(−)-α-Bisabolol reduces orofacial nociceptive behavior in rodents

The terpenes alpha-bisabolol and camphene modulate pruritus via an action on Cav3.2 T-type calcium channels

Alpha-bisabolol and camphene have demonstrated analgesic effects in inflammatory pain models by blocking Cav3.2 calcium channels. As the pain pathway overlaps with mechanisms for itch, and because Cav3.2 channels have been associated with itch in our previous work, we aimed to investigate the potential anti-itch effects of these two terpenes. Although both terpenes failed to show anti-pruritogenic properties when dissolved in aqueous PBS, when diluted in Hydroxypropyl-beta-cyclodextrin their bioactivity significantly increased. Both compounds significantly reduced scratching in the histaminergic itch model, whether administered subcutaneously or intraperitoneally. Camphene reduced itching in the non-histaminergic model regardless of the route of administration, whereas alpha-bisabolol did not alleviate chloroquine-induced itching. When tested in Cav3.2-/- mice, neither camphene nor alpha-bisabolol significantly reduced histamine-induced scratching behavior. This suggests that the anti-pruritic actions of these terpenes may involve Cav3.2 block to mitigate itch.

Synergistic interaction and activation of the opioid receptor-NO-cGMP-K+ channel pathway on peripheral antinociception induced by the α-Bisabolol-diclofenac combination

Introduction: The local peripheral combination of analgesic drugs with herbal derivatives may have beneficial effects. Information on the action mechanism of these interactions between drugs is scarce. Therefore, the main of the present study was to determine the pharmacological interaction and action mechanism of the combination α-Bisabolol and diclofenac. Methods: Rats were injected in the dorsal surface of the right hind paw with 1% formalin. Rats received subcutaneous injections in the dorsal surface of paw of vehicles or increasing doses of α-Bisabolol, diclofenac or their combination before formalin injection into the paw. Antinociception of the α-Bisabolol + diclofenac combination was evaluated with and without the local treatment of naloxone, metformin, NG-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME), 1H- (1,2,4)-oxadiazolo (4,2-a) quinoxalin-1-one (ODQ), glibenclamide, glipizide, 4-aminopyridine, tetraethylammonium, apamin, or charybdotoxin. Results: α-Bisabolol, diclofenac or α-Bisabolol-diclofenac combinations produced significant antinociception in the rat (p < 0.05). The experimental effective dose (ED) value of 109.2 µg/paw was different significantly of the theoretical effective dose (ED) of 245.7 µg/paw (synergism). Blockers significantly reverted the antinociception produced by the synergistic combination of α-Bisabolol and diclofenac. Discussion: Data showed a synergism of the α-Bisabolol-diclofenac combination and the activation of the opioid receptor-Nitric Oxide-cyclic GMP-K⁺ channels pathway and a biguanide-dependent mechanism in order to produce the potentiation of its peripheral antinociception in the formalin test.

Pharmacological effects of a complex α-bisabolol/β-cyclodextrin in a mice arthritis model with involvement of IL-1β, IL-6 and MAPK

Inflammatory arthritis is the most prevalent chronic inflammatory disease worldwide. The pathology of the disease is characterized by increased inflammation and oxidative stress, which leads to chronic pain and functional loss in the joints. Conventional anti-arthritic drugs used to relieve pain and other arthritic symptoms often cause severe side effects. α-bisabolol (BIS) is a sesquiterpene that exhibits high anti-inflammatory potential and a significant antinociceptive effect. This study evaluates the anti-arthritic, anti-inflammatory and antihyperalgesic effects of BIS alone and in a β-cyclodextrin (βCD/BIS) inclusion complex in a CFA-induced arthritis model. Following the intra-articular administration of CFA, male mice were treated with vehicle, BIS and βCD/BIS (50 mg/kg, p.o.) or a positive control and pain-related behaviors, knee edema and inflammatory and oxidative parameters were evaluated on days 4, 11, 18 and/or 25. Ours findings shows that the oral administration of BIS and βCD/BIS significantly attenuated spontaneous pain-like behaviors, mechanical hyperalgesia, grip strength deficit and knee edema induced by repeated injections of CFA, reducing the joint pain and functional disability associated with arthritis. BIS and βCD/BIS also inhibited the generation of inflammatory and oxidative markers in the knee and blocked MAPK in the spinal cord. In addition, ours results also showed that the incorporation of BIS in cyclodextrin as a drug delivery system improved the pharmacological profile of this substance. Therefore, these results contribute to the pharmacological knowledge of BIS and demonstrated that this terpene appears to be able to mitigate deleterious symptoms of arthritis.

