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Ibrahim E, Sohail SK, Ihunwo A, Eid RA, Al-Shahrani Y, Rezigalla AA. Effect of high-altitude hypoxia on function and cytoarchitecture of rats' liver. Sci Rep 2025; 15:12771. [PMID: 40229399 PMCID: PMC11997024 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-025-97863-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2024] [Accepted: 04/08/2025] [Indexed: 04/16/2025] Open
Abstract
The liver is central to metabolic, detoxification, and homeostatic functions. Exposure to hypobaric hypoxia at high altitudes causes detrimental effects on the liver, leading to injury. This study evaluated the effect of hypoxia-induced at high altitudes on liver function, oxidative stress, and histopathological changes in rats. This study used 24 male Wistar rats (aged 8-10 weeks). The hypoxia (hypobaric hypoxia) was inducted at a high altitude of 2,100 m above sea level. Normoxia is defined as 40 m above the sea level. The rats were randomly divided into two groups: a control group maintained at low altitudes and an experimental group exposed to high altitudes for eight weeks. Blood samples were collected from all rats through a cardiac puncture, and liver samples were taken through an abdominal approach. All samples were processed through standard methods and evaluated for liver function tests and histopathological assessment. Serum aspartate aminotransferase and alanine transaminase levels significantly increased by 25% and 30%, respectively, in the high-altitude group compared to controls (p < 0.01), indicating mild hepatocellular damage. Oxidative stress assessment indicated a significant elevation in malondialdehyde by 42% in the liver homogenates of high-altitude rats compared to controls (p < 0.001). Moreover, Superoxide dismutase activity and glutathione content decreased by 18% and 22% in the high-altitude group (p < 0.01), confirming the increased oxidative stress. Histologically, minimal inflammatory infiltration was observed in the rat livers at high altitudes, with no signs of necrosis or severe structural changes. Subclinical liver dysfunction, as evidenced by altered serum enzyme levels and increased oxidative stress with mild histological changes, is induced by high-altitude hypoxia in rats. This study's results support that a hypobaric hypoxic environment physiologically stresses the liver. Further research into the long-term implications of hypobaric hypoxia and the adaptive responses of the liver is warranted.
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Grants
- UB-14-1442 Deputyship for Research & Innovation, Ministry of Education, in Saudi Arabia, which has supported this research work with the project number (UB-14-1442).
- UB-14-1442 Deputyship for Research & Innovation, Ministry of Education, in Saudi Arabia, which has supported this research work with the project number (UB-14-1442).
- UB-14-1442 Deputyship for Research & Innovation, Ministry of Education, in Saudi Arabia, which has supported this research work with the project number (UB-14-1442).
- UB-14-1442 Deputyship for Research & Innovation, Ministry of Education, in Saudi Arabia, which has supported this research work with the project number (UB-14-1442).
- UB-14-1442 Deputyship for Research & Innovation, Ministry of Education, in Saudi Arabia, which has supported this research work with the project number (UB-14-1442).
- UB-14-1442 Deputyship for Research & Innovation, Ministry of Education, in Saudi Arabia, which has supported this research work with the project number (UB-14-1442).
- Deputyship for Research & Innovation, Ministry of Education, in Saudi Arabia, which has supported this research work with the project number (UB-14-1442).
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Affiliation(s)
- Elwathiq Ibrahim
- Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, University of Bisha, Bisha, 61922, Saudi Arabia
| | - Shahzada Khalid Sohail
- Department of Pathology, College of Medicine, University of Bisha, Bisha, 61922, Saudi Arabia
| | - Amadi Ihunwo
- School of Anatomical Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Refaat A Eid
- Department of Pathology, College of Medicine, King Khalid University, Abha, 62529, 12573, Saudi Arabia
| | - Yazeed Al-Shahrani
- Department of Emergency Medicine, King Abdalla Hospital, Health Affairs Administration, Bisha, Saudi Arabia
| | - Assad Ali Rezigalla
- Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, University of Bisha, Bisha, 61922, Saudi Arabia.
