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Immune Regulatory Processes of the Tumor Microenvironment under Malignant Conditions. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222413311. [PMID: 34948104 PMCID: PMC8706102 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222413311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2021] [Revised: 12/03/2021] [Accepted: 12/05/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The tumor microenvironment (TME) is a critical regulator of tumor growth, progression, and metastasis. Since immune cells represent a large fraction of the TME, they play a key role in mediating pro- and anti-tumor immune responses. Immune escape, which suppresses anti-tumor immunity, enables tumor cells to maintain their proliferation and growth. Numerous mechanisms, which have been intensively studied in recent years, are involved in this process and based on these findings, novel immunotherapies have been successfully developed. Here, we review the composition of the TME and the mechanisms by which immune evasive processes are regulated. In detail, we describe membrane-bound and soluble factors, their regulation, and their impact on immune cell activation in the TME. Furthermore, we give an overview of the tumor/antigen presentation and how it is influenced under malignant conditions. Finally, we summarize novel TME-targeting agents, which are already in clinical trials for different tumor entities.
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2
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Jeong J, Kadegowda AKG, Meyer TJ, Jenkins LM, Dinan JC, Wysolmerski JJ, Weigert R, Mather IH. The butyrophilin 1a1 knockout mouse revisited: Ablation of Btn1a1 leads to concurrent cell death and renewal in the mammary epithelium during lactation. FASEB Bioadv 2021; 3:971-997. [PMID: 34938960 PMCID: PMC8664049 DOI: 10.1096/fba.2021-00059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2021] [Revised: 08/13/2021] [Accepted: 08/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Butyrophilin 1A1 (BTN1A1) is implicated in the secretion of lipid droplets from mammary epithelial cells as a membrane receptor, which forms a secretion complex with the redox enzyme, xanthine oxidoreductase (XDH). The first evidence that BTN1A1 functions in this process was the generation of Btn1a1 -/- mouse lines, in which lipid secretion was disrupted and large unstable droplets were released into alveolar spaces with fragmented surface membranes. We have revisited one of these mutant mouse lines using RNAseq and proteomic analysis to assess the consequences of ablating the Btn1a1 gene on the expression of other genes and proteins. Disruption of intact Btn1a1 protein expression led to a large build-up of Xdh in the cytoplasm, induction of acute phase response genes and Lif-activation of Stat3 phosphorylation. At peak lactation, approx. 10% of the cells were dying, as assessed by TUNEL-analysis of nuclear DNA. Possible cell death pathways included expression of caspase 8 and activated caspase 3, autophagy, Slc5a8-mediated inactivation of survivin (Birc5), and pStat3-mediated lysosomal lysis, the latter of which is the principal death route in involuting wild type cells. Milk secretion was prolonged by renewal of the secretory epithelium, as evidenced by the upregulation of Ki67 in approx. 10% of cell nuclei and expression of cyclins and Fos/Jun. These data highlight the plasticity of the mammary epithelium and the importance of functional BTN1A1 expression for maintenance of terminally differentiated secretory cells and optimal milk production throughout lactation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaekwang Jeong
- Department of Animal and Avian SciencesUniversity of MarylandCollege ParkMarylandUSA
- Present address:
Section of Endocrinology and MetabolismDepartment of Internal MedicineYale University School of MedicineNew HavenConnecticut06520USA
| | - Anil K. G. Kadegowda
- Department of Animal and Avian SciencesUniversity of MarylandCollege ParkMarylandUSA
- Present address:
Department of Animal SciencesUniversity of Agricultural Sciences DharwadHubliKarnataka580005India
| | - Thomas J. Meyer
- CCR Collaborative Bioinformatics ResourceNational Cancer InstituteNational Institutes of HealthBethesdaMarylandUSA
- Advanced Biomedical Computational ScienceFrederick National Laboratory for Cancer ResearchFrederickMarylandUSA
| | - Lisa M. Jenkins
- Laboratory of Cell BiologyNational Cancer InstituteNational Institutes of HealthBethesdaMarylandUSA
| | - Jerry C. Dinan
- Laboratory of Cell BiologyNational Cancer InstituteNational Institutes of HealthBethesdaMarylandUSA
| | - John J. Wysolmerski
- Department of Internal MedicineYale University School of MedicineNew HavenConnecticutUSA
| | - Roberto Weigert
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular BiologyCenter for Cancer ResearchNational Cancer InstituteNational Institutes of HealthBethesdaMarylandUSA
| | - Ian H. Mather
- Department of Animal and Avian SciencesUniversity of MarylandCollege ParkMarylandUSA
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular BiologyCenter for Cancer ResearchNational Cancer InstituteNational Institutes of HealthBethesdaMarylandUSA
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3
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Eichinger A, Neumaier I, Skerra A. The extracellular region of bovine milk butyrophilin exhibits closer structural similarity to human myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein than to immunological BTN family receptors. Biol Chem 2021; 402:1187-1202. [PMID: 34342946 DOI: 10.1515/hsz-2021-0122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Bovine butyrophilin (BTN1A1) is an abundant type I transmembrane glycoprotein exposed on the surface of milk fat globules. We have solved the crystal structure of its extracellular region via multiple wavelength anomalous dispersion after incorporation of selenomethionine into the bacterially produced protein. The butyrophilin ectodomain exhibits two subdomains with immunoglobulin fold, each comprising a β-sandwich with a central disulfide bridge as well as one N-linked glycosylation. The fifth Cys residue at position 193 is unpaired and prone to forming disulfide crosslinks. The apparent lack of a ligand-binding site or receptor activity suggests a function predominantly as hydrophilic coat protein to prevent coagulation of the milk fat droplets. While there is less structural resemblance to members of the human butyrophilin family such as BTN3A, which play a role as immune receptors, the N-terminal bovine butyrophilin subdomain shows surprising similarity to the human myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein, a protein exposed on the surface of myelin sheaths. Thus, our study lends structural support to earlier hypotheses of a correlation between the consumption of cow milk and prevalence of neurological autoimmune diseases and may offer guidance for the breeding of cattle strains that express modified butyrophilin showing less immunological cross-reactivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Eichinger
- Lehrstuhl für Biologische Chemie, Technische Universität München, Emil-Erlenmeyer-Forum 5, D-85354Freising, Germany
