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Geris R, Malta M, Soares LA, de Souza Neta LC, Pereira NS, Soares M, Reis VDS, Pereira MDG. A Review about the Mycoremediation of Soil Impacted by War-like Activities: Challenges and Gaps. J Fungi (Basel) 2024; 10:94. [PMID: 38392767 PMCID: PMC10890077 DOI: 10.3390/jof10020094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2023] [Revised: 01/18/2024] [Accepted: 01/18/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: The frequency and intensity of war-like activities (war, military training, and shooting ranges) worldwide cause soil pollution by metals, metalloids, explosives, radionuclides, and herbicides. Despite this environmentally worrying scenario, soil decontamination in former war zones almost always involves incineration. Nevertheless, this practice is expensive, and its efficiency is suitable only for organic pollutants. Therefore, treating soils polluted by wars requires efficient and economically viable alternatives. In this sense, this manuscript reviews the status and knowledge gaps of mycoremediation. (2) Methods: The literature review consisted of searches on ScienceDirect and Web of Science for articles (1980 to 2023) on the mycoremediation of soils containing pollutants derived from war-like activities. (3) Results: This review highlighted that mycoremediation has many successful applications for removing all pollutants of war-like activities. However, the mycoremediation of soils in former war zones and those impacted by military training and shooting ranges is still very incipient, with most applications emphasizing explosives. (4) Conclusion: The mycoremediation of soils from conflict zones is an entirely open field of research, and the main challenge is to optimize experimental conditions on a field scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Regina Geris
- Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Bahia, Barão de Jeremoabo Street, s/n, Campus Ondina, 40170-115 Salvador, BA, Brazil
| | - Marcos Malta
- Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Bahia, Barão de Jeremoabo Street, s/n, Campus Ondina, 40170-115 Salvador, BA, Brazil
| | - Luar Aguiar Soares
- Department of Exact and Earth Sciences, Bahia State University, Silveira Martins Street, N. 2555, Cabula, 41150-000 Salvador, BA, Brazil
| | - Lourdes Cardoso de Souza Neta
- Department of Exact and Earth Sciences, Bahia State University, Silveira Martins Street, N. 2555, Cabula, 41150-000 Salvador, BA, Brazil
| | - Natan Silva Pereira
- Department of Exact and Earth Sciences, Bahia State University, Silveira Martins Street, N. 2555, Cabula, 41150-000 Salvador, BA, Brazil
| | - Miguel Soares
- Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Bahia, Barão de Jeremoabo Street, s/n, Campus Ondina, 40170-115 Salvador, BA, Brazil
| | - Vanessa da Silva Reis
- Department of Exact and Earth Sciences, Bahia State University, Silveira Martins Street, N. 2555, Cabula, 41150-000 Salvador, BA, Brazil
| | - Madson de Godoi Pereira
- Department of Exact and Earth Sciences, Bahia State University, Silveira Martins Street, N. 2555, Cabula, 41150-000 Salvador, BA, Brazil
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Mdlovu NV, Lin KS, Hsien MJ, Chang CJ, Kunene SC. Synthesis, characterization, and application of zero-valent iron nanoparticles for TNT, RDX, and HMX explosives decontamination in wastewater. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtice.2020.08.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Alothman ZA, Bahkali AH, Elgorban AM, Al-Otaibi MS, Ghfar AA, Gabr SA, Wabaidur SM, Habila MA, Ahmed AYBH. Bioremediation of Explosive TNT by Trichoderma viride. Molecules 2020; 25:E1393. [PMID: 32204366 PMCID: PMC7144562 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25061393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2020] [Revised: 03/11/2020] [Accepted: 03/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Nitroaromatic and nitroamine compounds such as 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) are teratogenic, cytotoxic, and may cause cellular mutations in humans, animals, plants, and microorganisms. Microbial-based bioremediation technologies have been shown to offer several advantages against the cellular toxicity of nitro-organic compounds. Thus, the current study was designed to evaluate the ability of Trichoderma viride to degrade nitrogenous explosives, such as TNT, by microbiological assay and Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis. In this study, T. viride fungus was shown to have the ability to decompose, and TNT explosives were used at doses of 50 and 100 ppm on the respective growth media as a nitrogenous source needed for normal growth. The GC/MS analysis confirmed the biodegradable efficiency of TNT, whereas the initial retention peak of the TNT compounds disappeared, and another two peaks appeared at the retention times of 9.31 and 13.14 min. Mass spectrum analysis identified 5-(hydroxymethyl)-2-furancarboxaldehyde with the molecular formula C6H6O3 and a molecular weight of 126 g·mol-1 as the major compound, and 4-propyl benzaldehyde with a formula of C10H12O and a molecular weight of 148 g mol-1 as the minor compound, both resulting from the biodegradation of TNT by T. viride. In conclusion, T. viride could be used in microbial-based bioremediation technologies as a biological agent to eradicate the toxicity of the TNT explosive. In addition, future molecular-based studies should be conducted to clearly identify the enzymes and the corresponding genes that give T. viride the ability to degrade and remediate TNT explosives. This could help in the eradication of soils contaminated with explosives or other toxic biohazards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeid A. Alothman
- Chemistry Department, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia; (A.A.G.); (S.M.W.); (M.A.H.); (A.Y.B.H.A.)
| | - Ali H. Bahkali
- Botany and Microbiology Department, College of Science, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia; (A.H.B.); (M.S.A.-O.)
| | - Abdallah M. Elgorban
- Botany and Microbiology Department, College of Science, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia; (A.H.B.); (M.S.A.-O.)
| | - Mohammed S. Al-Otaibi
- Botany and Microbiology Department, College of Science, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia; (A.H.B.); (M.S.A.-O.)
| | - Ayman A. Ghfar
- Chemistry Department, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia; (A.A.G.); (S.M.W.); (M.A.H.); (A.Y.B.H.A.)
| | - Sami A. Gabr
- College of Applied Medical Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia;
| | - Saikh M. Wabaidur
- Chemistry Department, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia; (A.A.G.); (S.M.W.); (M.A.H.); (A.Y.B.H.A.)
| | - Mohamed A. Habila
- Chemistry Department, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia; (A.A.G.); (S.M.W.); (M.A.H.); (A.Y.B.H.A.)
| | - Ahmed Yacine Badjah Hadj Ahmed
- Chemistry Department, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia; (A.A.G.); (S.M.W.); (M.A.H.); (A.Y.B.H.A.)