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2
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Min J, Ruiyi L, Zaijun L. Significantly improved catalytic activity of copper nanocrystal by introducing Ti 3C 2T X and arginine and serine-functionalized graphene quantum dot for colorimetric detection of H 2O 2. Mikrochim Acta 2025; 192:227. [PMID: 40074917 DOI: 10.1007/s00604-025-07027-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2024] [Accepted: 02/04/2025] [Indexed: 03/14/2025]
Abstract
Copper nanocrystal has been widely used as nanozyme for construction of optical sensing platforms because of low cost, special catalysis, and high stability. However, low catalytic activity limits further applications in bioanalysis. This study reports one way for improving the catalytic activity of copper nanocrystal by introducing Ti3C2TX and arginine and serine-functionalized graphene quantum dot (RSGQD). Cu2+ was reduced by RSGQD to produce copper nanocrystal, which was immobilized on Ti3C2TX sheet via π-π stacking and self-assembly. The resulted Ti3C2TX/Cu-RSGQD shows a three-dimensional structure composing of small copper nanocrystals with an average particle size of 18.1 ± 1.7 nm and Ti3C2TX sheets. The introduction of Ti3C2TX and RSGQD improves the catalytic activity due to good conductivity of Ti3C2TX and formation of Ti3C2TX/RSGQD/Cu Schottky heterojunction. The peroxidase-like and oxidase-like specific activities reach 591.61 U mg-1 and 105.2 U mg-1. Based on the catalysis of Ti3C2TX/Cu-RSGQD towards oxidation of 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine into a blue product, a sensitive method was developed for colorimetric detection of H2O2. The absorbance linearly increases with increasing H2O2 concentration between 0 and 50 μM with a detection limit of 0.0032 μM (S/N = 3). The sensitivity is better than that of other reported analytical methods. It has been contentedly applied in colorimetric detection of H2O2 in food.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji Min
- School of Life Science and Health Engineering, School of Chemical and Material Engineering, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122, China
| | - Li Ruiyi
- School of Life Science and Health Engineering, School of Chemical and Material Engineering, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122, China.
| | - Li Zaijun
- School of Life Science and Health Engineering, School of Chemical and Material Engineering, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122, China.
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3
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Zhou Z, Chen T, Zhu Y, Chen L, Li J. Unlocking cell surface enzymes: A review of chemical strategies for detecting enzymatic activity. Anal Chim Acta 2024; 1332:343140. [PMID: 39580158 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2024.343140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2024] [Revised: 08/19/2024] [Accepted: 08/20/2024] [Indexed: 11/25/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cell surface enzymes are important proteins that play essential roles in controlling a wide variety of biological processes, such as cell-cell adhesion, recognition and communication. Dysregulation of enzyme-catalyzed processes is known to contribute to numerous diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular diseases and neurodegenerative disease. From the perspective of drug discovery and development, there is a growing interest in detecting the cell surface enzyme activity, propelled by the arising need for innovative diagnostic and therapeutic approaches to address various health conditions. RESULTS In this review, we focus on advances in chemical strategies for the detection of cell surface enzyme activity. Firstly, this comprehensive review delves into the diverse landscape of cell surface enzymes, detailing their structural features and diverse biological functions. Various enzyme families on the cell surface are examined in depth, elucidating their roles in cellular homeostasis and signaling cascades. Subsequently, various biosensors, including electrochemical biosensors, optical biosensors and dual-mode biosensors, used for detecting the cell surface enzyme activity are described. Exemplars are provided to illustrate the mechanisms, limit of detection and prospective applications of these different biosensors. Furthermore, this review unravels the intricate interplay between cell surface enzymes and cellular physiology, contributing to the development of novel diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for various diseases. In the end, the review provides insights into the ongoing challenges and future prospects associated with the detection of cell surface enzyme activity. SIGNIFICANCE Detecting cell surface enzyme activity holds pivotal significance in biomedical research, offering valuable insights into cellular physiology and disease pathology. Understanding enzyme activity aids in elucidating signaling pathways, drug interactions and disease mechanisms. This knowledge informs the development of diagnostic tools and therapeutic interventions targeting various ailments, from cancer to neurodegenerative disease. Additionally, it contributes to the advancement of drug screening and personalized medicine approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhilan Zhou
- Academy of Medical Engineering and Translational Medicine, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China; Zhejiang Cancer Hospital, The Key Laboratory of Zhejiang Province for Aptamers and Theranostics, Hangzhou Institute of Medicine (HIM), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, 310022, China
| | - Tingting Chen
- Zhejiang Cancer Hospital, The Key Laboratory of Zhejiang Province for Aptamers and Theranostics, Hangzhou Institute of Medicine (HIM), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, 310022, China
| | - Yingdi Zhu
- Zhejiang Cancer Hospital, The Key Laboratory of Zhejiang Province for Aptamers and Theranostics, Hangzhou Institute of Medicine (HIM), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, 310022, China
| | - Lanlan Chen
- MOE Key Laboratory for Analytical Science of Food Safety and Biology, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Analysis and Detection Technology for Food Safety, College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, 350108, China.
| | - Juan Li
- Zhejiang Cancer Hospital, The Key Laboratory of Zhejiang Province for Aptamers and Theranostics, Hangzhou Institute of Medicine (HIM), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, 310022, China.