| | - Irmgard Neumaier
- Lehrstuhl für Biologische Chemie, Technische Universität München, Emil-Erlenmeyer-Forum 5, D-85354Freising, Germany
| | - Arne Skerra
- Lehrstuhl für Biologische Chemie, Technische Universität München, Emil-Erlenmeyer-Forum 5, D-85354Freising, Germany
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4
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Chen S, Li Z, Huang W, Wang Y, Fan S. Prognostic and Therapeutic Significance of BTN3A Proteins in Tumors. J Cancer 2021; 12:4505-4512. [PMID: 34149914 PMCID: PMC8210570 DOI: 10.7150/jca.57831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2021] [Accepted: 05/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The Butyrophilin 3A (BTN3A) family is a type I transmembrane protein belonging to the immunoglobulin (Ig) superfamily. The family contains three members: BTN3A1, BTN3A2 and BTN3A3, which share 95% homology in the extracellular domain. The expression of BTN3A family members is different in different types of tumors, which plays an important role in tumor prognosis. Among them, there are many studies on tumor immunity of BTN3A1, which shows that it is essential for the activation of Vγ9Vδ2 T cells, while BTN3A3 is expected to become a potential therapeutic target for breast cancer. Recent studies have shown that the BTN3A family is closely related to the occurrence and development of tumors. Now the BTN3A family has become one of the research hotspots and is expected to become new tumor prediction and treatment targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sihan Chen
- School of Life Science, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China.,College of Health Science, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Zhangyun Li
- School of Life Science, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Wenyi Huang
- School of Life Science, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yanyan Wang
- Department of Ultrasonic Medicine, Xuzhou First People's Hospital, Jiangsu, China
| | - Shaohua Fan
- School of Life Science, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
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5
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Evolutionary and polymorphism analyses reveal the central role of BTN3A2 in the concerted evolution of the BTN3 gene family. Immunogenetics 2017; 69:379-390. [PMID: 28382515 DOI: 10.1007/s00251-017-0980-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2017] [Accepted: 03/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The butyrophilin 3 (BTN3) receptors are implicated in the T lymphocytes regulation and present a wide plasticity in mammals. In order to understand how these genes have been diversified, we studied their evolution and show that the three human BTN3 are the result of two successive duplications in Primates and that the three genes are present in Hominoids and the Old World Monkey groups. A thorough phylogenetic analysis reveals a concerted evolution of BTN3 characterized by a strong and recurrent homogenization of the region encoding the signal peptide and the immunoglobulin variable (IgV) domain in Hominoids, where the sequences of BTN3A1 or BTN3A3 are replaced by BTN3A2 sequence. In human, the analysis of the diversity of these genes in 1683 individuals representing 26 worldwide populations shows that the three genes are polymorphic, with more than 46 alleles for each gene, and marked by extreme homogenization of the IgV sequences. The same analysis performed for the BTN2 genes shows also a concerted evolution; however, it is not as strong and recurrent as for BTN3. This study shows that BTN3 receptors are marked by extreme concerted evolution at the IgV domain and that BTN3A2 plays a central role in this evolution.
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6
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Affiliation(s)
- David A. Rhodes
- Department of Pathology, Immunology Division, University of Cambridge, Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, Cambridge CB2 0XY, United Kingdom; ,
| | - Walter Reith
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, CH-1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland;
| | - John Trowsdale
- Department of Pathology, Immunology Division, University of Cambridge, Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, Cambridge CB2 0XY, United Kingdom; ,
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7
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Guo Y, Wang AY. Novel Immune Check-Point Regulators in Tolerance Maintenance. Front Immunol 2015; 6:421. [PMID: 26347744 PMCID: PMC4539525 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2015.00421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2015] [Accepted: 08/02/2015] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The great success of anti-cytotoxic lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA4) and anti-programed cell death protein 1 (PD1) in cancer treatment has encouraged more effort in harnessing the immune response through immunomodulatory molecules in various diseases. The immunoglobulin (Ig) super family comprises the majority of immunomodulatory molecules. Discovery of novel Ig super family members has brought novel insights into the function of different immune cells in tolerance maintenance. In this review, we discuss the function of newly identified B7 family molecules, B7-H4 and V-domain Ig Suppressor of T cell Activation (VISTA), and the butyrophilin/butyrophilin-like family members. We discuss the current stages of immunomodulatory molecules in clinical trials of organ transplantation. The potential of engaging the novel Ig superfamily members in tolerance maintenance is also discussed. We conclude with the challenges remaining to manipulate these molecules in the immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanxia Guo
- Merck Research Laboratories , Palo Alto, CA , USA
| | - Adele Y Wang
- Merck Research Laboratories , Palo Alto, CA , USA
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9
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Karunakaran MM, Göbel TW, Starick L, Walter L, Herrmann T. Vγ9 and Vδ2 T cell antigen receptor genes and butyrophilin 3 (BTN3) emerged with placental mammals and are concomitantly preserved in selected species like alpaca (Vicugna pacos). Immunogenetics 2014; 66:243-54. [PMID: 24526346 DOI: 10.1007/s00251-014-0763-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2013] [Accepted: 01/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Human Vγ9Vδ2 T cells recognize phosphorylated products of isoprenoid metabolism (phosphoantigens) PAg with TCR comprising Vγ9JP γ-chains and Vδ2 δ-chains dependent on butyrophilin 3 (BTN3) expressed by antigen-presenting cells. They are massively activated in many infections and show anti-tumor activity and so far, they have been considered to exist only in higher primates. We performed a comprehensive analysis of databases and identified the three genes in species of both placental magnorders, but not in rodents. The common occurrence or loss of in silico translatable Vγ9, Vδ2, and BTN3 genes suggested their co-evolution based on a functional relationship. In the peripheral lymphocytes of alpaca (Vicugna pacos), characteristic Vγ9JP rearrangements and in-frame Vδ2 rearrangements were found and could be co-expressed in a TCR-negative mouse T cell hybridoma where they rescued CD3 expression and function. Finally, database sequence analysis of the extracellular domain of alpaca BTN3 revealed complete conservation of proposed PAg binding residues of human BTN3A1. In summary, we show emergence and preservation of Vγ9 and Vδ2 TCR genes with the gene of the putative antigen-presenting molecule BTN3 in placental mammals and lay the ground for analysis of alpaca as candidate for a first non-primate species to possess Vγ9Vδ2 T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohindar M Karunakaran