Treatment of Gastrointestinal Disorders-Plants and Potential Mechanisms of Action of Their Constituents

The worldwide prevalence of gastrointestinal diseases is about 40%, with standard pharmacotherapy being long-lasting and economically challenging. Of the dozens of diseases listed by the Rome IV Foundation criteria, for five of them (heartburn, dyspepsia, nausea and vomiting disorder, constipation, and diarrhoea), treatment with herbals is an official alternative, legislatively supported by the European Medicines Agency (EMA). However, for most plants, the Directive does not require a description of the mechanisms of action, which should be related to the therapeutic effect of the European plant in question. This review article, therefore, summarizes the basic pharmacological knowledge of synthetic drugs used in selected functional gastrointestinal disorders (FGIDs) and correlates them with the constituents of medicinal plants. Therefore, the information presented here is intended as a starting point to support the claim that both empirical folk medicine and current and decades-old treatments with official herbal remedies have a rational basis in modern pharmacology.

Antinociceptive effects of minor cannabinoids, terpenes and flavonoids in Cannabis

Cannabis has been used for centuries for its medicinal properties. Given the dangerous and unpleasant side effects of existing analgesics, the chemical constituents of Cannabis have garnered significant interest for their antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects. To date, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) remain the two most widely studied constituents of Cannabis in animals. These studies have led to formulations of THC and CBD for human use; however, chronic pain patients also use different strains of Cannabis (sativa, indica and ruderalis) to alleviate their pain. These strains contain major cannabinoids, such as THC and CBD, but they also contain a wide variety of cannabinoid and noncannabinoid constituents. Although the analgesic effects of Cannabis are attributed to major cannabinoids, evidence indicates other constituents such as minor cannabinoids, terpenes and flavonoids also produce antinociception against animal models of acute, inflammatory, neuropathic, muscle and orofacial pain. In some cases, these constituents produce antinociception that is equivalent or greater compared to that produced by traditional analgesics. Thus, a better understanding of the extent to which these constituents produce antinociception alone in animals is necessary. The purposes of this review are to (1) introduce the different minor cannabinoids, terpenes, and flavonoids found in Cannabis and (2) discuss evidence of their antinociceptive properties in animals.

Health Benefits, Pharmacological Effects, Molecular Mechanisms, and Therapeutic Potential of α-Bisabolol

α-Bisabolol is one of the important monocyclic sesquiterpenes, derived naturally from essential oils of many edible and ornamental plants. It was first obtained from Matricaria chamomilla, commonly known as chamomile or German chamomile. The available literature indicates that this plant along with other α-Bisabolol containing plants is popularly used in traditional medicine for potential health benefits and general wellbeing. Nutritional studies are indicative of the health benefits of α-Bisabolol. Numerous experimental studies demonstrated pharmacological properties of α-Bisabolol including anticancer, antinociceptive, neuroprotective, cardioprotective, and antimicrobial. This review aims to collectively present different pharmacological activities based on both in vitro and in vivo studies. In the present review using synoptic tables and figures, we comprehensively present that α-Bisabolol possesses therapeutic and protective activities, therefore, it can be used for potential health benefits based on pharmacological effects, underlying molecular mechanism, and favorable pharmaceutical properties. Based on the studies mostly performed on cell lines or animal models, it is evident that α-Bisabolol may be a promising nutraceutical and phytomedicine to target aberrant biological mechanisms which result in altered physiological processes and various ailments. Given the polypharmacological effects and pleiotropic properties, along with favorable pharmacokinetics, and dietary availability and safety, α-Bisabolol can be used as a dietary agent, nutraceutical or phytopharmaceutical agent or as an adjuvant with currently available modern medicines. The regulatory approval of this molecule for use as food additives, and in cosmetics and fragrance industry is also supportive of its human usage. Moreover, further studies are necessary to address pharmaceutical, pharmacological, and toxicological aspects before clinical or nutritional usage in humans. The biological actions and health benefits open opportunities for pharmaceutical development with pharmacological basis of its use in future therapeutics.