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4
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Liu L, Liu G, Lv Y, Mu X, Zhao S, Tian J. A colorimetric platform using highly active Prussian blue composite nanocubes for the rapid determination of ascorbic acid and acid phosphatase. Mikrochim Acta 2024; 191:682. [PMID: 39432153 DOI: 10.1007/s00604-024-06700-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2024] [Accepted: 09/10/2024] [Indexed: 10/22/2024]
Abstract
Cobalt-doped Prussian blue composite nanocubes (Co-PB NCs) were synthesized, which can quickly convert O2 to O2•- and 1O2. Due to the presence of cobalt and iron transition metal redox electron pairs, Co-PB NCs with high oxidase mimetic activity can rapidly oxidize the substrate 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) to produce blue products (ox-TMB) without the assistance of unstable H2O2. Using ascorbic acid-2-phosphate trisodium salt (AAP) as a substrate, it can be converted to reduced ascorbic acid (AA) under acid phosphatase (ACP) hydrolysis, resulting in suppression of TMB oxidation. Therefore, an enzyme cascade signal amplification strategy for rapid colorimetric detection of AA/ACP was developed based on the high-efficiency oxidase-like activity of Co-PB NCs combined with the hydrolysis effect of ACP. The color changes at low concentrations of AA and ACP could be observed by the naked eye, and the detection limits of AA and ACP were 1.67 μM and 0.0266 U/L, respectively. The developed colorimetric method was applied to the determination of AA in beverages and ACP in human serum, and the RSDs were less than 3%, showing good reproducibility. This work provides a promising strategy for the use of metal-doped Prussian blue composite material for the construction of rapid colorimetric sensing platforms that avoid the use of unstable hydrogen peroxide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources, Key Laboratory for Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources (Ministry of Education of China), Collaborative Innovation Center for Guangxi Ethnic Medicine, School of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, 541004, China
| | - Guang Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources, Key Laboratory for Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources (Ministry of Education of China), Collaborative Innovation Center for Guangxi Ethnic Medicine, School of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, 541004, China
| | - Yi Lv
- State Key Laboratory for Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources, Key Laboratory for Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources (Ministry of Education of China), Collaborative Innovation Center for Guangxi Ethnic Medicine, School of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, 541004, China
| | - Xiaomei Mu
- State Key Laboratory for Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources, Key Laboratory for Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources (Ministry of Education of China), Collaborative Innovation Center for Guangxi Ethnic Medicine, School of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, 541004, China.
| | - Shulin Zhao
- State Key Laboratory for Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources, Key Laboratory for Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources (Ministry of Education of China), Collaborative Innovation Center for Guangxi Ethnic Medicine, School of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, 541004, China
| | - Jianniao Tian
- State Key Laboratory for Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources, Key Laboratory for Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources (Ministry of Education of China), Collaborative Innovation Center for Guangxi Ethnic Medicine, School of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, 541004, China.
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5
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Chen GY, Chai TQ, Zhang H, Yang FQ. Applications of mild-condition synthesized metal complexes with enzyme-like activity in the colorimetric and fluorescence analysis. Coord Chem Rev 2024; 508:215761. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2024.215761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2025]
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6
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Cui Y, Li Q, Yang D, Yang Y. Colorimetric-SERS dual-mode sensing of Pb(II) ions in traditional Chinese medicine samples based on carbon dots-capped gold nanoparticles as nanozyme. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2024; 313:124100. [PMID: 38484642 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2024.124100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2023] [Revised: 02/27/2024] [Accepted: 02/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024]
Abstract
Peroxidase (POD)-mimicking nanozymes have got great progress in the sensing field, but most nanozyme assaying systems are built with a single-signal output mode, which is vulnerable to the effect of different factors. Thus, establishment of a dual-signal output mode is necessary for acquiring dependable and durable performance. This work described an Fe doped noradrenaline-based carbon dots and Prussian blue (Fe,NA-CDs/PB) nanocomposite as a POD-like nanozyme and modified gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) for the colorimetric and surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) dual-mode sensor of Pb(II) in traditional Chinese medicine samples. With 2,2'-azino-bis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS) and 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) as the substrates, it was found that the addition of Pb(II) inhibited the POD-like activity of Fe,NA-CDs/PB and AuNPs, so it was used for colorimetric and SERS dual-mode assays. The POD-like activity was shown to be a "ping-pong" catalytic mechanism, whereas the addition of Pb(II) produced noncompetitive inhibition with modulatory effects on Fe,NA-CDs/PB. The linear response range for colorimetric and SERS sensor detection of Pb(II) was 0.01-1.00 mg/L with the detection limit of 5 μg/L and 8 μg/L, respectively. This dual-mode detection system shows excellent selectivity. More importantly, the Pb(II) in traditional Chinese medicine samples have successfully assayed with good recovery from 90.4 to 108.9 %.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yifan Cui
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Yunnan Province 650500, China
| | - Qiulan Li
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Yunnan Province 650500, China
| | - Dezhi Yang
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Yunnan Province 650500, China
| | - Yaling Yang
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Yunnan Province 650500, China.
