexed: 12/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Diabetic kidney disease (DKD), one of the most prevalent microvascular complications of diabetes, arises from dysregulated glucose and lipid metabolism induced by hyperglycemia, resulting in the deterioration of renal cells such as podocytes and tubular epithelial cells. Programmed cell death (PCD), comprising apoptosis, autophagy, ferroptosis, pyroptosis, and necroptosis, represents a spectrum of cell demise processes intricately governed by genetic mechanisms in vivo. Under physiological conditions, PCD facilitates the turnover of cellular populations and serves as a protective mechanism to eliminate impaired podocytes or tubular epithelial cells, thereby preserving renal tissue homeostasis amidst hyperglycemic stress. However, existing research predominantly elucidates individual modes of cell death, neglecting the intricate interplay and mutual modulation observed among various forms of PCD. In this comprehensive review, we delineate the diverse regulatory mechanisms governing PCD and elucidate the intricate crosstalk dynamics among distinct PCD pathways. Furthermore, we review recent advancements in understanding the pathogenesis of PCD and explore their implications in DKD. Additionally, we explore the potential of natural products derived primarily from botanical sources as therapeutic agents, highlighting their multifaceted effects on modulating PCD crosstalk, thereby proposing novel strategies for DKD treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fengzhao Liu
- First College of Clinical Medicine, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, 250014, China
| | - Zhenyu Yang
- Graduate School of Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, Harbin, 150040, China
| | - Jixin Li
- Xi Yuan Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100091, China
| | - Tao Wu
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, 100029, China
| | - Xiangyu Li
- Wangjing Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100102, China
| | - Lijuan Zhao
- First College of Clinical Medicine, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, 250014, China
| | - Wenru Wang
- Xi Yuan Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100091, China
| | - Wenfei Yu
- First College of Clinical Medicine, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, 250014, China
| | - Guangheng Zhang
- First College of Clinical Medicine, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, 250014, China
| | - Yunsheng Xu
- Department of Endocrinology, Second Affiliated Hospital of Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, 250001, China.
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Guo M, He F, Zhang C. Molecular Therapeutics for Diabetic Kidney Disease: An Update. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:10051. [PMID: 39337537 PMCID: PMC11431964 DOI: 10.3390/ijms251810051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2024] [Revised: 09/13/2024] [Accepted: 09/15/2024] [Indexed: 09/30/2024] Open
Abstract
Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) is a common microvascular complication of diabetes mellitus (DM). With the increasing prevalence of DM worldwide, the incidence of DKD remains high. If DKD is not well controlled, it can develop into chronic kidney disease or end-stage renal disease (ESRD), which places considerable economic pressure on society. Traditional therapies, including glycemic control, blood pressure control, blood lipid control, the use of renin-angiotensin system blockers and novel drugs, such as sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors, mineralocorticoid receptor inhibitors and glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists, have been used in DKD patients. Although the above treatment strategies can delay the progression of DKD, most DKD patients still ultimately progress to ESRD. Therefore, new and multimodal treatment methods need to be explored. In recent years, researchers have continuously developed new treatment methods and targets to delay the progression of DKD, including miRNA therapy, stem cell therapy, gene therapy, gut microbiota-targeted therapy and lifestyle intervention. These new molecular therapy methods constitute opportunities to better understand and treat DKD. In this review, we summarize the progress of molecular therapeutics for DKD, leading to new treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Fangfang He
- Department of Nephrology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430022, China
| | - Chun Zhang
- Department of Nephrology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430022, China
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Montenegro F, Giannuzzi F, Picerno A, Cicirelli A, Stea ED, Di Leo V, Sallustio F. How Stem and Progenitor Cells Can Affect Renal Diseases. Cells 2024; 13:1460. [PMID: 39273032 PMCID: PMC11393889 DOI: 10.3390/cells13171460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2024] [Revised: 08/26/2024] [Accepted: 08/27/2024] [Indexed: 09/15/2024] Open
Abstract
Stem and progenitor cells have been observed to contribute to regenerative processes in acute renal failure and chronic kidney disease. Recent research has delved into the intricate mechanisms by which stem and progenitor cells exert their influence on kidney diseases. Understanding how these cells integrate with the existing renal architecture and their response to injury could pave the way for innovative treatment strategies aimed at promoting kidney repair and regeneration. Overall, the role of stem and progenitor cells in kidney diseases is multifaceted, with their ability to contribute to tissue regeneration, immune modulation, and the maintenance of renal homeostasis. Here, we review the studies that we have available today about the involvement of stem and progenitor cells both in regenerative therapies and in the causes of renal diseases, as well as in natural healing mechanisms, taking into account the main kidney disorders, such as IgA nephropathy, lupus nephritis, diabetic nephropathy, C3 glomerulopathy, focal segmental glomerulosclerosis, idiopathic membranous nephropathy, anti-glomerular basement membrane glomerulonephritis, and ANCA-associated crescentic glomerulonephritis. Moreover, based on the comprehensive data available in the framework of the specific kidney diseases on stem cells and renal progenitors, we hypothesize a possible role of adult renal progenitors in exacerbating or recovering the illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Montenegro
- Department of Interdisciplinary Medicine, University of Bari Aldo Moro, 70124 Bari, Italy; (F.M.); (F.G.); (A.P.); (A.C.); (V.D.L.)