- Institute for Virology and Immunobiology, Julius-Maximilian's University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
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10
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Ammann JU, Cooke A, Trowsdale J. Butyrophilin Btn2a2 inhibits TCR activation and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt pathway signaling and induces Foxp3 expression in T lymphocytes. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2013; 190:5030-6. [PMID: 23589618 PMCID: PMC3736090 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1203325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The butyrophilin-related protein Btn2a2 was upregulated on murine APC including CD19(+) B cells, CD11b(+)F4/80(+) peritoneal macrophages, and CD11c(+) bone marrow-derived dendritic cells after activation with LPS or Pam3CysK4, suggesting a role in modulation of T lymphocytes. Consistent with this, binding of mouse Btn2a2-Fc to CD3(+) primary mouse T cells stimulated with anti-CD3 and anti-CD28 reduced the number of proliferating cells and entry of cells into the cell cycle. Binding of Btn2a2-Fc to anti-CD3-stimulated T cells inhibited CD3ε, Zap70, and subsequent Erk1/2 activation. It also interfered with activation of the regulatory subunit of PI3K, p85, and activation of Akt in T cells stimulated with both anti-CD3 and anti-CD28. Inhibition of Akt activation by Btn2a2-Fc was, in contrast to inhibition by programmed death ligand-1-Fc, not overcome by anti-CD28 costimulation. Using Foxp3-GFP-transgenic, naive T cells, Btn2a2-Fc induced de novo expression of Foxp3 in a dose-dependent manner, and Btn2a2-Fc-induced CD4(+)CD25(+)Foxp3(+) T cells had inhibitory properties. The data indicate an important physiological role for Btn2a2 in inhibiting T cell activation and inducing Foxp3(+) regulatory T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes U Ammann
- Division of Immunology, Department of Pathology, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QP, United Kingdom
| | - Anne Cooke
- Division of Immunology, Department of Pathology, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QP, United Kingdom
| | - John Trowsdale
- Division of Immunology, Department of Pathology, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QP, United Kingdom
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11
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The butyrophilin (BTN) gene family: from milk fat to the regulation of the immune response. Immunogenetics 2012; 64:781-94. [DOI: 10.1007/s00251-012-0619-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2012] [Accepted: 04/19/2012] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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12
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Palakodeti A, Sandstrom A, Sundaresan L, Harly C, Nedellec S, Olive D, Scotet E, Bonneville M, Adams EJ. The molecular basis for modulation of human Vγ9Vδ2 T cell responses by CD277/butyrophilin-3 (BTN3A)-specific antibodies. J Biol Chem 2012; 287:32780-90. [PMID: 22846996 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m112.384354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Human Vγ9Vδ2 T cells are well known for their rapid and potent response to infection and tumorigenesis when in the presence of endogenous or exogenous phosphoisoprenoids. However, the molecular mechanisms behind the activation of this γδ T cell population remains unclear. Evidence pointing to a role for the CD277/butyrophilin-3 (BTN3A) molecules in this response led us to investigate the structures of these molecules and their modifications upon binding to an agonist antibody (20.1) that mimics phosphoisoprenoid-mediated Vγ9Vδ2 activation and an antagonist antibody (103.2) that inhibits this reactivity. We find that the three BTN3A isoforms: BTN3A1, BTN3A2, and BTN3A3, have high structural homology to the B7 superfamily of proteins and exist as V-shaped homodimers in solution, associating through the membrane proximal C-type Ig domain. The 20.1 and 103.2 antibodies bind to separate epitopes on the BTN3A Ig-V domain with high affinity but likely with different valencies based on their binding orientation. These structures directly complement functional studies of this system that demonstrate that BTN3A1 is necessary for Vγ9Vδ2 activation and begin to unravel the extracellular events that occur during stimulation through the Vγ9Vδ2 T cell receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aparna Palakodeti
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA
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13
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Le Page C, Marineau A, Bonza PK, Rahimi K, Cyr L, Labouba I, Madore J, Delvoye N, Mes-Masson AM, Provencher DM, Cailhier JF. BTN3A2 expression in epithelial ovarian cancer is associated with higher tumor infiltrating T cells and a better prognosis. PLoS One 2012. [PMID: 22685580 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0038541] [] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BTN3A2/BT3.2 butyrophilin mRNA expression by tumoral cells was previously identified as a prognostic factor in a small cohort of high grade serous epithelial ovarian cancer (HG-EOC). Here, we evaluated the prognostic value of BT3.2 at the protein level in specimen from 199 HG-EOC patients. As the only known role of butyrophilin proteins is in immune regulation, we evaluated the association between BT3.2 expression and intratumoral infiltration of immune cells by immunohistochemistry with specific antibodies against BT3.2, CD3, CD4, CD8, CD20, CD68 and CD206. Epithelial BT3.2 expression was significantly associated with longer overall survival and lower risk of disease progression (HR=0.651, p=0.006 and HR=0.642, p=0.002, respectively) and significantly associated with a higher density of infiltrating T cells, particularly CD4+ cells (0.272, p<0.001). We also observed a strong association between the relative density of CD206+ cells, as evaluated by the ratio of intratumoral CD206+/CD68+ expression, and risk of disease progression (HR=1.355 p=0.044, respectively). In conclusion, BT3.2 protein is a potential prognostic biomarker for the identification of HG-EOC patients with better outcome. In contrast, high CD206+/CD68+ expression is associated with high risk of disease progression. While the role of BT3.2 is still unknown, our result suggest that BT3.2 expression by epithelial cells may modulates the intratumoral infiltration of immune cells.