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7
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Yang ZH, Huang LF, Wang YS, Chang CC. Turn-off enzyme activity of histidine-rich peptides for the detection of lysozyme. Mikrochim Acta 2024; 191:307. [PMID: 38713296 DOI: 10.1007/s00604-024-06388-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2023] [Accepted: 04/25/2024] [Indexed: 05/08/2024]
Abstract
An assay that integrates histidine-rich peptides (HisRPs) with high-affinity aptamers was developed enabling the specific and sensitive determination of the target lysozyme. The enzyme-like activity of HisRP is inhibited by its interaction with a target recognized by an aptamer. In the presence of the target, lysozyme molecules progressively assemble on the surface of HisRP in a concentration-dependent manner, resulting in the gradual suppression of enzyme-like activity. This inhibition of HisRP's enzyme-like activity can be visually observed through color changes in the reaction product or quantified using UV-visible absorption spectroscopy. Under optimal conditions, the proposed colorimetric assay for lysozyme had a detection limit as low as 1 nM and exhibited excellent selectivity against other nonspecific interferents. Furthermore, subsequent research validated the practical applicability of the developed colorimetric approach to saliva samples, indicating that the assay holds significant potential for the detection of lysozymes in samples derived from humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zu-Han Yang
- Department of Medical Biotechnology and Laboratory Science, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, 333, Taiwan
| | - Ling-Fang Huang
- Department of Medical Biotechnology and Laboratory Science, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, 333, Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, 333, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Shan Wang
- Department of Medical Biotechnology and Laboratory Science, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, 333, Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, 333, Taiwan
| | - Chia-Chen Chang
- Department of Medical Biotechnology and Laboratory Science, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, 333, Taiwan.
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, 333, Taiwan.
- Kidney Research Center, Department of Nephrology, Linkou Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, 333, Taiwan.
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8
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Kim JU, Kim JM, Thamilselvan A, Nam KH, Kim MI. Colorimetric and Electrochemical Dual-Mode Detection of Thioredoxin 1 Based on the Efficient Peroxidase-Mimicking and Electrocatalytic Property of Prussian Blue Nanoparticles. BIOSENSORS 2024; 14:185. [PMID: 38667178 PMCID: PMC11047952 DOI: 10.3390/bios14040185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2024] [Revised: 04/02/2024] [Accepted: 04/08/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024]
Abstract
As a potent detection method for cancer biomarkers in physiological fluid, a colorimetric and electrochemical dual-mode sensing platform for breast cancer biomarker thioredoxin 1 (TRX1) was developed based on the excellent peroxidase-mimicking and electrocatalytic property of Prussian blue nanoparticles (PBNPs). PBNPs were hydrothermally synthesized using K3[Fe(CN)6] as a precursor and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) as a capping agent. The synthesized spherical PBNPs showed a significant peroxidase-like activity, having approximately 20 and 60% lower Km values for 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) and H2O2, respectively, compared to those of horseradish peroxidase (HRP). The PBNPs also enhanced the electron transfer on the electrode surface. Based on the beneficial features, PBNPs were used to detect target TRX1 via sandwich-type immunoassay procedures. Using the strategies, TRX1 was selectively and sensitively detected, yielding limit of detection (LOD) values as low as 9.0 and 6.5 ng mL-1 via colorimetric and electrochemical approaches, respectively, with a linear range of 10-50 ng mL-1 in both strategies. The PBNP-based TRX1 immunoassays also exhibited a high degree of precision when applied to real human serum samples, demonstrating significant potentials to replace conventional HRP-based immunoassay systems into rapid, robust, reliable, and convenient dual-mode assay systems which can be widely utilized for the identification of important target molecules including cancer biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeong Un Kim
- Department of BioNano Technology, Gachon University, 1342 Seongnamdae-ro, Sujeong-gu, Seongnam 13120, Republic of Korea; (J.U.K.); (J.M.K.); (A.T.)
| | - Jee Min Kim
- Department of BioNano Technology, Gachon University, 1342 Seongnamdae-ro, Sujeong-gu, Seongnam 13120, Republic of Korea; (J.U.K.); (J.M.K.); (A.T.)
| | - Annadurai Thamilselvan
- Department of BioNano Technology, Gachon University, 1342 Seongnamdae-ro, Sujeong-gu, Seongnam 13120, Republic of Korea; (J.U.K.); (J.M.K.); (A.T.)
| | - Ki-Hwan Nam
- Division of Research and Development Equipment Industry, Center for Scientific Instrumentation, Korea Basic Science Institute, 169-148 Gwahak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34133, Republic of Korea
| | - Moon Il Kim
- Department of BioNano Technology, Gachon University, 1342 Seongnamdae-ro, Sujeong-gu, Seongnam 13120, Republic of Korea; (J.U.K.); (J.M.K.); (A.T.)