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Singh PC, Srivastava S, Shukla D, Bist V, Tripathi P, Anand V, Arkvanshi SK, Kaur J, Srivastava S. Mycoremediation Mechanisms for Heavy Metal Resistance/Tolerance in Plants. Fungal Biol 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-77386-5_14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
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Biotransformation of 2,4-dinitroanisole by a fungal Penicillium sp. Biodegradation 2016; 28:95-109. [PMID: 27913891 DOI: 10.1007/s10532-016-9780-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2016] [Accepted: 11/26/2016] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Insensitive munitions explosives are new formulations that are less prone to unintended detonation compared to traditional explosives. While these formulations have safety benefits, the individual constituents, such as 2,4-dinitroanisole (DNAN), have an unknown ecosystem fate with potentially toxic impacts to flora and fauna exposed to DNAN and/or its metabolites. Fungi may be useful in remediation and have been shown to degrade traditional nitroaromatic explosives, such as 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene and 2,4-dinitrotoluene, that are structurally similar to DNAN. In this study, a fungal Penicillium sp., isolated from willow trees and designated strain KH1, was shown to degrade DNAN in solution within 14 days. Stable-isotope labeled DNAN and an untargeted metabolomics approach were used to discover 13 novel transformation products. Penicillium sp. KH1 produced DNAN metabolites resulting from ortho- and para-nitroreduction, demethylation, acetylation, hydroxylation, malonylation, and sulfation. Incubations with intermediate metabolites such as 2-amino-4-nitroanisole and 4-amino-2-nitroanisole as the primary substrates confirmed putative metabolite isomerism and pathways. No ring-cleavage products were observed, consistent with other reports that mineralization of DNAN is an uncommon metabolic outcome. The production of metabolites with unknown persistence and toxicity suggests further study will be needed to implement remediation with Penicillium sp. KH1. To our knowledge, this is the first report on the biotransformation of DNAN by a fungus.
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Microbial Degradation of 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene In Vitro and in Natural Environments. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-01083-0_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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Valentín L, Oesch-Kuisma H, Steffen KT, Kähkönen MA, Hatakka A, Tuomela M. Mycoremediation of wood and soil from an old sawmill area contaminated for decades. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2013; 260:668-675. [PMID: 23832059 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2013.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2012] [Revised: 05/11/2013] [Accepted: 06/04/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
We investigated the potential of white-rot and litter-decomposing fungi for the treatment of soil and wood from a sawmill area contaminated with aged chlorinated phenols, dibenzo-p-dioxins and furans (PCDD/F). Eight screening assays with emphasis on application of non-sterile conditions were carried out in order to select the strains with capability to withstand indigenous microbes and contamination. Nine fungi were then selected for degrading pentachlorophenol (PCP), and 2,3,4,6-tetrachlorophenol (2,3,4,6-TeCP) and mineralizing radiolabelled pentachlorophenol ((14)C-PCP) in non-sterile soil or wood during 15 weeks of incubation. Soil indigenous microbes and fungal inoculated soil (fungal inoculum+indigenous microbes) achieved similar degradation of PCP and 2,3,4,6-TeCP and mineralization of (14)C-PCP. However, the mineralization rate of (14)C-PCP by indigenous microbes was much slower than that boosted by fungal inoculum. The litter-decomposing fungus (LDF) Stropharia rugosoannulata proved to be a suitable fungus for soil treatment. This fungus mineralized 26% of (14)C-PCP and degraded 43% of 2,3,4,6-TeCP and 73% of PCP. Furthermore, S. rugosoannulata attained 13% degradation of PCDD/F (expressed as WHO-Toxic Equivalent). In wood, white-rot fungi grew and degraded chlorophenols better than LDF. No efficient indigenous degraders were present in wood. Interestingly, production of toxic chlorinated organic metabolites (anisoles and veratroles) by LDF in wood was negligible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lara Valentín
- Department of Food and Environmental Sciences, PO Box 56 (Biocenter 1), 00014 University of Helsinki, Finland
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Khilyas IV, Ziganshin AM, Pannier AJ, Gerlach R. Effect of ferrihydrite on 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene biotransformation by an aerobic yeast. Biodegradation 2012; 24:631-44. [DOI: 10.1007/s10532-012-9611-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2012] [Accepted: 11/27/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Krauss GJ, Solé M, Krauss G, Schlosser D, Wesenberg D, Bärlocher F. Fungi in freshwaters: ecology, physiology and biochemical potential. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2011; 35:620-51. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6976.2011.00266.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 204] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
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Soils contaminated with explosives: Environmental fate and evaluation of state-of-the-art remediation processes (IUPAC Technical Report). PURE APPL CHEM 2011. [DOI: 10.1351/pac-rep-10-01-05] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
An explosion occurs when a large amount of energy is suddenly released. This energy may come from an over-pressurized steam boiler, from the products of a chemical reaction involving explosive materials, or from a nuclear reaction that is uncontrolled. In order for an explosion to occur, there must be a local accumulation of energy at the site of the explosion, which is suddenly released. This release of energy can be dissipated as blast waves, propulsion of debris, or by the emission of thermal and ionizing radiation. Modern explosives or energetic materials are nitrogen-containing organic compounds with the potential for self-oxidation to small gaseous molecules (N2, H2O, and CO2). Explosives are classified as primary or secondary based on their susceptibility of initiation. Primary explosives are highly susceptible to initiation and are often used to ignite secondary explosives, such as TNT (2,4,6-trinitrotoluene), RDX (1,3,5-trinitroperhydro-1,3,5-triazine), HMX (1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocane), and tetryl (N-methyl-N-2,4,6-tetranitro-aniline).