YALIcloneNHEJ: An Efficient Modular Cloning Toolkit for NHEJ Integration of Multigene Pathway and Terpenoid Production in Yarrowia lipolytica

Non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ)-mediated random integration in Yarrowia lipolytica has been demonstrated to be an effective strategy for screening hyperproducer strains. However, there was no multigene assembly method applied for NHEJ integration, which made it challenging to construct and integrate metabolic pathways. In this study, a Golden Gate modular cloning system (YALIcloneNHEJ) was established to develop a robust DNA assembly platform in Y. lipolytica. By optimizing key factors, including the amounts of ligase and the reaction cycles, the assembly efficiency of 4, 7, and 10 fragments reached up to 90, 75, and 50%, respectively. This YALIcloneNHEJ system was subsequently applied for the overproduction of the sesquiterpene (-)-α-bisabolol by constructing a biosynthesis route and enhancing the flux in the mevalonate pathway. The resulting strain produced 4.4 g/L (-)-α-bisabolol, the highest titer reported in yeast to date. Our study expands the toolbox of metabolic engineering and is expected to enable a highly efficient production of various terpenoids.

Higenamine Attenuates Neuropathic Pain by Inhibition of NOX2/ROS/TRP/P38 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase/NF-ĸB Signaling Pathway

Oxidative stress damage is known as one of the important factors that induce neuropathic pain (NP). Using antioxidant therapy usually achieves an obvious curative effect and alleviates NP. Previous pharmacological studies have shown that higenamine (Hig) performs to be antioxidant and anti-inflammatory. However, the protective effect and mechanism of Hig on NP are still unclear. This study mainly evaluated the changes in reactive oxygen species (ROS) level, lipid peroxidation, and antioxidant system composed of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione (GSH) through chronic constrict injury (CCI) model rats and t-BHP-induced Schwann cell (SC) oxidative stress model. The expressions of two inflammatory factors, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6), were also assessed. The possible molecular mechanism of Hig in the treatment of NP was explored in conjunction with the expression of mitochondrial apoptosis pathway and NOX2/ROS/TRP/P38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)/NF-ĸB pathway-related indicators. Hig showed substantial antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties both in vivo and in vitro. Hig significantly reduced the upregulated levels of ROS, malondialdehyde (MDA), TNF-α, and IL-6 and increased the levels of SOD and GSH, which rebalanced the redox system and improved the survival rate of cells. In the animal behavioral test, it was also observed that Hig relieved the CCI-induced pain, indicating that Hig had a pain relief effect. Our research results suggested that Hig improved NP-induced oxidative stress injury, inflammation, and apoptosis, and this neuroprotective effect may be related to the NOX2/ROS/TRP/P38 MAPK/NF-ĸB signaling pathway.

Analgesic Potential of Terpenes Derived from Cannabis sativa

Pain prevalence among adults in the United States has increased 25% over the past two decades, resulting in high health-care costs and impacts to patient quality of life. In the last 30 years, our understanding of pain circuits and (intra)cellular mechanisms has grown exponentially, but this understanding has not yet resulted in improved therapies. Options for pain management are limited. Many analgesics have poor efficacy and are accompanied by severe side effects such as addiction, resulting in a devastating opioid abuse and overdose epidemic. These problems have encouraged scientists to identify novel molecular targets and develop alternative pain therapeutics. Increasing preclinical and clinical evidence suggests that cannabis has several beneficial pharmacological activities, including pain relief. Cannabis sativa contains more than 500 chemical compounds, with two principle phytocannabinoids, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) and cannabidiol (CBD). Beyond phytocannabinoids, more than 150 terpenes have been identified in different cannabis chemovars. Although the predominant cannabinoids, Δ9-THC and CBD, are thought to be the primary medicinal compounds, terpenes including the monoterpenes β-myrcene, α-pinene, limonene, and linalool, as well as the sesquiterpenes β-caryophyllene and α-humulene may contribute to many pharmacological properties of cannabis, including anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive effects. The aim of this review is to summarize our current knowledge about terpene compounds in cannabis and to analyze the available scientific evidence for a role of cannabis-derived terpenes in modern pain management. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Decades of research have improved our knowledge of cannabis polypharmacy and contributing phytochemicals, including terpenes. Reform of the legal status for cannabis possession and increased availability (medicinal and recreational) have resulted in cannabis use to combat the increasing prevalence of pain and may help to address the opioid crisis. Better understanding of the pharmacological effects of cannabis and its active components, including terpenes, may assist in identifying new therapeutic approaches and optimizing the use of cannabis and/or terpenes as analgesic agents.