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MESH Headings
- Adult
- Aged
- Aged, 80 and over
- Antigens, CD/metabolism
- Antigens, Differentiation, Myelomonocytic/metabolism
- Blotting, Western
- Butyrophilins
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Cohort Studies
- Female
- Humans
- Immunohistochemistry/statistics & numerical data
- Kaplan-Meier Estimate
- Lectins, C-Type/metabolism
- Lymphocytes, Tumor-Infiltrating/metabolism
- Lymphocytes, Tumor-Infiltrating/pathology
- Mannose Receptor
- Mannose-Binding Lectins/metabolism
- Membrane Glycoproteins/genetics
- Membrane Glycoproteins/metabolism
- Membrane Proteins/genetics
- Membrane Proteins/metabolism
- Middle Aged
- Multivariate Analysis
- Neoplasms, Glandular and Epithelial/genetics
- Neoplasms, Glandular and Epithelial/metabolism
- Neoplasms, Glandular and Epithelial/pathology
- Ovarian Neoplasms/genetics
- Ovarian Neoplasms/metabolism
- Ovarian Neoplasms/pathology
- Prognosis
- Proportional Hazards Models
- Protein Isoforms/metabolism
- Receptors, Cell Surface/metabolism
- T-Lymphocytes/metabolism
- T-Lymphocytes/pathology
- Tissue Array Analysis/statistics & numerical data
- Transfection
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Affiliation(s)
- Cécile Le Page
- Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal (CRCHUM), Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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14
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Le Page C, Marineau A, Bonza PK, Rahimi K, Cyr L, Labouba I, Madore J, Delvoye N, Mes-Masson AM, Provencher DM, Cailhier JF. BTN3A2 expression in epithelial ovarian cancer is associated with higher tumor infiltrating T cells and a better prognosis. PLoS One 2012; 7:e38541. [PMID: 22685580 PMCID: PMC3369854 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0038541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2012] [Accepted: 05/07/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BTN3A2/BT3.2 butyrophilin mRNA expression by tumoral cells was previously identified as a prognostic factor in a small cohort of high grade serous epithelial ovarian cancer (HG-EOC). Here, we evaluated the prognostic value of BT3.2 at the protein level in specimen from 199 HG-EOC patients. As the only known role of butyrophilin proteins is in immune regulation, we evaluated the association between BT3.2 expression and intratumoral infiltration of immune cells by immunohistochemistry with specific antibodies against BT3.2, CD3, CD4, CD8, CD20, CD68 and CD206. Epithelial BT3.2 expression was significantly associated with longer overall survival and lower risk of disease progression (HR = 0.651, p = 0.006 and HR = 0.642, p = 0.002, respectively) and significantly associated with a higher density of infiltrating T cells, particularly CD4+ cells (0.272, p<0.001). We also observed a strong association between the relative density of CD206+ cells, as evaluated by the ratio of intratumoral CD206+/CD68+ expression, and risk of disease progression (HR = 1.355 p = 0.044, respectively). In conclusion, BT3.2 protein is a potential prognostic biomarker for the identification of HG-EOC patients with better outcome. In contrast, high CD206+/CD68+ expression is associated with high risk of disease progression. While the role of BT3.2 is still unknown, our result suggest that BT3.2 expression by epithelial cells may modulates the intratumoral infiltration of immune cells.
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MESH Headings
- Adult
- Aged
- Aged, 80 and over
- Antigens, CD/metabolism
- Antigens, Differentiation, Myelomonocytic/metabolism
- Blotting, Western
- Butyrophilins
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Cohort Studies
- Female
- Humans
- Immunohistochemistry/statistics & numerical data
- Kaplan-Meier Estimate
- Lectins, C-Type/metabolism
- Lymphocytes, Tumor-Infiltrating/metabolism
- Lymphocytes, Tumor-Infiltrating/pathology
- Mannose Receptor
- Mannose-Binding Lectins/metabolism
- Membrane Glycoproteins/genetics
- Membrane Glycoproteins/metabolism
- Membrane Proteins/genetics
- Membrane Proteins/metabolism
- Middle Aged
- Multivariate Analysis
- Neoplasms, Glandular and Epithelial/genetics
- Neoplasms, Glandular and Epithelial/metabolism
- Neoplasms, Glandular and Epithelial/pathology
- Ovarian Neoplasms/genetics
- Ovarian Neoplasms/metabolism
- Ovarian Neoplasms/pathology
- Prognosis
- Proportional Hazards Models
- Protein Isoforms/metabolism
- Receptors, Cell Surface/metabolism
- T-Lymphocytes/metabolism
- T-Lymphocytes/pathology
- Tissue Array Analysis/statistics & numerical data
- Transfection
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Affiliation(s)
- Cécile Le Page
- Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l’Université de Montréal (CRCHUM), Montreal, Quebec, Canada
- Institut du Cancer de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Alexandre Marineau
- Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l’Université de Montréal (CRCHUM), Montreal, Quebec, Canada
- Institut du Cancer de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Patrick K. Bonza
- Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l’Université de Montréal (CRCHUM), Montreal, Quebec, Canada
- Institut du Cancer de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Kurosh Rahimi
- Department of Pathology, Centre Hospitalier de l’Université de Montréal (CHUM), Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Louis Cyr
- Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l’Université de Montréal (CRCHUM), Montreal, Quebec, Canada
- Institut du Cancer de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Ingrid Labouba
- Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l’Université de Montréal (CRCHUM), Montreal, Quebec, Canada
- Institut du Cancer de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Jason Madore
- Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l’Université de Montréal (CRCHUM), Montreal, Quebec, Canada
- Institut du Cancer de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Nathalie Delvoye
- Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l’Université de Montréal (CRCHUM), Montreal, Quebec, Canada
- Institut du Cancer de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Anne-Marie Mes-Masson
- Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l’Université de Montréal (CRCHUM), Montreal, Quebec, Canada
- Institut du Cancer de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
- Department of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Diane M. Provencher
- Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l’Université de Montréal (CRCHUM), Montreal, Quebec, Canada
- Institut du Cancer de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
- Division of Gynecologic-Oncology, Centre Hospitalier de l’Université de Montréal (CHUM), Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Jean-François Cailhier
- Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l’Université de Montréal (CRCHUM), Montreal, Quebec, Canada
- Institut du Cancer de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
- Department of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
- Division of Nephrology, Centre Hospitalier de l’Université de Montréal (CHUM), Montreal, Quebec, Canada
- * E-mail:
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15