| | - Francesca Giannuzzi
- Department of Interdisciplinary Medicine, University of Bari Aldo Moro, 70124 Bari, Italy; (F.M.); (F.G.); (A.P.); (A.C.); (V.D.L.)
| | - Angela Picerno
- Department of Interdisciplinary Medicine, University of Bari Aldo Moro, 70124 Bari, Italy; (F.M.); (F.G.); (A.P.); (A.C.); (V.D.L.)
| | - Antonella Cicirelli
- Department of Interdisciplinary Medicine, University of Bari Aldo Moro, 70124 Bari, Italy; (F.M.); (F.G.); (A.P.); (A.C.); (V.D.L.)
| | - Emma Diletta Stea
- Department of Precision and Regenerative Medicine and Ionian Area, University of Bari Aldo Moro, 70124 Bari, Italy;
| | - Vincenzo Di Leo
- Department of Interdisciplinary Medicine, University of Bari Aldo Moro, 70124 Bari, Italy; (F.M.); (F.G.); (A.P.); (A.C.); (V.D.L.)
| | - Fabio Sallustio
- Department of Precision and Regenerative Medicine and Ionian Area, University of Bari Aldo Moro, 70124 Bari, Italy;
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Ma H, Hao J, Li W, Yu K, Zhu K, Yang M, Cao S, Xue H, Liu D, Song Y, Zhang S, Zhang X, Sun Z, Gao X. Evaluation of feline mesenchymal stem cell susceptibility to feline viruses. Sci Rep 2024; 14:18598. [PMID: 39127765 PMCID: PMC11316800 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-69343-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2024] [Accepted: 08/03/2024] [Indexed: 08/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Feline mesenchymal stem cells (fMSCs) are well known for their robust differentiation capabilities and are commonly used in studying immune-related diseases in cats. Despite their importance, the susceptibility of fMSCs to viral infections remains uncertain. This study aimed to assess the susceptibility of feline adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (fAD-MSCs) and feline umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cells (fUC-MSCs) to common feline viruses, including feline coronavirus (FCoV), feline herpesvirus type 1 (FHV-1), and feline panleukopenia virus (FPV). The results demonstrated that both FCoV and FHV-1 were able to infect both types of cells, while FPV did not exhibit cytopathic effects on fUC-MSCs. Furthermore, all three viruses were successfully isolated from fAD-MSCs. These findings suggest that certain feline viruses can replicate in fMSCs, indicating potential limitations in using fMSCs for treating viral diseases caused by these specific viruses. This study has important clinical implications for veterinarians, particularly in the management of viral diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haoyuan Ma
- Laboratory for Animal Molecular Virology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Agricultural, Yanbian University, Yanji, 133002, China
| | - Jingrui Hao
- Laboratory for Animal Molecular Virology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Agricultural, Yanbian University, Yanji, 133002, China
| | - Weijian Li
- Laboratory for Animal Molecular Virology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Agricultural, Yanbian University, Yanji, 133002, China
| | - Kai Yu
- Laboratory for Animal Molecular Virology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Agricultural, Yanbian University, Yanji, 133002, China
| | - Kunru Zhu
- Laboratory for Animal Molecular Virology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Agricultural, Yanbian University, Yanji, 133002, China
| | - Meng Yang
- Laboratory for Animal Molecular Virology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Agricultural, Yanbian University, Yanji, 133002, China
| | - Shuoning Cao
- Laboratory for Animal Molecular Virology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Agricultural, Yanbian University, Yanji, 133002, China
| | - Haowen Xue
- Laboratory for Animal Molecular Virology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Agricultural, Yanbian University, Yanji, 133002, China
| | - Dan Liu
- Laboratory for Animal Molecular Virology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Agricultural, Yanbian University, Yanji, 133002, China
| | - Yanhao Song
- Laboratory for Animal Molecular Virology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Agricultural, Yanbian University, Yanji, 133002, China
| | - Siqi Zhang
- Laboratory for Animal Molecular Virology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Agricultural, Yanbian University, Yanji, 133002, China
| | - Xifeng Zhang
- Laboratory for Animal Molecular Virology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Agricultural, Yanbian University, Yanji, 133002, China
| | - Zheng Sun
- Laboratory for Animal Molecular Virology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Agricultural, Yanbian University, Yanji, 133002, China
| | - Xu Gao
- Laboratory for Animal Molecular Virology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Agricultural, Yanbian University, Yanji, 133002, China.