Role of the NO-cGMP-K+ channels pathway in the peripheral antinociception induced by α-bisabolol

The aim of this study was to examine if the peripheral antinociception of α-bisabolol involves the participation of nitric oxide (NO) and cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) synthesis followed by K⁺ channel opening in the formalin test. Wistar rats were injected in the dorsal surface of the right hind paw with formalin (1%). Rats received a subcutaneous injection into the dorsal surface of the paw of vehicles or increasing doses of α-bisabolol (100-300 µg/paw). To determine whether the peripheral antinociception induced by α-bisabolol was mediated by either the opioid receptors or the NO-cGMP-K⁺ channels pathway, the effect of pretreatment (10 min before formalin injection) with the appropriate vehicles, naloxone, naltrexone, N^G-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME), 1H-[1,2,4]-oxadiazolo[4,2-a]quinoxalin-1-one (ODQ), glibenclamide, glipizide, apamin, charybdotoxin, tetraethylammonium, or 4-aminopyridine on the antinociceptive effects induced by local peripheral α-bisabolol (300 µg/paw) were assessed. α-Bisabolol produced antinociception during both phases of the formalin test. α-Bisabolol antinociception was blocked by L-NAME, ODQ, and all the K⁺ channels blockers. The peripheral antinociceptive effect produced by α-bisabolol was not blocked by the opioid receptor inhibitors. α-Bisabolol was able to active the NO-cGMP-K⁺ channels pathway to produce its antinoceptive effect. The participation of opioid receptors in the peripheral local antinociception induced by α-bisabolol is excluded.

Therapeutic Agents for the Treatment of Temporomandibular Joint Disorders: Progress and Perspective

Temporomandibular joint disorders (TMD) are a common health condition caused by the structural or functional disorders of masticatory muscles and the temporomandibular joint (TMJ). Abnormal mandibular movement in TMD patients may cause pain, chronic inflammation, and other discomfort, which could be relieved by a variety of drugs through various delivery systems. In this study, we summarized commonly used therapeutic agents in the management of TMD as well as novel bioactive molecules in preclinical stage and clinical trials. The emerging therapy strategies such as novel intra-TMJ delivery systems and implants based on tissue engineering are also discussed. This comprehensive review will strengthen our understanding of pharmacological approaches for TMD therapy.

The effect of natural products in animal models of temporomandibular disorders

Treatment of temporomandibular disorders (TMD) is a challenge for health care professionals. Therefore, new approaches have been investigated, such as the use of natural products.

Natural products for orofacial nociception in pre-clinical studies: A systematic review

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this systematic review was to summarize the use of natural products (NP) in the treatment of orofacial nociception in animal models.

METHODS

Pre-clinical studies that have evaluated the efficacy of NPs in experimental orofacial nociception were sought in the Medline, Web of Science, Scopus, Embase, SciELO, LILACS and Scholar databases in January 2020, covering the period since the inception of each one. Two reviewers independently selected the studies, extracted the data and evaluated the risk of bias of the included studies.

RESULTS

We included 41 records in qualitative synthesis. Fifty different NPs were investigated. All studies presented positive results for at least one orofacial nociception test. Regarding the risk of bias, most studies presented poor experimental design, mainly lack of randomization and blinding. The main class of isolated compounds tested was terpenes, of which monoterpenes were investigated in the majority of the studies.

CONCLUSION

These results indicate that NPs are effective in treating experimental orofacial nociception and highlight some of these NPs, mainly terpenes, suggesting their potential for translational research.

Antinociceptive Activity of Chemical Components of Essential Oils That Involves Docking Studies: A Review

INTRODUCTION

Pain is considered an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience, being considered as one of the most important causes of human suffering. Computational chemistry associated with bioinformatics has stood out in the process of developing new drugs, through natural products, to manage this condition.

OBJECTIVE

To analyze, through literature data, recent molecular coupling studies on the antinociceptive activity of essential oils and monoterpenes.

DATA SOURCE

Systematic search of the literature considering the years of publications between 2005 and December 2019, in the electronic databases PubMed and Science Direct.

ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA

Were considered as criteria of 1) Biological activity: non-clinical effects of an OE and/or monoterpenes on antinociceptive activity based on animal models and in silico analysis, 2) studies with plant material: chemically characterized essential oils and/or their constituents isolated, 3) clinical and non-clinical studies with in silico analysis to assess antinociceptive activity, 4) articles published in English. Exclusion criteria were literature review, report or case series, meta-analysis, theses, dissertations, and book chapter.