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9
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Hsieh PH, Yeh CY, Wang CM, Liao WS, Chen CY. Specializing Carbon Nanozyme Active Sites for Sensitive Alkaline Phosphatase Activity Metal-Free Detection. Chem Asian J 2024; 19:e202300878. [PMID: 37934144 DOI: 10.1002/asia.202300878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2023] [Revised: 11/06/2023] [Accepted: 11/07/2023] [Indexed: 11/08/2023]
Abstract
As biological enzymes regulate metabolic processes, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) is a critical diagnostic indicator associated with many diseases. To accurately measure the enzyme activity, nanozymactic materials can offer sensitive strategies for ALP detection. However, nanozymes often lack specific target binding sites, and the presence of common co-components, e. g., metal ions, may cause false-positive or false-negative results in enzyme activity determination. Herein, we developed a colorimetric assay for ALP detection using metal-free nanozymatic carbon dots (CDs). The ALP hydrolysis of pyrophosphate ions (PPi) to phosphate ions (Pi) induces a "turn-on" response based on the nanozyme activity. This PPi-induced inhibition mechanism is extensively studied via the Michaelis-Menten model, revealing that PPi acts as a noncompetitive inhibitor for CDs at a binding site distinct from the common nanozyme active site. With superior responses to ALP substrates, a highly sensitive and selective method is established for sensing ALP activity with a linear range of 0.010-0.200 U/L and a detection limit of 0.009 U/L. This finding explores the recognition and binding behavior of nanozymes, allowing for precise and reliable measurements even in complex samples, and represents a significant breakthrough for nanozyme-based assays in biological analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping-Hsuan Hsieh
- Department of Chemistry, National Taiwan University, Taipei, 10617, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Yan Yeh
- Department of Chemistry, National Changhua University of Education, Changhua, 50007, Taiwan
| | - Chang-Ming Wang
- Department of Chemistry, National Taiwan University, Taipei, 10617, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Ssu Liao
- Department of Chemistry, National Taiwan University, Taipei, 10617, Taiwan
- Center for Emerging Material and Advanced Devices, National Taiwan University, Taipei, 10617, Taiwan
| | - Chong-You Chen
- Department of Chemistry, National Changhua University of Education, Changhua, 50007, Taiwan
- Department of Chemistry, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, 11677, Taiwan
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10
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Synthesis of Mn-Prussian blue analogues with multi-enzyme activity and related application for alcohol detection. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfa.2023.131223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/07/2023]
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11
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Park JY, Lee HB, Son SE, Gupta PK, Park Y, Hur W, Seong GH. Determination of lysophosphatidylcholine using peroxidase-mimic PVP/PtRu nanozyme. Anal Bioanal Chem 2023; 415:1865-1876. [PMID: 36792781 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-023-04590-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2022] [Revised: 01/16/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2023]
Abstract
Lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) can be used as a biomarker for diseases such as cancer, diabetes, atherosclerosis, and sepsis. In this study, we demonstrated the ability of nanozymes to displace the natural derived enzyme in enzyme-based assays for the measurement of LPC. Synthesized polyvinylpyrrolidone-stabilized platinum-ruthenium nanozymes (PVP/PtRu NZs) had a uniform size of 2.48 ± 0.24 nm and superb peroxidase-mimicking activity. We demonstrated that the nanozymes had high activity over a wide pH and temperature range and high stability after long-term storage. The LPC concentration could be accurately analyzed through the absorbance and fluorescence signals generated by the peroxidation reaction using the synthesized nanozyme with substrates such as 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) and 10-acetyl-3,7-dihydroxyphenoxazine (Ampliflu™ Red). LPC at a concentration of 0-400 µM was used for the analysis, and the coefficient of determination (R2) was 0.977, and the limit of detection (LOD) was 23.1 µM by colorimetric assay. In the fluorometric assay, the R2 was 0.999, and the LOD was 8.97 µM. The spiked recovery values for the determination of LPC concentration in human serum samples were 102-115%. Based on these results, we declared that PVP/PtRu NZs had an ability comparable to that of the native enzyme horseradish peroxidase (HRP) in the enzyme-based LPC detection method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji Yeon Park
- Department of Bionano Engineering, Center for Bionano Intelligence Education and Research, Hanyang University, Ansan, 426-791, South Korea
| | - Han Been Lee
- Department of Bionano Engineering, Center for Bionano Intelligence Education and Research, Hanyang University, Ansan, 426-791, South Korea
| | - Seong Eun Son
- Department of Bionano Engineering, Center for Bionano Intelligence Education and Research, Hanyang University, Ansan, 426-791, South Korea
| | - Pramod K Gupta
- Department of Bionano Engineering, Center for Bionano Intelligence Education and Research, Hanyang University, Ansan, 426-791, South Korea
| | - Yosep Park
- Department of Bionano Engineering, Center for Bionano Intelligence Education and Research, Hanyang University, Ansan, 426-791, South Korea
| | - Won Hur
- Department of Bionano Engineering, Center for Bionano Intelligence Education and Research, Hanyang University, Ansan, 426-791, South Korea
| | - Gi Hun Seong
- Department of Bionano Engineering, Center for Bionano Intelligence Education and Research, Hanyang University, Ansan, 426-791, South Korea.