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Messal N, Mamessier E, Sylvain A, Celis-Gutierrez J, Thibult ML, Chetaille B, Firaguay G, Pastor S, Guillaume Y, Wang Q, Hirsch I, Nunès JA, Olive D. Differential role for CD277 as a co-regulator of the immune signal in T and NK cells. Eur J Immunol 2011; 41:3443-54. [PMID: 21918970 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201141404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2011] [Revised: 07/25/2011] [Accepted: 09/08/2011] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The human butyrophilin (BTN) 3 or CD277 molecules belong to the B7 family members and are expressed in various immune cells such as T and NK cells. Here, we show that CD277 triggering considerably enhances TCR-induced cytokine production and cell proliferation, even when another co-stimulatory molecule, CD28, is engaged. These CD277-induced additive functional effects are in accordance with the detection of early T-cell activation events such as TCR-induced cell signaling being increased upon CD277 engagement. However, we found that CD277 triggering is not involved in CD16- or NKp46-induced NK cell activation. BTN3/CD277 comprises three structurally related members, BTN3A1, BTN3A2 and BTN3A3. CD277 antibodies recognize all isoforms and we describe a differential expression of BTN3 isoforms between T and NK cells that could explain differential CD277 functions between T and NK cells. Our results show that, while T cells express all BTN3/CD277 transcripts, NK cells express mostly BTN3A2, which lacks the B30.2 intracellular domain. Furthermore, NKp30-induced cytokine production is decreased by the specific engagement of BTN3A2, but not by BTN3A1 triggering. Thus, we provide new insights into the CD277 co-stimulatory pathway that may differentially participate in the regulation of various cell-mediated immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nassima Messal
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Unité 891, Centre de Recherche en Cancérologie de Marseille, Marseille, France
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16
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Smith IA, Knezevic BR, Ammann JU, Rhodes DA, Aw D, Palmer DB, Mather IH, Trowsdale J. BTN1A1, the mammary gland butyrophilin, and BTN2A2 are both inhibitors of T cell activation. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2010; 184:3514-25. [PMID: 20208008 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0900416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Butyrophilin (BTN) genes encode a set of related proteins. Studies in mice have shown that one of these, BTN1A1, is required for milk lipid secretion in lactation, whereas butyrophilin-like 2 is a coinhibitor of T cell activation. To understand these disparate roles of BTNs, we first compared the expression and functions of mouse Btn1a1 and Btn2a2. Btn1a1 transcripts were not restricted to lactating mammary tissue but were also found in virgin mammary tissue and, interestingly, spleen and thymus. In confirmation of this, BTN1A1 protein was detected in thymic epithelial cells. By contrast, Btn2a2 transcripts and protein were broadly expressed. Cell surface BTN2A2 protein, such as the B7 family molecule programmed death ligand 1, was upregulated upon activation of T cells. We next examined the potential of both BTN1A1 and BTN2A2 to interact with T cells. Recombinant Fc fusion proteins of murine BTN2A2 and, surprisingly BTN1A1, bound to activated T cells, suggesting the presence of one or more receptors on these cells. Immobilized BTN-Fc fusion proteins, but not MOG-Fc protein, inhibited the proliferation of CD4 and CD8 T cells activated by anti-CD3. BTN1A1 and BTN2A2 also inhibited T cell metabolism, IL-2, and IFN-gamma secretion. Inhibition of proliferation was not abrogated by exogenous IL-2 but could be overcome following costimulation with high levels of anti-CD28 Ab. These data are consistent with a coinhibitory role for mouse BTNs, including BTN1A1, the BTN expressed in the lactating mammary gland and on milk lipid droplets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isobel A Smith
- Immunology Division, Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom.
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17
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Nurieva RI, Liu X, Dong C. Yin-Yang of costimulation: crucial controls of immune tolerance and function. Immunol Rev 2009; 229:88-100. [PMID: 19426216 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-065x.2009.00769.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
SUMMARY In addition to signals from the T-cell receptor complex, it has been recognized for many years that a 'second' signal, most notably from CD28, is also important in T-cell activation. In the recent years, many new members of CD28 family as well as the molecules that share structural homology to CD28 ligands CD80 and CD86 have been discovered. Interestingly, some of these proteins function to dampen T-cell activation and regulate the induction of T-cell tolerance. Therefore, positive and negative costimulation are the two sides of the coin to fine tune T-cell receptor signaling to determine the outcome of T-cell receptor engagement-tolerance versus function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roza I Nurieva
- Department of Immunology, MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
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18
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Ubiquitous SPRY domains and their role in the skeletal type ryanodine receptor. EUROPEAN BIOPHYSICS JOURNAL: EBJ 2009; 39:51-9. [DOI: 10.1007/s00249-009-0455-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2009] [Revised: 03/28/2009] [Accepted: 04/07/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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19
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Evolution of major histocompatibility complex by "en bloc" duplication before mammalian radiation. Immunogenetics 2008; 60:423-38. [PMID: 18560826 DOI: 10.1007/s00251-008-0301-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2008] [Accepted: 04/28/2008] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Duplications are an important mechanism for the emergence of genetic novelties. Reports on duplicated genes are numerous, and mechanisms for polyploidization or local gene duplication are beginning to be understood. When a local duplication is studied, searches are usually done gene-by-gene, and the size of duplicated segments is not often investigated. Therefore, we do not know if the gene in question has duplicated alone or with other genes, implying that "en bloc" duplications are poorly studied. We propose a method for identification of "en bloc" duplication using mapping, phylogenetic and statistical analyses. We show that two segments present in the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) region of human chromosome 6 have resulted from an "en bloc" duplication that took place between divergence of amniotes and methaterian/eutherian separation. These segments contain members of the same multigenic families, namely olfactory receptors genes, genes encoding proteins containing B30.2 domain, genes encoding proteins containing immunoglobulin V domain and MHC class I genes. We will discuss the fact that olfactory receptors and MHC genes have undergone positive selection, which could have helped in fixation of the surrounding genes.
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20
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Martin-Orozco N, Dong C. Inhibitory costimulation and anti-tumor immunity. Semin Cancer Biol 2007; 17:288-98. [PMID: 17683946 PMCID: PMC1995405 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2007.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2007] [Revised: 03/08/2007] [Accepted: 06/07/2007] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Costimulation was originally shown to be important in T-cell activation and effector differentiation. Recent characterization of B7/butyrophilin and members of the CD28 superfamily has revealed a large number of negative costimulatory molecules that dampen T-cell activation and regulate immune tolerance. Some of these molecules have been shown to be upregulated in the tumor microenvironment and may serve as potential targets for augmenting anti-tumor immunity. In this article, we summarize recent developments in the field of inhibitory costimulation and discuss the future direction of therapeutic manipulation of inhibitory costimulation in tumor immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Martin-Orozco
- Department of Immunology, The University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, TX, USA.