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Sheibani G, Naeimpoor F, Hejazi P. Statistical factor-screening and optimization in slurry phase bioremediation of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene contaminated soil. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2011; 188:1-9. [PMID: 21339047 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2011.01.112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2010] [Revised: 12/18/2010] [Accepted: 01/03/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Since slurry phase bioremediation is a promising treatment for recalcitrant compounds such as 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT), a statistical study was conducted for the first time to optimize TNT removal (TR) in slurry phase. Fractional factorial design method, 2(IV)(7-3), was firstly adopted and four out of the seven examined factors were screened as effective. Subsequently, central composite design and response surface methodology were employed to model and optimize TR within 15 days. A quadratic model (R(2) = 0.9415) was obtained, by which the optimal values of 6.25 g/L glucose, 4.92 g/L Tween 80, 20.23% (w/v) slurry concentration and 5.75% (v/v) inoculum size were estimated. Validation experiments at optimal factor levels resulted in 95.2% TR, showing a good agreement with model prediction of 96.1%. Additionally, the effect of aeration rate (0-4 vvm) on TR was investigated in a 1-liter bioreactor. Maximum TR of 95% was achieved at 3 vvm within 9 days, while reaching the same removal level in flasks needed 15 days. This reveals that improved oxygen supply in bioreactor significantly reduces bioremediation time in comparison with shake flasks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gelareh Sheibani
- Biotechnology Research Laboratory, School of Chemical Engineering, Iran University of Science and Technology, PO Box 16846-13114, Tehran, Iran.
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Federici E, Giubilei MA, Cajthaml T, Petruccioli M, D'Annibale A. Lentinus (Panus) tigrinus augmentation of a historically contaminated soil: matrix decontamination and structure and function of the resident bacterial community. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2011; 186:1263-1270. [PMID: 21177025 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.11.128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2010] [Revised: 11/29/2010] [Accepted: 11/30/2010] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
The ability of Lentinus tigrinus to grow and to degrade persistent aromatic hydrocarbons in aged contaminated soil was assessed in this study. L. tigrinus extensively colonized the soil; its degradation activity after 60 d incubation at 28°C, however, was mostly limited to dichloroaniline isomers, polychlorinated benzenes and diphenyl ether while the fungus was unable to deplete 9,10-anthracenedione and 7-H-benz[DE]anthracene-7-one which were the major soil contaminants. Although clean-up levels were limited, both density of cultivable heterotrophic bacteria and richness of the resident bacterial community in L. tigrinus microcosms (LtM) increased over time to a significantly larger extent than the respective amended incubation controls (1.9×10(9) CFU g(-1) vs. 1.0×10(9) CFU g(-1) and 37 vs. 16, respectively). Naphthalene- and catechol 2,3-dioxygenase gene copy numbers, however, decreased over time at a higher rate in LtM than in incubation controls likely due to a higher stimulation on heterotrophs than xenobiotics-degrading community members.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Federici
- Dipartimento di Biologia Cellulare e Ambientale, University of Perugia, Via del Giochetto 06100 Perugia, Italy
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Harms H, Schlosser D, Wick LY. Untapped potential: exploiting fungi in bioremediation of hazardous chemicals. Nat Rev Microbiol 2011; 9:177-92. [PMID: 21297669 DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro2519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 496] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Paca J, Halecky M, Hudcova T, Paca J, Stiborova M, Kozliak E. Factors influencing the aerobic biodegradation of 2,4-dinitrotoluene in continuous packed bed reactors. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND HEALTH. PART A, TOXIC/HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 2011; 46:1328-1337. [PMID: 21929468 DOI: 10.1080/10934529.2011.606422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Factors affecting continuous 2,4-DNT degradation by an immobilized mixed microbial culture were investigated including the cell adaptation to this toxic substrate, 4-NT co-degradation, packing material porosity and substrate mass loading. Experiments were carried out in two packed bed reactors, with poraver (porous glass) and expanded slate as packing materials, using a concurrent water-air flow with ample oxygen. Running the system as a batch reactor with re-circulated medium showed that the immobilized cells adapted to higher 2,4-DNT concentrations yielding higher substrate biodegradation rates. The 2,4-DNT removal rate further increased, up to 180-265 mg L(-1)d(-1), when the immobilized biomass cultivation was switched to a continuous mode. The type of the packing material influenced the 2,4-DNT removal rate, apparently due to the difference in biofilm development. Significant changes in the biofilm composition were observed compared to the original inoculum despite poor biofilm growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Paca
- Institute of Chemical Technology, Department of Fermentation Chemistry and Bioengineering, Prague, Czech Republic.
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Nyanhongo GS, Schroeder M, Steiner W, Gübitz GM. Biodegradation of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT): An enzymatic perspective. BIOCATAL BIOTRANSFOR 2009. [DOI: 10.1080/10242420500090169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Fallahi S, Habibi-Rezaei M, Khayami M, Heydari R. Soil decontamination of 2,4,6- trinitrotoluene by alfalfa (Medicago sativa). Pak J Biol Sci 2009; 10:4406-12. [PMID: 19093503 DOI: 10.3923/pjbs.2007.4406.4412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Present study investigate the toxicity effect of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) on a terrestrial plant, alfalfa (Medicago sativa) in artificial soils. In this study, TNT toxicity assessment was performed on spiked silica with this nitroaromatic compound by determination of the percent of emergence and shoots and roots biomasses at the concentration range of 3.2-10000 mg kg(-1) Dry Weight (DW). The emergence was reduced by 22-32% after 5 days of exposure at TNT concentrations up to 100 mg kg(-1) DW; shoot and root biomasses were reduced by 48-50 and 63-74%, respectively after 30 days exposure at TNT concentrations < or = 32 mg kg(-1) DW. Concentrations higher than 100 mg kg(-1) DW can not be tolerated at all. Concentrations of TNT and its metabolites in silica, root and shoot were measured by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). Analyses of TNT spiked soil extracts reveal hat during alfalfa cultivation for 30 days, TNT was partially transformed at the extent of 15-27%. This transformation decreased at higher TNT soil concentrations. TNT is taken up and metabolized by plants to its downstream derivatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Fallahi
- Department of Biology, University of Urmia, Urmia, Iran