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12
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Luo Q, Shao N, Zhang AC, Chen CF, Wang D, Luo LP, Xiao ZY. Smart Biomimetic Nanozymes for Precise Molecular Imaging: Application and Challenges. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2023; 16:249. [PMID: 37259396 PMCID: PMC9965384 DOI: 10.3390/ph16020249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2022] [Revised: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/02/2023] [Indexed: 04/06/2024] Open
Abstract
New nanotechnologies for imaging molecules are widely being applied to visualize the expression of specific molecules (e.g., ions, biomarkers) for disease diagnosis. Among various nanoplatforms, nanozymes, which exhibit enzyme-like catalytic activities in vivo, have gained tremendously increasing attention in molecular imaging due to their unique properties such as diverse enzyme-mimicking activities, excellent biocompatibility, ease of surface tenability, and low cost. In addition, by integrating different nanoparticles with superparamagnetic, photoacoustic, fluorescence, and photothermal properties, the nanoenzymes are able to increase the imaging sensitivity and accuracy for better understanding the complexity and the biological process of disease. Moreover, these functions encourage the utilization of nanozymes as therapeutic agents to assist in treatment. In this review, we focus on the applications of nanozymes in molecular imaging and discuss the use of peroxidase (POD), oxidase (OXD), catalase (CAT), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) with different imaging modalities. Further, the applications of nanozymes for cancer treatment, bacterial infection, and inflammation image-guided therapy are discussed. Overall, this review aims to provide a complete reference for research in the interdisciplinary fields of nanotechnology and molecular imaging to promote the advancement and clinical translation of novel biomimetic nanozymes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Liang-Ping Luo
- The Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Molecular and Functional Imaging for Clinical Translation, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Ze-Yu Xiao
- The Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Molecular and Functional Imaging for Clinical Translation, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
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13
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Tang M, Zhang Z, Sun T, Li B, Wu Z. Manganese-Based Nanozymes: Preparation, Catalytic Mechanisms, and Biomedical Applications. Adv Healthc Mater 2022; 11:e2201733. [PMID: 36050895 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202201733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Revised: 08/09/2022] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Manganese (Mn) has attracted widespread attention due to its low-cost, nontoxicity, and valence-rich transition. Various Mn-based nanomaterials have sprung up and are employed in diverse fields, particularly Mn-based nanozymes, which combine the physicochemical properties of Mn-based nanomaterials with the catalytic activity of natural enzymes, and are attracting a surge of research, especially in the field of biomedical research. In this review, the typical preparation strategies, catalytic mechanisms, advances and perspectives of Mn-based nanozymes for biomedical applications are systematically summarized. The application of Mn-based nanozymes in tumor therapy and sensing detection, together with an overview of their mechanism of action is highlighted. Finally, the prospective directions of Mn-based nanozymes from five perspectives: innovation, activity enhancement, selectivity, biocompatibility, and application broadening are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minglu Tang
- Key Laboratory of Forest Plant Ecology, Ministry of Education, Engineering Research Center of Forest Bio-Preparation, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Resource Utilization, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, 150040, P. R. China
| | - Zhaocong Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Forest Plant Ecology, Ministry of Education, Engineering Research Center of Forest Bio-Preparation, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Resource Utilization, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, 150040, P. R. China
| | - Tiedong Sun
- Key Laboratory of Forest Plant Ecology, Ministry of Education, Engineering Research Center of Forest Bio-Preparation, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Resource Utilization, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, 150040, P. R. China
| | - Bin Li
- Key Laboratory of Forest Plant Ecology, Ministry of Education, Engineering Research Center of Forest Bio-Preparation, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Resource Utilization, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, 150040, P. R. China
| | - Zhiguang Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Robotics and System, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150001, P. R. China
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14
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Zhou LJ, Wang YY, Li SL, Cao L, Jiang FL, Maskow T, Liu Y. Core-Shell Polydopamine/Cu Nanometer Rods Efficiently Deactivate Microbes by Mimicking Chloride-Activated Peroxidases. ACS OMEGA 2022; 7:29984-29994. [PMID: 36061688 PMCID: PMC9434747 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.2c02986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Cu-modified nanoparticles have been designed to mimic peroxidase, and their potent antibacterial and anti-biofilm abilities have been widely investigated. In this study, novel core-shell polydopamine (PDA)/Cu4(OH)6SO4 crystal (PDA/Cu) nanometer rods were prepared. The PDA/Cu nanometer rods show similar kinetic behaviors to chloride-activated peroxidases, exhibit excellent photothermal properties, and are sensitive to the concentrations of pH values and the substrate (i.e., H2O2). PDA/Cu nanometer rods could adhere to the bacteria and catalyze hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to generate more reactive hydroxy radicals (•OH) against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli, Furthermore, PDA/Cu nanometer rods show enhanced catalytic and photothermal synergistic antibacterial activity. This work provides a simple, inexpensive, and effective strategy for antibacterial applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lian-Jiao Zhou