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21
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Nguyen T, Liu XK, Zhang Y, Dong C. BTNL2, a butyrophilin-like molecule that functions to inhibit T cell activation. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2006; 176:7354-60. [PMID: 16751379 PMCID: PMC1626526 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.176.12.7354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
B7 family members regulate T cell activation and tolerance. Although butyrophilin proteins share sequence homology with the B7 molecules, it is unclear whether they have any function in immune responses. In the present study, we characterize an MHC class II gene-linked butyrophilin family member, butyrophilin-like 2 (BTNL2), the mutation of which has been recently associated with the inflammatory autoimmune diseases sarcoidosis and myositis. Mouse BTNL2 is a type I transmembrane protein with two pairs of Ig-like domains separated by a heptad peptide sequence. BTNL2 mRNA is highly expressed in lymphoid tissues as well as in intestine. To characterize the function of BTNL2, we produced a BTNL2-Ig fusion protein. It recognized a putative receptor whose expression on B and T cells was significantly enhanced after activation. BTNL2-Ig inhibited T cell proliferation and TCR activation of NFAT, NF-kappaB, and AP-1 signaling pathways. BTNL2 is thus the first member of the butyrophilin family that regulates T cell activation, which has implications in immune diseases and immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thang Nguyen
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98195; and
| | - Xikui K. Liu
- Department of Immunology, M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030
| | - Yongliang Zhang
- Department of Immunology, M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030
| | - Chen Dong
- Department of Immunology, M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030
- Address correspondence and reprint requests to Dr. Chen Dong, Department of Immunology, M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, 7455 Fannin, Unit 906, Houston, TX 77030. E-mail address:
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22
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Ohta Y, Goetz W, Hossain MZ, Nonaka M, Flajnik MF. Ancestral Organization of the MHC Revealed in the Amphibian Xenopus. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2006; 176:3674-85. [PMID: 16517736 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.176.6.3674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
With the advent of the Xenopus tropicalis genome project, we analyzed scaffolds containing MHC genes. On eight scaffolds encompassing 3.65 Mbp, 122 MHC genes were found of which 110 genes were annotated. Expressed sequence tag database screening showed that most of these genes are expressed. In the extended class II and class III regions the genomic organization, excluding several block inversions, is remarkably similar to that of the human MHC. Genes in the human extended class I region are also well conserved in Xenopus, excluding the class I genes themselves. As expected from previous work on the Xenopus MHC, the single classical class I gene is tightly linked to immunoproteasome and transporter genes, defining the true class I region, present in all nonmammalian jawed vertebrates studied to date. Surprisingly, the immunoproteasome gene PSMB10 is found in the class III region rather than in the class I region, likely reflecting the ancestral condition. Xenopus DMalpha, DMbeta, and C2 genes were identified, which are not present or not clearly identifiable in the genomes of any teleosts. Of great interest are novel V-type Ig superfamily (Igsf) genes in the class III region, some of which have inhibitory motifs (ITIM) in their cytoplasmic domains. Our analysis indicates that the vertebrate MHC experienced a vigorous rearrangement in the bony fish and bird lineages, and a translocation and expansion of the class I genes in the mammalian lineage. Thus, the amphibian MHC is the most evolutionary conserved MHC so far analyzed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuko Ohta
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland, 655 West Baltimore Street, BRB13-009, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA.
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23
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Beck S, Trowsdale J. The human major histocompatability complex: lessons from the DNA sequence. Annu Rev Genomics Hum Genet 2002; 1:117-37. [PMID: 11701627 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.genom.1.1.117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The entire 3.6-MbpDNA sequence of a human major histocompatibility complex derived from a composite of DNA clones from different haplotypes, was completed in 1999, primarily through the work of four main groups. At that time, it was the longest contiguous human DNA sequence to have been determined. The sequence is of extremely high quality and accuracy. In this review, we discuss how the DNA sequence has facilitated our understanding of the biology and genetics of the major histocompatibility complex. We suggest some ways in which the sequence may be exploited in the future to explore the relationship between the extraordinary polymorphism of the region and its association with both autoimmune and infectious diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Beck
- The Sanger Centre, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB10 1SA United Kindgom.
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24
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Rhodes DA, Stammers M, Malcherek G, Beck S, Trowsdale J. The cluster of BTN genes in the extended major histocompatibility complex. Genomics 2001; 71:351-62. [PMID: 11170752 DOI: 10.1006/geno.2000.6406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
We sequenced the 170-kb cluster of BTN genes in the extended major histocompatibility complex region, 4 Mb telomeric of human leukocyte antigen class I genes, at 6p22.1. The cluster consists of seven genes belonging to the expanding B7/butyrophilin-like group, a subset of the immunoglobulin gene superfamily. The main complex is composed of six genes, from two subfamilies, BTN2 and BTN3, arranged in pairs. This alternating pattern must have evolved by duplications of an original block of two genes, one from each subfamily. The sequences from the two subfamilies share approximately 50% amino acid identity. By analysis of repeat elements within each block, these duplications may be dated to approximately 100 million years ago, at about the time of the branching of the Rodentia and Primate lineages. The single BTN1A1 (butyrophilin) gene was positioned approximately 25 kb centromeric to the cluster. Each gene covers approximately 12 kb and consists of seven (BTN2 subfamily) or nine (BTN3 subfamily) coding exons. The predicted leader sequence, immunoglobulin-like IgV (variable)/IgC (constant) ectodomains, and the predicted transmembrane domain are encoded on separate exons and are separated from a B30.2 domain by a variable number of very short exons, 21 and 27 nucleotides in length. BTN transcripts were detected in all tissues examined. Alternative splicing, involving particularly the carboxyl-terminal B30.2 domain, was a notable feature. Most transcripts of BTN2 subfamily genes contained this domain, whereas BTN3 genes did not. Using immunofluorescence, we showed surface expression of BTN-green fluorescent protein fusions in mammalian cell transfectants.
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MESH Headings
- Alternative Splicing
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Animals
- Blotting, Northern
- Blotting, Southern
- Butyrophilins
- CHO Cells
- Cell Membrane/metabolism
- Chromosome Mapping
- Chromosomes, Human, Pair 6
- Cricetinae
- DNA, Complementary/metabolism
- Exons
- Expressed Sequence Tags
- Genetic Markers
- Green Fluorescent Proteins
- Haplotypes
- HeLa Cells
- Homozygote
- Humans
- Luminescent Proteins/metabolism
- Major Histocompatibility Complex
- Membrane Glycoproteins/genetics
- Microscopy, Fluorescence
- Models, Genetic
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Multigene Family
- Polymorphism, Genetic
- Protein Structure, Tertiary
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- RNA, Spliced Leader
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/metabolism
- Repetitive Sequences, Nucleic Acid
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Sequence Homology, Amino Acid
- Transfection
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Affiliation(s)
- D A Rhodes
- Department of Immunology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge, CB2 1QP, United Kingdom.