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Kulkarni M, Chaudhari A. Microbial remediation of nitro-aromatic compounds: an overview. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2007; 85:496-512. [PMID: 17703873 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2007.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2005] [Revised: 06/18/2007] [Accepted: 06/22/2007] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Nitro-aromatic compounds are produced by incomplete combustion of fossil fuel or nitration reactions and are used as chemical feedstock for synthesis of explosives, pesticides, herbicides, dyes, pharmaceuticals, etc. The indiscriminate use of nitro-aromatics in the past due to wide applications has resulted in inexorable environmental pollution. Hence, nitro-aromatics are recognized as recalcitrant and given Hazardous Rating-3. Although several conventional pump and treat clean up methods are currently in use for the removal of nitro-aromatics, none has proved to be sustainable. Recently, remediation by biological systems has attracted worldwide attention to decontaminate nitro-aromatics polluted sources. The incredible versatility inherited in microbes has rendered these compounds as a part of the biogeochemical cycle. Several microbes catalyze mineralization and/or non-specific transformation of nitro-aromatics either by aerobic or anaerobic processes. Aerobic degradation of nitro-aromatics applies mainly to mono-, dinitro-derivatives and to some extent to poly-nitro-aromatics through oxygenation by: (i) monooxygenase, (ii) dioxygenase catalyzed reactions, (iii) Meisenheimer complex formation, and (iv) partial reduction of aromatic ring. Under anaerobic conditions, nitro-aromatics are reduced to amino-aromatics to facilitate complete mineralization. The nitro-aromatic explosives from contaminated sediments are effectively degraded at field scale using in situ bioremediation strategies, while ex situ techniques using whole cell/enzyme(s) immobilized on a suitable matrix/support are gaining acceptance for decontamination of nitrophenolic pesticides from soils at high chemical loading rates. Presently, the qualitative and quantitative performance of biological approaches of remediation is undergoing improvement due to: (i) knowledge of catabolic pathways of degradation, (ii) optimization of various parameters for accelerated degradation, and (iii) design of microbe(s) through molecular biology tools, capable of detoxifying nitro-aromatic pollutants. Among them, degradative plasmids have provided a major handle in construction of recombinant strains. Although recombinants designed for high performance seem to provide a ray of hope, their true assessment under field conditions is required to address ecological considerations for sustainable bioremediation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meenal Kulkarni
- School of Life Sciences, North Maharashtra University, P.B. No. 80, Jalgaon 425 001, Maharashtra, India
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Juhasz AL, Naidu R. Explosives: fate, dynamics, and ecological impact in terrestrial and marine environments. REVIEWS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2007; 191:163-215. [PMID: 17708075 DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-69163-3_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
An explosive or energetic compound is a chemical material that, under the influence of thermal or chemical shock, decomposes rapidly with the evolution of large amounts of heat and gas. Numerous compounds and compositions may be classified as energetic compounds; however, secondary explosives, such as TNT, RDX, and HMX pose the largest potential concern to the environment because they are produced and used in defense in the greatest quantities. The environmental fate and potential hazard of energetic compounds in the environment is affected by a number of physical, chemical, and biological processes. Energetic compounds may undergo transformation through biotic or abiotic degradation. Numerous organisms have been isolated with the ability to degrade/transform energetic compounds as a sole carbon source, sole nitrogen source, or through cometabolic processes under aerobic or anaerobic conditions. Abiotic processes that lead to the transformation of energetic compounds include photolysis, hydrolysis, and reduction. The products of these reactions may be further transformed by microorganisms or may bind to soil/sediment surfaces through covalent binding or polymerization and oligomerization reactions. Although considerable research has been performed on the fate and dynamics of energetic compounds in the environment, data are still gathering on the impact of TNT, RDX, and HMX on ecological receptors. There is an urgent need to address this issue and to direct future research on expanding our knowledge on the ecological impact of energetic transformation products. In addition, it is important that energetic research considers the concept of bioavailability, including factors influencing soil/sediment aging, desorption of energetic compounds from varying soil and sediment types, methods for modeling/predicting energetic bioavailability, development of biomarkers of energetic exposure or effect, and the impact of bioavailability on ecological risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albert L Juhasz
- Centre for Environmental Risk Assessment and Remediation, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes Campus, Adelaide, Australia, 5095
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Kröger M, Fels G. Combined biological–chemical procedure for the mineralization of TNT. Biodegradation 2006; 18:413-25. [PMID: 17091348 DOI: 10.1007/s10532-006-9076-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2006] [Accepted: 08/04/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Contamination of ground and surface water with 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) and its biological and chemical transformation products are a persisting problem at former TNT production sites. We have investigated the photochemical degradation of TNT and its aminodinitro-(ADNT) and diaminonitrotoluene (DANT) metabolites using OH-radical generating systems like Fenton and hydrogen peroxide irradiated with UV, in order to compare the degradation and mineralization rate of ADNT- and DANT-isomers with TNT itself. As a result, we find that the aminoderivatives were mineralized much faster than TNT. Consequently, as ADNTs and DANTs are the known dead-end products of biological TNT degradations, we have combined our photochemical procedure with a preceding biological treatment of TNT by a mixed culture from sludge of a sewage plant. This consecutive degradation procedure, however, shows a reduced mineralization rate of the ADNTa and DANTs in the biologically derived supernatant as compared to the pure substances, suggesting that during the biological TNT treatment by sludge competing substrates are released into the solution, and that a more defined biological procedure would be necessary in order to achieve an effective, ecologically and economically acceptable mineralization of TNT from aqueous systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Kröger
- Freudenberg Forschungsdienste KG, Elastomere, D-69465 Weinheim, Germany
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Enzymatic immobilization of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) biodegradation products onto model humic substances. Enzyme Microb Technol 2006. [DOI: 10.1016/j.enzmictec.2006.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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22
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Hoehamer CF, Wolfe NL, Eriksson KEL. Biotransformation of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) by the fungus Fusarium oxysporum. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOREMEDIATION 2006; 8:95-105. [PMID: 16924959 DOI: 10.1080/15226510600678423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
The fungus Fusarium oxysporum was isolated and identified from the aquatic plant M. aquaticum. The capability of this fungus to transform 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) in liquid cultures was investigated TNT was added to shake flask cultures and transformed into 2-amino-4,6-dinitrotoluene (2-A-DNT), 4-amino-2,6-dinitrotoluene (4-A-DNT), and 2,4-diamino-6-nitrotoluene (2,4-DAT) via 2- and 4-hydroxylamino-dinitrotoluene derivatives, which could be detected as intermediate metabolites. Transformation of TNT, 2-A-DNT, and 4-A-DNT was observed by whole cultures and with isolated mycelium. Cell-free protein extracts from the extracellular, soluble, and membrane-bound fractions were prepared from this fungus and tested for TNT-reducing activity. The concentrated extracellular culture medium was unable to transform TNT; however, low levels of TNT transformation were observed by the membrane fraction in the presence of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate in an argon atmosphere. A concentrated extract of soluble enzymes also transformed TNT, but to a lesser extent. When TNT toxicity was studied with this fungus, a 50% decrease in the growth of F. oxysporum mycelium was observed when exposed to 20 mg/L TNT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher F Hoehamer
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Center for Biological Resource Recovery, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA.