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Meng J, Gao X, Liu X, Zheng W, Wang Y, Wang Y, Sun Z, Yin X, Zhou X. Effects of xenogeneic transplantation of umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cells combined with irbesartan on renal podocyte damage in diabetic rats. Stem Cell Res Ther 2024; 15:239. [PMID: 39080783 PMCID: PMC11289925 DOI: 10.1186/s13287-024-03844-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2024] [Accepted: 07/11/2024] [Indexed: 08/02/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The leading cause of end-stage renal disease (ESRD) is diabetic nephropathy (DN). Podocyte damage is an early event in the development of DN. Currently, there is no effective treatment strategy that can slow the progression of DN or reverse its onset. The role of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) transplantation in diabetes and its complications has been extensively studied, and diabetic nephropathy has been a major focus. Irbesartan exerts reno-protective effects independent of lowering blood pressure, can reduce the incidence of proteinuria in rats, and is widely used clinically. However, it remains undetermined whether the combined utilization of the angiotensin II receptor antagonist irbesartan and MSCs could enhance efficacy in addressing DN. METHODS A commonly used method for modeling type 2 diabetic nephropathy (T2DN) was established using a high-fat diet and a single low-dose injection of STZ (35 mg/kg). The animals were divided into the following 5 groups: (1) the control group (CON), (2) the diabetic nephropathy group (DN), (3) the mesenchymal stem cells treatment group (MSCs), (4) the irbesartan treatment group (Irb), and (5) the combined administration group (MSC + Irb). MSCs (2 × 106 cells/rat) were injected every 10 days through the tail vein for a total of three injections; irbesartan (30 mg/kg/d) was administered by gavage. Additionally, the safety and homing of mesenchymal stem cells were verified using positron emission tomography (PET) imaging. RESULTS The combination treatment significantly reduced the UACR, kidney index, IGPTT, HOMA-IR, BUN, serum creatine, and related inflammatory factor levels and significantly improved renal function parameters and the expression of proteins related to glomerular podocyte injury in rats. Moreover, MSCs can homing target to damaged kidneys. CONCLUSIONS Compared to the administration of MSCs or irbesartan alone, the combination of MSCs and irbesartan exerted better protective effects on glomerular podocyte injury, providing new ideas for the clinical application of mesenchymal stem cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Meng
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of New Drug Research and Clinical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Xuzhou Medical University, 209 Tongshan Road, Xuzhou, 221004, China
| | - Xiao Gao
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of New Drug Research and Clinical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Xuzhou Medical University, 209 Tongshan Road, Xuzhou, 221004, China
| | - Xiaojuan Liu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of New Drug Research and Clinical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Xuzhou Medical University, 209 Tongshan Road, Xuzhou, 221004, China
| | - Wen Zheng
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of New Drug Research and Clinical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Xuzhou Medical University, 209 Tongshan Road, Xuzhou, 221004, China
| | - Yang Wang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of New Drug Research and Clinical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Xuzhou Medical University, 209 Tongshan Road, Xuzhou, 221004, China
| | - Yinghao Wang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of New Drug Research and Clinical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Xuzhou Medical University, 209 Tongshan Road, Xuzhou, 221004, China
| | - Zhenquan Sun
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of New Drug Research and Clinical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Xuzhou Medical University, 209 Tongshan Road, Xuzhou, 221004, China
| | - Xiaoxing Yin
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of New Drug Research and Clinical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Xuzhou Medical University, 209 Tongshan Road, Xuzhou, 221004, China.
| | - Xueyan Zhou
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of New Drug Research and Clinical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Xuzhou Medical University, 209 Tongshan Road, Xuzhou, 221004, China.