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25
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Litzenburger T, Blüthmann H, Morales P, Pham-Dinh D, Dautigny A, Wekerle H, Iglesias A. Development of myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein autoreactive transgenic B lymphocytes: receptor editing in vivo after encounter of a self-antigen distinct from myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2000; 165:5360-6. [PMID: 11046072 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.165.9.5360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
We explored mechanisms involved in B cell self-tolerance against brain autoantigens in a double-transgenic mouse model carrying the Ig H-chain (introduced by gene replacement) and/or the L-chain kappa (conventional transgenic) of the mAb 8.18C5, specific for the myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG). Previously, we demonstrated that B cells expressing solely the MOG-specific Ig H-chain differentiate without tolerogenic censure. We show now that double-transgenic (THkappa(mog)) B cells expressing transgenic Ig H- and L-chains are subjected to receptor editing. We show that in adult mice carrying both MOG-specific Ig H- and L-chains, the frequency of MOG-binding B cells is not higher than in mice expressing solely the transgenic Ig H-chain. In fact, in THkappa(mog) double-transgenic mice, the transgenic kappa(mog) L-chain was commonly replaced by endogenous L-chains, i.e., by receptor editing. In rearrangement-deficient RAG-2(-) mice, differentiation of THkappa(mog) B cells is blocked at an immature stage (defined by the B220(low)IgM(low)IgD(-) phenotype), reflecting interaction of the autoreactive B cells with a local self-determinant. The tolerogenic structure in the bone marrow is not classical MOG, because back-crossing THkappa(mog) mice into a MOG-deficient genetic background does not lead to an increase in the proportion of MOG-binding B cells. We propose that an as yet undefined self-Ag distinct from MOG cross-reacts with the THkappa(mog) B cell receptor and induces editing of the transgenic kappa(mog) L-chain in early immature B cells without affecting the pathogenic potential of the remaining MOG-specific B cells. This phenomenon represents a particular form of chain-specific split tolerance.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Autoantigens/genetics
- Autoantigens/immunology
- Autoantigens/metabolism
- B-Lymphocytes/cytology
- B-Lymphocytes/immunology
- B-Lymphocytes/metabolism
- Cell Differentiation/genetics
- Cell Differentiation/immunology
- Cell Separation
- Crosses, Genetic
- DNA-Binding Proteins/biosynthesis
- DNA-Binding Proteins/deficiency
- DNA-Binding Proteins/genetics
- Epitopes, B-Lymphocyte/biosynthesis
- Epitopes, B-Lymphocyte/genetics
- Gene Expression Regulation/immunology
- Homeodomain Proteins/biosynthesis
- Homeodomain Proteins/genetics
- Humans
- Immunoglobulin Heavy Chains/biosynthesis
- Immunoglobulin Heavy Chains/genetics
- Immunoglobulin kappa-Chains/biosynthesis
- Immunoglobulin kappa-Chains/genetics
- Immunophenotyping
- Infant, Newborn
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Inbred CBA
- Mice, Mutant Strains
- Mice, Transgenic
- Myelin Proteins
- Myelin-Associated Glycoprotein/biosynthesis
- Myelin-Associated Glycoprotein/genetics
- Myelin-Associated Glycoprotein/immunology
- Myelin-Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein
- Nuclear Proteins
- RNA Editing/immunology
- Receptors, Antigen, B-Cell/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Antigen, B-Cell/genetics
- Self Tolerance/genetics
- Transgenes/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- T Litzenburger
- Max-Planck-Institut für Neurobiologie, Martinsried, Germany
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26
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Abstract
The characteristics and possible functions of the most abundant proteins associated with the bovine milk-fat globule membrane are reviewed. Under the auspices of the Milk Protein Nomenclature Committee of the ADSA, a revised nomenclature for the major membrane proteins is proposed and discussed in relation to earlier schemes. We recommend that proteins be assigned specific names as they are identified by molecular cloning and sequencing techniques. The practice of identifying proteins according to their Mr, electrophoretic mobility, or staining characteristics should be discontinued, except for uncharacterized proteins. The properties and amino acid sequences of the following proteins are discussed in detail: MUC1, xanthine dehydrogenase/oxidase, CD36, butyrophilin, adipophilin, periodic acid Schiff 6/7 (PAS 6/7), and fatty acid binding protein. In addition, a compilation of less abundant proteins associated with the bovine milk-fat globule membrane is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- I H Mather
- Department of Animal and Avian Sciences, University of Maryland, College Park 20742, USA.