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Hoehamer CF, Wolfe NL, Eriksson KEL. Differences in the biotransformation of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) between wild and axenically grown isolates of Myriophyllum aquaticum. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOREMEDIATION 2006; 8:107-15. [PMID: 16924960 DOI: 10.1080/15226510600678431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to demonstrate the potential for aquatic plants and their associated microbes to bioremediate wetland sites contaminated with 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT). The transformation of TNT was studied using both wild and axenically grown isolates of Myriophyllum aquaticum (parrot feather). Differences in TNT transformation rates and nitroaromatic metabolites were observed between different plants. The wild isolates, containing a consortium of associated microorganisms, transformed TNT into 2-amino-4,6-dinitrotoluene (2-A-DNT) and 4-amino-2,6-dinitrotoluene (4-A-DNT) via 2- and 4-hydroxylamino-dinitrotoluene, which were detected as intermediates. The wild M. aquaticum also converted the metabolites, 2-A-DNT and 4-A-DNT, into low levels of 2,4-diaminotoluene (2,4-DAT). The axenically grown plants, containing no cultureable microorganisms, also transformed TNT into 2-A-DNT and 4-A-DNT, but at a much lower rate than that observed for the wild isolates. Unlike the wild plants, axenically grown M. aquaticum could not transform either 2-A-DNT or 4-A-DNT into 2,4-DAT over the incubation period. The differences in the performance between these plants could indicate that plant-associated microorganisms assisted in the overall transformation of TNT. For each plant, unidentifiable metabolites were observed and the soluble monoamino-derivatives present in the wild and axenic medium accounted for 14 and 7% of the initial TNT concentration, respectively. Thus, the majority of nitroaromatic derivatives remained associated with the plant tissues. Furthermore, only 7 and 3% of the initial TNT concentration were extracted as monoamino-derivatives from the tissues of the wild and axenically grown plants, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher F Hoehamer
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Center for Biological Resource Recovery, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA.
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Liers C, Ullrich R, Steffen KT, Hatakka A, Hofrichter M. Mineralization of 14C-labelled synthetic lignin and extracellular enzyme activities of the wood-colonizing ascomycetes Xylaria hypoxylon and Xylaria polymorpha. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2005; 69:573-9. [PMID: 16021487 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-005-0010-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2005] [Revised: 04/21/2005] [Accepted: 04/23/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Two wood-dwelling ascomycetes, Xylaria hypoxylon and Xylaria polymorpha, were isolated from rotting beech wood. Lignin degradation was studied following the mineralization of a synthetic [formula: see text]-labelled lignin in solid and liquid media. Approximately 9% of the synthetic lignin was mineralized by X. polymorpha during the growth on beech wood meal, and the major fraction (65.5%) was polymerized into water- and dioxan-insoluble material. Both fungi produced laccase (up to 1,200 U l-1) in an agitated complex medium based on tomato juice; peroxidase activity (<80 U l-1) was only detected for X. polymorpha in soybean meal suspension. The enzymatic attack of X. polymorpha on beech wood resulted in the formation of three fractions of water-soluble lignocellulose fragments with molecular masses of 200, 30 (major fraction) and 3 kDa, as demonstrated by high-performance size exclusion chromatography. This fragment pattern differs considerably from that of the white-rot fungus Bjerkandera adusta, which preferentially released smaller lignocellulose fragments (0.8 kDa). The finding that X. polymorpha produced large lignocellulose fragments, along with the fact that high levels of hydrolytic enzymes (esterase 630 U l-1, xylanase 120 U l-1) were detected, indicates the cleavage of bonds between the lignin and hemicellulose moieties.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Liers
- Internationales Hochschulinstitut Zittau, Umweltbiotechnologie, Markt 23, 02763, Zittau, Germany.