RESULTS

Of 16,006 articles, 16 articles fulfilled all the criteria. All selected studies were non-clinical. The most prominent plant families used were Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae, Verbenaceae, Lamiaceae, and Lauraceae. Among the phytochemicals studied were α-Terpineol, 3-(5-substituted-1,3,4-oxadiazol-2-yl)-N'-[2-oxo-1,2-dihydro-3H-indol-3-ylidene] propane hydrazide, β-cyclodextrin complexed with citronellal, (-)-α-bisabolol, β-cyclodextrin complexed with farnesol, and p-Cymene. The softwares used for docking studies were Molegro Virtual Docker, Sybyl®X, Vlife MDS, AutoDock Vina, Hex Protein Docking, and AutoDock 4.2 in PyRx 0.9. The molecular targets/complexes used were Nitric Oxide Synthase, COX-2, GluR2-S1S2, TRPV1, β-CD complex, CaV1, CaV2.1, CaV2.2, and CaV2.3, 5-HT receptor, delta receptor, kappa receptor, and MU (μ) receptor, alpha adrenergic, opioid, and serotonergic receptors, muscarinic receptors and GABAA opioid and serotonin receptors, 5-HT3 and M2 receptors. Many of the covered studies used molecular coupling to investigate the mechanism of action of various compounds, as well as molecular dynamics to investigate the stability of protein-ligand complexes.

CONCLUSIONS

The studies revealed that through the advancement of more robust computational techniques that complement the experimental studies, they may allow some notes on the identification of a new candidate molecule for therapeutic use.

Endogenous opiates and behavior: 2017

This paper is the fortieth consecutive installment of the annual anthological review of research concerning the endogenous opioid system, summarizing articles published during 2017 that studied the behavioral effects of molecular, pharmacological and genetic manipulation of opioid peptides and receptors as well as effects of opioid/opiate agonists and antagonists. The review is subdivided into the following specific topics: molecular-biochemical effects and neurochemical localization studies of endogenous opioids and their receptors (1), the roles of these opioid peptides and receptors in pain and analgesia in animals (2) and humans (3), opioid-sensitive and opioid-insensitive effects of nonopioid analgesics (4), opioid peptide and receptor involvement in tolerance and dependence (5), stress and social status (6), learning and memory (7), eating and drinking (8), drug abuse and alcohol (9), sexual activity and hormones, pregnancy, development and endocrinology (10), mental illness and mood (11), seizures and neurologic disorders (12), electrical-related activity and neurophysiology (13), general activity and locomotion (14), gastrointestinal, renal and hepatic functions (15), cardiovascular responses (16), respiration and thermoregulation (17), and immunological responses (18).

Anti-hyperalgesic effect of (-)-α-bisabolol and (-)-α-bisabolol/β-Cyclodextrin complex in a chronic inflammatory pain model is associated with reduced reactive gliosis and cytokine modulation

Chronic pain is a continuous or recurring pain which exceeds the normal course of recovery to an injury or disease. According to the origin of the chronic pain, it can be classified as inflammatory or neuropathic. This study aimed to evaluate the antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effect of (-)-α-bisabolol (BIS) alone and complexed with β-cyclodextrin (βCD) in preclinical models of chronic pain. Chronic pain was induced by Freund's Complete Adjuvant (FCA) or partial lesion of the sciatic nerve (PLSN). Swiss mice were treated with BIS, BIS-βCD (50 mg/kg, p.o) or vehicle (control) and mechanical hyperalgesia, thermal hyperalgesia, muscle strength and motor coordination were evaluated. In addition, levels of TNF-α and IL-10 and expression of the ionized calcium-binding adapter protein (IBA-1) were assessed in the spinal cord of the mice. The complexation efficiency of BIS in βCD was evaluated by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography. BIS and BIS-βCD reduced (p < 0.001) mechanical and thermal hyperalgesia. No alterations were found in force and motor coordination. In addition, BIS and BIS-βCD inhibited (p < 0.05) TNF-α production in the spinal cord and stimulated (p < 0.05) the release of IL-10 in the spinal cord in PLSN-mice. Further, BIS and BIS-βCD reduced IBA-1 immunostaining. Therefore, BIS and BIS-βCD attenuated hyperalgesia, deregulated cytokine release and inhibited IBA-1 expression in the spinal cord in the PLSN model. Moreover, our results show that the complexation of BIS in βCD reduced the therapeutic dose of BIS. We conclude that BIS is a promising molecule for the treatment of chronic pain.