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27
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Stephens R, Horton R, Humphray S, Rowen L, Trowsdale J, Beck S. Gene organisation, sequence variation and isochore structure at the centromeric boundary of the human MHC. J Mol Biol 1999; 291:789-99. [PMID: 10452889 DOI: 10.1006/jmbi.1999.3004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
We have mapped and sequenced the region immediately centromeric of the human major histocompatibility complex (MHC). A cluster of 13 genes/pseudogenes was identified in a 175 kb PAC linking the TAPASIN locus with the class II region. It includes two novel human genes (BING4 and SACM2L) and a thus far unnoticed human leucocyte antigen (HLA) class II pseudogene, termed HLA-DPA3. Analysis of the G+C content revealed an isochore boundary which, together with the previously reported telomeric boundary, defines the MHC class II region as one of the first completely sequenced isochores in the human genome. Comparison of the sequence with limited sequence from other cell lines shows that the high sequence variation found within the classical class II region extends beyond the identified isochore boundary leading us to propose the concept of an "extended MHC". By comparative analysis, we have precisely identified the mouse/human synteny breakpoint at the centromeric end of the extended MHC class II region between the genes HSET and PHF1.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Stephens
- Immunology, Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge, CB2 1QP, UK
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28
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Mager DL, Hunter DG, Schertzer M, Freeman JD. Endogenous retroviruses provide the primary polyadenylation signal for two new human genes (HHLA2 and HHLA3). Genomics 1999; 59:255-63. [PMID: 10444326 DOI: 10.1006/geno.1999.5877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
By screening the expressed sequence tag (EST) database, we identified transcripts of two new human genes that are polyadenylated within a long terminal repeat (LTR) of the HERV-H endogenous retrovirus family. The first gene, termed HHLA2, is represented by two EST clones and one cDNA clone, all of which have a polyadenylated LTR as their 3' end. The gene has an open reading frame (ORF) of 414 amino acids with three immunoglobulin-like domains and is expressed primarily in intestinal tissues, kidney, and lung. Seven small EST clones from several different tissues were found for the second gene, termed HHLA3. As with HHLA2, all HHLA3 ESTs utilized a HERV-H LTR as the polyadenylation signal. Three types of alternatively spliced HHLA3 transcripts that could encode proteins of 76, 121, or 153 amino acids were detected. Interestingly, the ORF for two of these transcripts continues into the LTR. For both HHLA2 and 3, no major human transcripts that utilized a non-LTR polyadenylation signal were detected. Analysis of RNA from baboon, which lacks the LTRs at these genomic loci, showed that the baboon HHLA2 and 3 genes use other polyadenylation signals. This study demonstrates that ancient retroviral insertions have assumed gene regulatory functions during the course of human evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- D L Mager
- British Columbia Cancer Agency and Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
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29
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Henry J, Miller MM, Pontarotti P. Structure and evolution of the extended B7 family. IMMUNOLOGY TODAY 1999; 20:285-8. [PMID: 10354554 DOI: 10.1016/s0167-5699(98)01418-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Here, Joëlle Henry and colleagues explore structural and evolutionary relationships between the B7 costimulator molecules and a growing number of molecules encoded within the major histocompatibility complex. They propose that B7 and MHC genes are derived from a common ancestor, with several members of this large gene family possibly having pivotal influences on T-cell activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Henry
- CNRS ER1794, Faculté de Médecine 87025 Limoges, France
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30
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Abstract
We present the genomic organisation of the extended class II region of the human MHC. This initial sequence, which is nearing completion, spans about 1.2 Mbp and is at present a composite of more than one haplotype. The sequencing of single haplotypes is planned for the future. The current sequence encompasses all of the known class II genes at the DP, DO, DM, DQ and DR loci as well as the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP)/low molecular weight protein (LMP) antigen processing genes and the Tapasin locus, at the extended centromeric end.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Beck
- Sanger Centre, Cambridge, UK.
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31
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Abstract
The human Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) shares similarities with three other chromosome regions in human. This could be the vestige of ancestral large scale duplications. We discuss here the possibility i) that these duplications occurred during two rounds of tetraploidization supposed to have taken place during chordate evolution before the jawed vertebrate radiation, and ii) that one of the quadruplicate regions, relaxed of functional constraints, gave rise to the vertebrate MHC by a quick round of gene cis-duplication and cis-exon shuffling. These different rounds of cis-duplications and exon shufflings allowed the emergence of new genes participating in novel biological functions i.e. adaptive immune responses. Cis-duplications and cis-exon shufflings are ongoing processes in the evolution of some of these genes in this region as they have occurred and were fixed at different times and in different lineages during vertebrate evolution. In contrast, other genes within the MHC have remained stable since the emergence of jawed vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Abi Rached
- Institut de Cancérologie et d'Immunologie de Marseille, INSERM U119, France
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32
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Dawkins R, Leelayuwat C, Gaudieri S, Tay G, Hui J, Cattley S, Martinez P, Kulski J. Genomics of the major histocompatibility complex: haplotypes, duplication, retroviruses and disease. Immunol Rev 1999; 167:275-304. [PMID: 10319268 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-065x.1999.tb01399.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 228] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The genomic region encompassing the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) contains polymorphic frozen blocks which have developed by local imperfect sequential duplication associated with insertion and deletion (indels). In the alpha block surrounding HLA-A, there are ten duplication units or beads on the 62.1 ancestral haplotype. Each bead contains or contained sequences representing Class I, PERB11 (MHC Class I chain related (MIC) and human endogenous retrovirus (HERV) 16. Here we consider explanations for co-occurrence of genomic polymorphism, duplication and HERVs and we ask how these features encode susceptibility to numerous and very diverse diseases. Ancestral haplotypes differ in their copy number and indels in addition to their coding regions. Disease susceptibility could be a function of all of these differences. We propose a model of the evolution of the human MHC. Population-specific integration of retroviral sequences could explain rapid diversification through duplication and differential disease susceptibility. If HERV sequences can be protective, there are exciting prospects for manipulation. In the meanwhile, it will be necessary to understand the function of MHC genes such as PERB11 (MIC) and many others discovered by genomic sequencing.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Dawkins
- Centre for Molecular Immunology and Instrumentation, University of Western Australia, Queen Elizabeth II Medical Centre, Nedlands, Australia.
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Banghart LR, Chamberlain CW, Velarde J, Korobko IV, Ogg SL, Jack LJ, Vakharia VN, Mather IH. Butyrophilin is expressed in mammary epithelial cells from a single-sized messenger RNA as a type I membrane glycoprotein. J Biol Chem 1998; 273:4171-9. [PMID: 9461613 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.273.7.4171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
We investigated the expression of butyrophilin in eukaryotic cells with a view to determining the number of mRNA species, the incorporation of the peptide chain into microsomes, and the topology of the processed protein in biological membranes. Butyrophilin is synthesized from a single sized mRNA in both bovine and murine lactating mammary tissue and associates with microsomal membranes with a type I topology (Nexo.Ccyto) via a single hydrophobic anchor in the middle of the sequence. Several isoelectric variants of the protein were detected in cellular membranes from lactating bovine mammary tissue and in the milk-fat-globule membrane. We found no evidence for soluble forms of butyrophilin in postmicrosomal supernatants. The 66-kDa protein appears to be subjected to limited proteolysis, giving rise to a 62-kDa fragment lacking the C terminus and to other more minor fragments of lower Mr in the milk-fat-globule membrane. Antipeptide antibodies to epitopes within the N- and C-terminal domains were used to show that butyrophilin retains a type I topology in plasma membranes when expressed in insect cells from a baculovirus vector, and in secreted milk-fat globules. These data do not agree with previous suggestions that butyrophilin may exist in cytoplasmic soluble forms, or be reorganized in the plane of the lipid bilayer during secretion in lipid droplets from mammary cells. The results are discussed with reference to the role butyrophilin may play as the principal scaffold for the assembly of a complex with xanthine oxidase and other proteins that functions in the budding and release of milk-fat globules from the apical surface during lactation.
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Affiliation(s)
- L R Banghart
- Department of Animal and Avian Sciences, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, USA
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