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Yan PS, Jiang JH. Preliminary research of the RAPD molecular marker-assisted breeding of the edible basidiomycete Stropharia rugoso-annulata. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2005. [DOI: 10.1007/s11274-004-3271-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Lewis TA, Newcombe DA, Crawford RL. Bioremediation of soils contaminated with explosives. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2004; 70:291-307. [PMID: 15016438 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2003.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2002] [Revised: 12/09/2003] [Accepted: 12/09/2003] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The large-scale industrial production and processing of munitions such as 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) over the past 100 years led to the disposal of wastes containing explosives and nitrated organic by-products into the environment. In the US, the Army alone has estimated that over 1.2 million tons of soil have been contaminated with explosives, and the impact of explosives contamination in other countries is of similar magnitude. In recent years, growing concern about the health and ecological threats posed by man-made chemicals have led to studies of the toxicology of explosives, which have identified toxic and mutagenic effects of the common military explosives and their transformation products (Bruns-Nagel et al., 1999a; Fuchs et al., 2001; Homma-Takeda et al., 2002; Honeycutt et al., 1996; Rosenblatt et al., 1991; Spanggord et al., 1982; Tan et al., 1992 and Won et al., 1976). Because the cleanup of areas contaminated by explosives is now mandated because of public health concerns, considerable effort has been invested in finding economical remediation technologies. Biological treatment processes are often considered, since these are usually the least expensive means of destroying organic pollution. This review examines the most important groups of chemicals that must be treated at sites contaminated by explosives processing, the chemical and biological transformations they undergo, and commercial processes developed to exploit these transformations for treatment of contaminated soil. We critically examine about 150 papers on the topic, including approximately 60 published within the past 5 years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas A Lewis
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405, USA
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Kluczek-Turpeinen B, Tuomela M, Hatakka A, Hofrichter M. Lignin degradation in a compost environment by the deuteromycete Paecilomyces inflatus. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2003; 61:374-9. [PMID: 12743768 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-003-1272-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2002] [Revised: 01/24/2003] [Accepted: 01/31/2003] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Two strains of the deuteromycete Paecilomyces inflatus were isolated from compost samples consisting of municipal wastes, paper and wood chips. Lignin degradation by P. inflatus was studied following the mineralization of a synthetic (14)C(beta)-labeled lignin (side-chain labeled dehydrogenation polymer, DHP). Approximately 6.5% of the synthetic lignin was mineralized during solid-state cultivation of the fungus in autoclaved compost; and 15.5% was converted into water-soluble fragments. Laccase was the only ligninolytic enzyme detectable when the isolates were grown in autoclaved compost. Production of the enzyme was growth-associated and dependent on the culture conditions. The optimal pH for laccase production was between 4.5 and 5.5 and the optimal temperature was around 30 degrees C. Activity levels of laccase increased in the presence of low-molecular-mass aromatic compounds, such as veratryl alcohol, veratric acid, vanillin and vanillic acid.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Kluczek-Turpeinen
- Department of Applied Chemistry and Microbiology, Biocenter 1, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 9, P.O. Box 56, Finland
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Soil-borne Penicillium spp. and other microfungi as efficient degraders of the explosive RDX (hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine). Mycol Prog 2003. [DOI: 10.1007/s11557-006-0047-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Kim HY, Song HG. Transformation and mineralization of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene by the white rot fungus Irpex lacteus. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2003; 61:150-6. [PMID: 12655457 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-002-1211-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2002] [Revised: 11/20/2002] [Accepted: 11/29/2002] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Unlike other 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT)-degrading white rot fungi, including Phanerochaete chrysoporium, initial metabolism of TNT by Irpex lacteus was found to occur through two different transformation pathways. Metabolites of the nitro group reduction pathway were confirmed with the standard compounds, and the formation of hydride-Meisenheimer complex of TNT (H(-)-TNT) formed in the denitration pathway was identified with LC/MS and by LC/photodiode array (PDA) detection. The molecular weight of the H(-)-TNT complex was identified as 228 m/z, and the UV-visible absorption spectrum, recorded with a PDA detector, proved the identity of this metabolite (RT, 18.7 min; lambda(max) 254, 474, 557 nm) by comparison with the authentic synthetic H(-)-TNT (RT 18.7 min; lambda(max) 261, 474, 563 nm). Mineralization of [U-(14)C]TNT by I. lacteus was also measured in static and shaken cultures. The mineralization rate of TNT in the static culture was higher than that in the shaken culture, and addition of Tween 80 (final concentration 1%) enhanced the mineralization of TNT in the static culture, resulting in 30.57% of CO(2) evolution from the radiolabeled TNT added. The high TNT mineralization capability of I. lacteus seemed to be the result of simultaneous utilization of the denitration pathway, which is more favorable for the ring cleavage and mineralization of TNT, together with the nitro group reduction pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- H-Y Kim
- Division of Biological Sciences, Kangwon National University, Hyoja-dong 192-1, 200-701 Chuncheon, South Korea
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30
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Frische T, Höper H. Soil microbial parameters and luminescent bacteria assays as indicators for in situ bioremediation of TNT-contaminated soils. CHEMOSPHERE 2003; 50:415-427. [PMID: 12656263 DOI: 10.1016/s0045-6535(02)00603-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
In situ bioremediation is increasingly being discussed as a useful strategy for cleaning up contaminated soils. Compared to established ex situ procedures, meaningful and reliable approaches for monitoring the remediation processes and their efficiency are of special importance. The subject of this study was the significance of two bioassays for monitoring purposes. The work was performed within the scope of a research project on the in situ bioremediation of topsoil contaminated with 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT). To evaluate changes within different experimental fields during a 17-month remediation period, the results of soil microbial assays and luminescent bacteria assays were compared with chemical monitoring data. The luminescent bacteria assays showed a significant reduction of the water-soluble soil toxicants in the treated fields. This bioassay proved to be a sensitive screening indicator of toxicity and may effectively aid the ecotoxicological interpretation of chemical monitoring data. Microbial biomass (C(mic)), the metabolic quotient (qCO2), and the ratio of microbial to organic carbon (C(mic)/C(org)) showed a highly significant correlation with total concentrations of TNT in the soil. But, in contrast to luminescent bacteria assays, this approach did not reveal any recovery of the soil at the end of the remediation period. There is clear evidence for persistent adverse effects of chronic TNT contamination on the site-specific microbial community and the local carbon cycle in the soil. The study clearly exhibits the differences between, as well as the complementary value of both bioassay approaches for monitoring short-term and long-term effects of soil contamination and the efficiency of remediation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Frische
- Centre for Environmental Research and Technology (UFT), University of Bremen, Leobener Strasse, 28359 Bremen, Germany.
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Frische T. Ecotoxicological evaluation of in situ bioremediation of soils contaminated by the explosive 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT). ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2003; 121:103-113. [PMID: 12475067 DOI: 10.1016/s0269-7491(02)00196-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
To evaluate the environmental relevance of in situ bioremediation of contaminated soils, effective and reliable monitoring approaches are of special importance. The presented study was conducted as part of a research project investigating in situ bioremediation of topsoils contaminated by the explosive 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT). Changes in soil toxicity within different experimental fields at a former ordnance factory were evaluated using a battery of five bioassays (plant growth, Collembola reproduction, soil respiration, luminescent bacteria acute toxicity and mutagenicity test) in combination to chemical contaminant analysis. Resulting data reveal clear differences in sensitivities between methods with the luminescent bacteria assay performed with soil leachates as most sensitive toxicity indicator. Complete test battery results are presented in so-called soil toxicity profiles to visualise and facilitate the interpretation of data. Both biological and chemical monitoring results indicate a reduction of soil toxicity within 17 months of remediation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Frische
- Centre for Environmental Research and Technology (UFT), University of Bremen, Germany.