- Department
of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, P. R. China
| | - Yu-Ying Wang
- Department
of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, P. R. China
| | - Shu-Lan Li
- Department
of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, P. R. China
- State
Key Laboratory of Membrane Separation and Membrane Process & Tianjin
Key Laboratory of Green Chemical Technology and Process Engineering,
School of Chemistry, Tiangong University, Tianjin 300387, P. R. China
| | - Ling Cao
- Department
of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, P. R. China
| | - Feng-Lei Jiang
- Department
of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, P. R. China
| | - Thomas Maskow
- Department
of Environmental Microbiology, UFZ, Helmholtz
Centre for Environmental Research, Permoserstr. 15, 04318 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Yi Liu
- Department
of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, P. R. China
- State
Key Laboratory of Membrane Separation and Membrane Process & Tianjin
Key Laboratory of Green Chemical Technology and Process Engineering,
School of Chemistry, Tiangong University, Tianjin 300387, P. R. China
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15
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A novel electrochemical platform for assay of alkaline phosphatase based on amifostine and ATRP signal amplification. Anal Bioanal Chem 2022; 414:6955-6964. [PMID: 35972525 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-022-04264-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2022] [Revised: 07/26/2022] [Accepted: 08/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
Alkaline phosphatase (ALP), an important hydrolase involved in dephosphorylation, is a common clinical indicator of many diseases. In the present study, we constructed a novel electrochemical sensor using amifostine as the substrate of ALP and activators regenerated by electron transfer atom transfer radical polymerization (ARGET ATRP) as a signal amplification strategy for sensitive determination of ALP activity. In particular, in the presence of ALP, the phosphate group of amifostine was hydrolyzed to form a sulfhydryl group, which could attach to a gold electrode via a sulfur-gold bond. Then, the initiator α-bromophenylacetic acid (BPAA) was linked to the hydrolysis product of amifostine through an amide bond, resulting in the production of electroactive polymer chains on the gold electrode by the monomer ferrocenylmethyl methacrylate (FMMA) via ARGET ATRP. Under optimal parameters, the electrochemical sensor demonstrated a limit of detection (LOD) of 1.71 mU mL-1 with a linear range of 5-100 mU mL-1. In addition to satisfactory selectivity, the potential application of this approach for ALP activity detection in human serum samples was demonstrated. Due to its efficiency, simplicity of operation, and cost-effectiveness, the proposed electrochemical sensor has great promise as a universal method for ALP assays and inhibitor screening.
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16
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Li X, Lu J, Li Z, Yang H, Li W, Liu Y, Miao M. Electrochemical detection of alkaline phosphatase activity via atom transfer radical polymerization. Bioelectrochemistry 2022; 144:107998. [PMID: 34808503 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioelechem.2021.107998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Revised: 10/31/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity is a diagnostic indicator for a variety of clinical diseases. In this study, an electrochemical method for detecting ALP activity through activators regenerated by electron transfer atom transfer radical polymerization (ARGET ATRP) was developed. Specifically, 3-mercaptopropionic (MPA) was firstly fixed on the electrode through sulfur-gold bonding. Subsequently, α-bromophenylacetic acid (BPAA) as initiator was attached to MPA through the recognized carboxylate-Zr4+-phosphate chemistry. Finally, in the existence of ALP, L-Ascorbic acid 2-phosphate sesquimagnesium salt hydrate (AAPS) was hydrolyzed to produce ascorbic acid (AA) which participated in the ARGET ATRP reaction, grafting polymer containing plenty of ferrocene electroactive probes on the surface of electrode. Under optimal experimental conditions, this method had a linear scope of 20-200 mU mL-1, and a limit of detection (LOD) of 1.64 mU mL-1. In addition, the proposed method had good selectivity as well as anti-interference capability, with satisfactory results in inhibition rate and human serum experiments. By merits of good analytical performance, easy operation, and low cost, such a method for ALP activity detection has promising applications in ALP-related disease detection and inhibitor screening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofei Li
- Pharmacy College, Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou 450046, PR China
| | - Jing Lu
- Pharmacy College, Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou 450046, PR China
| | - Zutian Li
- Pharmacy College, Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou 450046, PR China
| | - Haoyuan Yang
- Pharmacy College, Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou 450046, PR China
| | - Weiming Li
- The Third Affiliated Hospital of Henan University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou 450003, PR China.
| | - Yanju Liu
- Pharmacy College, Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou 450046, PR China.
| | - Mingsan Miao
- Pharmacy College, Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou 450046, PR China.