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Dhandapani S, Choi HS, Chung H, Perumalsamy H, Wang R, Balusamy SR, Natarajan S, Park J, Kim YJ. Lysine-Rich Polypeptide Modulates Forkhead Box O3 and Phosphoinositide 3-Kinase-Protein Kinase B Pathway To Induce Apoptosis in Breast Cancer. ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci 2024; 7:1884-1900. [PMID: 38898949 PMCID: PMC11184599 DOI: 10.1021/acsptsci.4c00221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2024] [Revised: 05/21/2024] [Accepted: 05/23/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
The PI3K/AKT/FOXO3 pathway is one of the most frequently involved signaling pathways in cancer, including breast cancer. Therefore, we synthesized a novel lysine-rich polypeptide (Lys-PP) using de novo assembly method and evaluated its anticancer effect. We characterized the structural and physicochemical properties of Lys-PP using various techniques. Later, we used integrated approaches such as in silico, in vitro, and in vivo analysis to confirm the anticancer and therapeutic effect of Lys-PP. First, RNA sequencing suggests Lys-PP disrupted the central carbon metabolic pathway through the modulation of prolactin signaling. Additionally, docking analysis also confirmed the significant association of PI3K/AKT and FOXO3 pathway to induce an apoptotic effect on cancer. Second, Lys-PP exhibited a significant cytotoxicity effect against MDA-MB-231 but no cytotoxic effects on RAW 264.7 and HEK-293, respectively. The cytotoxic effect of Lys-PP-induced apoptosis by an increase in FOXO3a protein expression and a decrease in PI3K/AKT pathway was confirmed by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, immunoblotting, and fluorescent microscopy. Later, immunohistochemistry and hematoxylin and eosin staining on MDA-MD-231 showed increased FOXO3a expression and cell death in the xenograft mice model. Further, liver function, metabolic health, or lipid profile upon Lys-PP showed the absence of significant modulation in the biomarkers except for kidney-related biomarkers. Overall, our comprehensive study provides the first evidence of Lys-PP antibreast cancer action, which could serve as a potential treatment in an alternative or complementary medicine practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanjeevram Dhandapani
- Graduate
School of Biotechnology, and College of Life Science, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si 17104, Republic
of Korea
| | - Han-Sol Choi
- Graduate
School of Biotechnology, and College of Life Science, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si 17104, Republic
of Korea
| | - Hoyong Chung
- 3BIGS
Co., Ltd., Suwon-si 16506, Republic of Korea
| | - Haribalan Perumalsamy
- Graduate
School of Biotechnology, and College of Life Science, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si 17104, Republic
of Korea
- Research
Institute for Convergence of Basic Science, Hanyang University, Seoul 04763, Republic
of Korea
| | - Rongbo Wang
- Graduate
School of Biotechnology, and College of Life Science, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si 17104, Republic
of Korea
| | - Sri Renukadevi Balusamy
- Department
of Food Science and Biotechnology, Sejong
University, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul 05006, Republic of Korea
| | | | | | - Yeon-Ju Kim
- Graduate
School of Biotechnology, and College of Life Science, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si 17104, Republic
of Korea
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Wang N, Zhang C. Oxidative Stress: A Culprit in the Progression of Diabetic Kidney Disease. Antioxidants (Basel) 2024; 13:455. [PMID: 38671903 PMCID: PMC11047699 DOI: 10.3390/antiox13040455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2024] [Revised: 04/01/2024] [Accepted: 04/10/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) is the principal culprit behind chronic kidney disease (CKD), ultimately developing end-stage renal disease (ESRD) and necessitating costly dialysis or kidney transplantation. The limited therapeutic efficiency among individuals with DKD is a result of our finite understanding of its pathogenesis. DKD is the result of complex interactions between various factors. Oxidative stress is a fundamental factor that can establish a link between hyperglycemia and the vascular complications frequently encountered in diabetes, particularly DKD. It is crucial to recognize the essential and integral role of oxidative stress in the development of diabetic vascular complications, particularly DKD. Hyperglycemia is the primary culprit that can trigger an upsurge in the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), ultimately sparking oxidative stress. The main endogenous sources of ROS include mitochondrial ROS production, NADPH oxidases (Nox), uncoupled endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), xanthine oxidase (XO), cytochrome P450 (CYP450), and lipoxygenase. Under persistent high glucose levels, immune cells, the complement system, advanced glycation end products (AGEs), protein kinase C (PKC), polyol pathway, and the hexosamine pathway are activated. Consequently, the oxidant-antioxidant balance within the body is disrupted, which triggers a series of reactions in various downstream pathways, including phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B (PI3K/Akt), transforming growth factor beta/p38-mitogen-activated protein kinase (TGF-β/p38-MAPK), nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK), and the Janus kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription (JAK/STAT) signaling. The disease might persist even if strict glucose control is achieved, which can be attributed to epigenetic modifications. The treatment of DKD remains an unresolved issue. Therefore, reducing ROS is an intriguing therapeutic target. The clinical trials have shown that bardoxolone methyl, a nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) activator, blood glucose-lowering drugs, such as sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors, and glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists can effectively slow down the progression of DKD by reducing oxidative stress. Other antioxidants, including vitamins, lipoic acid, Nox inhibitors, epigenetic regulators, and complement inhibitors, present a promising therapeutic option for the treatment of DKD. In this review, we conduct a thorough assessment of both preclinical studies and current findings from clinical studies that focus on targeted interventions aimed at manipulating these pathways. We aim to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of research in this area and identify key areas for future exploration.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Chun Zhang
- Department of Nephrology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430022, China
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