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Dittmann J, Heyser W, Bücking H. Biodegradation of aromatic compounds by white rot and ectomycorrhizal fungal species and the accumulation of chlorinated benzoic acid in ectomycorrhizal pine seedlings. CHEMOSPHERE 2002; 49:297-306. [PMID: 12363308 DOI: 10.1016/s0045-6535(02)00323-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The capability of different white rot (WR, Heterobasidion annosum, Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Trametes versicolor) and ectomycorrhizal (ECM, Paxillus involutus, Suillus bovinus) fungal species to degrade different aromatic compounds and the absorption of 3-chlorobenzoic acid (3-CBA) by ECM pine seedlings was examined. The effect of aromatic compounds on the fungal biomass development varied considerably and depended on (a) the compound, (b) the external concentration, and (c) the fungal species. The highest effect on the fungal biomass development was observed for 3-CBA. Generally the tolerance of WR fungi against aromatic compounds was higher than that of the biotrophic fungal species. The capability of different fungi to degrade aromatic substances varied between the species but not generally between biotrophic and saprotrophic fungi. The highest degradation capability for aromatic compounds was detected for T. versicolor and H. annosum, whereas for Phanerochaete chrysosporium and the ECM fungi lower degradation rates were found. However, Paxillus involutus and S. bovinus showed comparable degradation rates at low concentrations of benzoic acid and 4-hydroxybenzoic acid. In contrast to liquid cultures, where no biodegradation of 3-CBA by S. bovinus was observed, mycorrhizal pines inoculated with S. bovinus showed a low capability to remove 3-CBA from soil substrates. Additional X-ray microanalytical investigations showed, that 3-CBA supplied to mycorrhizal plants was accumulated in the root cell cytoplasm and is translocated across the endodermis to the shoot of mycorrhizal pine seedlings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jens Dittmann
- Center for Environmental Research and Technology (UFT), University of Bremen, Germany
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Schlosser D, Höfer C. Laccase-catalyzed oxidation of Mn(2+) in the presence of natural Mn(3+) chelators as a novel source of extracellular H(2)O(2) production and its impact on manganese peroxidase. Appl Environ Microbiol 2002; 68:3514-21. [PMID: 12089036 PMCID: PMC126759 DOI: 10.1128/aem.68.7.3514-3521.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A purified and electrophoretically homogeneous blue laccase from the litter-decaying basidiomycete Stropharia rugosoannulata with a molecular mass of approximately 66 kDa oxidized Mn(2+) to Mn(3+), as assessed in the presence of the Mn chelators oxalate, malonate, and pyrophosphate. At rate-saturating concentrations (100 mM) of these chelators and at pH 5.0, Mn(3+) complexes were produced at 0.15, 0.05, and 0.10 micromol/min/mg of protein, respectively. Concomitantly, application of oxalate and malonate, but not pyrophosphate, led to H(2)O(2) formation and tetranitromethane (TNM) reduction indicative for the presence of superoxide anion radical. Employing oxalate, H(2)O(2) production, and TNM reduction significantly exceeded those found for malonate. Evidence is provided that, in the presence of oxalate or malonate, laccase reactions involve enzyme-catalyzed Mn(2+) oxidation and abiotic decomposition of these organic chelators by the resulting Mn(3+), which leads to formation of superoxide and its subsequent reduction to H(2)O(2). A partially purified manganese peroxidase (MnP) from the same organism did not produce Mn(3+) complexes in assays containing 1 mM Mn(2+) and 100 mM oxalate or malonate, but omitting an additional H(2)O(2) source. However, addition of laccase initiated MnP reactions. The results are in support of a physiological role of laccase-catalyzed Mn(2+) oxidation in providing H(2)O(2) for extracellular oxidation reactions and demonstrate a novel type of laccase-MnP cooperation relevant to biodegradation of lignin and xenobiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dietmar Schlosser
- Microbiology of Subterrestrial Aquatic Systems Group, UFZ Centre for Environmental Research Leipzig-Halle, Theodor-Lieser-Strasse 4, D-06120 Halle, Germany.
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Rosser SJ, Basran A, Travis ER, French CE, Bruce NC. Microbial transformations of explosives. ADVANCES IN APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY 2002; 49:1-35. [PMID: 11757347 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2164(01)49008-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- S J Rosser
- Institute of Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge, CB2 1QT, United Kingdom
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35
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Van Aken B, Agathos SN. Biodegradation of nitro-substituted explosives by white-rot fungi: a mechanistic approach. ADVANCES IN APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY 2002; 48:1-77. [PMID: 11677677 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2164(01)48000-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- B Van Aken
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, USA
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36
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Production of small molecular weight catalysts and the mechanism of trinitrotoluene degradation by several Gloeophyllum species. Enzyme Microb Technol 2002. [DOI: 10.1016/s0141-0229(02)00014-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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37
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Steffen KT, Hofrichter M, Hatakka A. Purification and characterization of manganese peroxidases from the litter-decomposing basidiomycetes Agrocybe praecox and Stropharia coronilla. Enzyme Microb Technol 2002. [DOI: 10.1016/s0141-0229(01)00525-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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38
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2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT) tolerance and biotransformation potential of microfungi isolated from TNT-contaminated soil. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2002. [DOI: 10.1017/s0953756202005609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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39
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Affiliation(s)
- C E French
- Institute of Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Edinburgh, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JR, UK.