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17
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Tian D, Xiang W, Wang H, Jiang W, Li T, Yang M. Optical assay using B-doped core-shell Fe@BC nanozyme for determination of alanine aminotransferase. Mikrochim Acta 2022; 189:147. [PMID: 35299258 DOI: 10.1007/s00604-021-05056-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2021] [Accepted: 10/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
B-doped core-shell Fe@BC nanozyme was synthesized. The peroxidase (POD) like activity of Fe@BC nanozyme was studied and utilized for detecting the activity of alanine aminotransferase (ALT). In the presence of ALT as well as ALT co-substrates L-alanine and α-ketoglutarate, L-glutamate is generated. The following catalytic oxidation of L-glutamate by glutamate oxidase leads to the generation of H2O2. The POD-like activity of Fe@BC can oxidize 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) to oxTMB in the presence of H2O2, generating a blue-colored compound. Through the detection of the amount of H2O2 generated, ALT activity can be determined through measuring the absorbance intensity variation at 450 nm. The limit of detection of the assay is 4 U/L, with a linear range from 10 to 1000 U/L. For human serum samples, the ALT levels determined by our assay are comparable to those determined by the hospital with a correlation coefficient of 0.991, demonstrating the reliability of our assay results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dazhi Tian
- Key Laboratory of Transplantation, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100730, China.,Tianjin Key Laboratory for Organ Transplantation, Department of Liver Transplantation, Tianjin First Center Hospital, Tianjin, 300192, China
| | - Wen Xiang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory for Organ Transplantation, Department of Liver Transplantation, Tianjin First Center Hospital, Tianjin, 300192, China
| | - Hao Wang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory for Organ Transplantation, Department of Liver Transplantation, Tianjin First Center Hospital, Tianjin, 300192, China
| | - Wentao Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Transplantation, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100730, China. .,Tianjin Key Laboratory for Organ Transplantation, Department of Liver Transplantation, Tianjin First Center Hospital, Tianjin, 300192, China.
| | - Ting Li
- Department of Organ Transplantation Center, The Second Xiang-Ya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410011, China.
| | - Minghui Yang
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Micro & Nano Materials Interface Science, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, China
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18
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Luo Q, Lin Y, Cai Q, Luo F, Lin C, Wang J, Qiu B, Lin Z. A multicolor biosensor for alkaline phosphatase activity detection based on the peroxidase activity of copper nanoclusters and etching of gold nanorods. Analyst 2022; 147:2749-2756. [DOI: 10.1039/d2an00517d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A multicolor biosensor for ALP activity has been developed based on the peroxidase activity of copper nanoclusters and etching of gold nanorods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qin Luo
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Analytical Science of Food Safety and Biology, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Analysis and Detection for Food Safety, College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350116, China
| | - Yisheng Lin
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Analytical Science of Food Safety and Biology, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Analysis and Detection for Food Safety, College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350116, China
| | - Qihong Cai
- Pharmaceutical and Medical Technology College of Putian University, Putian, Fujian, China
| | - Fang Luo
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Analytical Science of Food Safety and Biology, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Analysis and Detection for Food Safety, College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350116, China
| | - Cuiying Lin
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Analytical Science of Food Safety and Biology, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Analysis and Detection for Food Safety, College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350116, China
| | - Jian Wang
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Analytical Science of Food Safety and Biology, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Analysis and Detection for Food Safety, College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350116, China
| | - Bin Qiu
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Analytical Science of Food Safety and Biology, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Analysis and Detection for Food Safety, College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350116, China
| | - Zhenyu Lin
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Analytical Science of Food Safety and Biology, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Analysis and Detection for Food Safety, College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350116, China
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19
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Restoring the Oxidase-Like Activity of His@AuNCs for the Determination of Alkaline Phosphatase. BIOSENSORS-BASEL 2021; 11:bios11060174. [PMID: 34070918 PMCID: PMC8227771 DOI: 10.3390/bios11060174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Revised: 05/17/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
In this paper, we propose a simple colorimetric method for the sensitive and selective detection of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity based on the turn off/turn on oxidase mimic activity of His@AuNCs. His@AuNCs/graphene oxide hybrids (His@AuNCs/GO) were easily obtained using the self-assembly method with poly (diallyldimethylammonium chloride) (PDDA)-coated GO and showed high oxidase-like activity compared with His@AuNCs. We found that the pyrophosphate ion (P2O74-, PPi) could effectively inhibit the oxidase mimic activity of His@AuNCs/GO, and the hydrolysis of PPi by ALP restored the inhibited activity of His@AuNCs/GO, enabling them to efficiently catalyze the oxidation of 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) to generate the blue oxidized product oxTMB. The intensity of the color showed a linear dependency with the ALP activity. ALP was detected in the linear range of 0-40 mU/mL with a low detection limit (LOD) of 0.26 mU/mL (S/N = 3). The proposed method is fast, easy, and can be applied to monitor the ALP activity in serum samples accurately and effectively, which suggests its practicability and reliability in the detection of ALP activity in clinical practice.
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