(-)-α-Bisabolol reduces nociception and trigeminal central sensitisation in acute orofacial neuropathic pain induced by infraorbital nerve injury

Neuropathic orofacial pain conditions represent a challenge to diagnose and treat. Natural substances are promising therapeutic options for the control of pain.

AIMS

This study aimed to examine whether (-)-α-bisabolol (BISA), a natural terpene, can attenuate nociceptive behaviour and central sensitisation in a rodent model of trigeminal neuropathic pain.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Infraorbital nerve transection (IONX) or sham operation was performed in adult male rats. Head withdrawal thresholds as a measure of facial mechanical sensitivity were tested with von Frey monofilaments applied bilaterally to the facial vibrissal pad pre-operatively (baseline) and then post-operatively before and at 60, 120, 240 and 360 min after administration of vehicle control per oris (p.o.) or BISA (200 mg/kg p.o.) (n = 8/group). Effects of BISA or vehicle on the activity of nociceptive neurons recorded in the medullary dorsal horn (MDH) were tested on post - operative day 8-10. ANOVA followed by post-hoc Bonferroni tested for statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) across study groups and time points.

KEY FINDINGS

IONX animals (but not sham or naïve animals) showed post-operative facial mechanical hypersensitivity that was unaffected by vehicle. However, administration of BISA at post-operative day 7 significantly reversed the mechanical hypersensitivity in IONX rats; this effect lasted for at least 6 h. BISA also attenuated IONX-induced central sensitisation of MDH nociceptive neurons, as reflected in reversal of their reduced activation thresholds, increased responses to graded mechanical stimuli and enhanced spontaneous activity.

SIGNIFICANCE

BISA may attenuate nociceptive behaviour and central sensitisation in a rat model of acute trigeminal neuropathic pain.

Molecular mechanism underlying orofacial antinociceptive activity of Vanillosmopsis arborea Baker (Asteraceae) essential oil complexed with β-cyclodextrin

BACKGROUND

Vanillosmopsis arborea Baker has recognized economic value owing to the high content of (-)-α-bisabolol (BISA) in the essential oil of its stem (EOVA). The antinociceptive effect of EVOA has already been demonstrated, and β-cyclodextrin (βCD) is known to improve the analgesic effect of various substances.

PURPOSE

Thus, we aimed to evaluate the orofacial antinociceptive effect of a complex containing EOVA-βCD in rodents.

METHODS

EOVA was obtained by simple hydrodistillation, and the essential oil was complexed with βCD. The animals (n = 6/group) were treated orally with EOVA-βCD (10 or 50 mg/kg), or vehicle (control), and subjected to cutaneous orofacial nociception (formalin, capsaicin, acidic saline or glutamate), corneal (hypertonic saline) or temporomandibular (formalin) tests. The expression of FOS protein was analyzed in the spinal cord. Molecular docking was performed using the 5-HT₃ and M₂ receptors and BISA.

RESULTS

The oral administration of EOVA-βCD reduced nociceptive behaviour. Moreover, EOVA-βCD decreased FOS expression. The molecular docking study indicates that BISA interacts with 5-HT3 and M2 receptors, indicating the potential mechanism of action of the tested compound.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate that EOVA-βCD possesses orofacial antinociceptive effect, indicating that this complex can be used in analgesic drug development.

Medicinal properties of terpenes found in Cannabis sativa and Humulus lupulus

Cannabaceae plants Cannabis sativa L. and Humulus lupulus L. are rich in terpenes - both are typically comprised of terpenes as up to 3-5% of the dry-mass of the female inflorescence. Terpenes of cannabis and hops are typically simple mono- and sesquiterpenes derived from two and three isoprene units, respectively. Some terpenes are relatively well known for their potential in biomedicine and have been used in traditional medicine for centuries, while others are yet to be studied in detail. The current, comprehensive review presents terpenes found in cannabis and hops. Terpenes' medicinal properties are supported by numerous in vitro, animal and clinical trials and show anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, analgesic, anticonvulsive, antidepressant, anxiolytic, anticancer, antitumor, neuroprotective, anti-mutagenic, anti-allergic, antibiotic and anti-diabetic attributes, among others. Because of the very low toxicity, these terpenes are already widely used as food additives and in cosmetic products. Thus, they have been proven safe and well-tolerated.