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Snellinx Z, Nepovím A, Taghavi S, Vangronsveld J, Vanek T, van der Lelie D. Biological remediation of explosives and related nitroaromatic compounds. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2002; 9:48-61. [PMID: 11885418 DOI: 10.1007/bf02987316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Nitroaromatics form an important group of recalcitrant xenobiotics. Only few aromatic compounds, bearing one nitro group as a substituent of the aromatic ring, are produced as secondary metabolites by microorganisms. The majority of nitroaromatic compounds in the biosphere are industrial chemicals such as explosives, dyes, polyurethane foams, herbicides, insecticides and solvents. These compounds are generally recalcitrant to biological treatment and remain in the biosphere, where they constitute a source of pollution due to both toxic and mutagenic effects on humans, fish, algae and microorganisms. However, relatively few microorganisms have been described as being able to use nitroaromatic compounds as nitrogen and/or carbon and energy source. The best-known nitroaromatic compound is the explosive TNT (2,4,6-trinitrotoluene). This article reviews the bioremediation strategies for TNT-contaminated soil and water. It comes to the following conclusion: The optimal remediation strategy for nitroaromatic compounds depends on many site-specific factors. Composting and the use of reactor systems lend themselves to treating soils contaminated with high levels of explosives (e.g. at former ammunition production facilities, where areas with a high contamination level are common). Compared to composting systems, bioreactors have the major advantage of a short treatment time, but the disadvantage of being more labour intensive and more expensive. Studies indicate that biological treatment systems, which are based on the activity of the fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium or on Pseudomonas sp. ST53, might be used as effective methods for the remediation of highly contaminated soil and water. Phytoremediation, although not widely used now, has the potential to become an important strategy for the remediation of soil and water contaminated with explosives. It is best suited where contaminant levels are low (e.g. at military sites where pollution is rather diffuse) and where larger contaminated surfaces or volumes have to be treated. In addition, phytoremediation can be used as a polishing method after other remediation treatments, such as composting or bioslurry, have taken place. This in-situ treatment method has the advantage of lower treatment costs, but has the disadvantage of a considerable longer treatment time. In order to improve the cost-efficiency, phytoremediation of nitroaromatics (and other organic xenobiotics) could be combined with bio-energy production. This requires, however, detailed knowledge on the fate of the contaminants in the plants as well as the development of efficient treatment methods for the contaminated biomass that minimise the spreading of the contaminants into the environment during post harvest treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zita Snellinx
- Flemish Institute for Technological Research (Vito), Boeretang 200, 2400 Mol, Belgium
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Esteve-Núñez A, Caballero A, Ramos JL. Biological degradation of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2001; 65:335-52, table of contents. [PMID: 11527999 PMCID: PMC99030 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.65.3.335-352.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 322] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Nitroaromatic compounds are xenobiotics that have found multiple applications in the synthesis of foams, pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and explosives. These compounds are toxic and recalcitrant and are degraded relatively slowly in the environment by microorganisms. 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT) is the most widely used nitroaromatic compound. Certain strains of Pseudomonas and fungi can use TNT as a nitrogen source through the removal of nitrogen as nitrite from TNT under aerobic conditions and the further reduction of the released nitrite to ammonium, which is incorporated into carbon skeletons. Phanerochaete chrysosporium and other fungi mineralize TNT under ligninolytic conditions by converting it into reduced TNT intermediates, which are excreted to the external milieu, where they are substrates for ligninolytic enzymes. Most if not all aerobic microorganisms reduce TNT to the corresponding amino derivatives via the formation of nitroso and hydroxylamine intermediates. Condensation of the latter compounds yields highly recalcitrant azoxytetranitrotoluenes. Anaerobic microorganisms can also degrade TNT through different pathways. One pathway, found in Desulfovibrio and Clostridium, involves reduction of TNT to triaminotoluene; subsequent steps are still not known. Some Clostridium species may reduce TNT to hydroxylaminodinitrotoluenes, which are then further metabolized. Another pathway has been described in Pseudomonas sp. strain JLR11 and involves nitrite release and further reduction to ammonium, with almost 85% of the N-TNT incorporated as organic N in the cells. It was recently reported that in this strain TNT can serve as a final electron acceptor in respiratory chains and that the reduction of TNT is coupled to ATP synthesis. In this review we also discuss a number of biotechnological applications of bacteria and fungi, including slurry reactors, composting, and land farming, to remove TNT from polluted soils. These treatments have been designed to achieve mineralization or reduction of TNT and immobilization of its amino derivatives on humic material. These approaches are highly efficient in removing TNT, and increasing amounts of research into the potential usefulness of phytoremediation, rhizophytoremediation, and transgenic plants with bacterial genes for TNT removal are being done.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Esteve-Núñez
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Cellular Biology of Plants, Estación Experimental del Zaidín, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, Apdo Correos 419, E-18008 Granada, Spain
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42
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Rho D, Hodgson J, Thiboutot S, Ampleman G, Hawari J. Transformation of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) by immobilized Phanerochaete chrysosporium under fed-batch and continuous TNT feeding conditions. Biotechnol Bioeng 2001; 73:271-81. [PMID: 11283910 DOI: 10.1002/bit.1060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The cometabolic transformation of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) by an immobilized Phanerochaete chrysosporium culture was investigated under different TNT and/or glycerol feeding conditions in a 5-L reactor. In the fed-batch feeding mode, as a result of four spiking events at an average feeding rate of 20 mg TNT L(-1) d(-1) and 250 mg glycerol L(-1) d(-1), the initial TNT transformation rate and the glycerol uptake rate of the 7-day-old immobilized cell culture were 2.41 mg L(-1) h(-1) and 16.6 mg L(-1) h(-1), respectively. Thereafter, the TNT fed into the reactor depicted a negative effect on the cell physiology of P. chrysosporium, i.e., both rates decreased constantly. At 32 mg TNT L(-1) d(-1) feeding rate, also in the presence of glycerol (200 mg L(-1) d(-1)), this effect on the fungal cell metabolism was even more significant. When TNT was fed alone at 3.7 mg L(-1) d(-1), it showed an initial 0.75 mg L(-1) h(-1) rate of TNT transformation, i.e., one-third the initial level observed in the presence of glycerol. In contrast, in the continuous feeding mode (dilution rate, D = 0.11 d(-1)), at 5.5 mg TNT L(-1) d(-1) and 220 mg glycerol L(-1) d(-1), the immobilized cell culture exhibited a constant TNT transformation rate for cultivation periods of 50 and 61 days, under uncontrolled and controlled pH conditions, respectively. Thereafter, during the latter experiment, 100% TNT biotransformation was achieved at 1,100 mg L(-1) d(-1) glycerol feeding rate. Immobilized cells (115-day-old), sampled from a continuous TNT feeding experiment, mineralized [(14)C]-TNT to a level of 15.3% following a 41-day incubation period in a microcosm.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Rho
- Biotechnology Research Institute, National Research Council (NRC) Canada, 6100 Royalmount Avenue, Montréal, QC, H4P 2R2, Canada.
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43
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Warrelmann J, Kochler H, Frische T, Dobner I, Walter U, Heyser W. Erprobung und Erfolgskontrolle eines Phytoremediationsverfahrens zur Sanierung Sprengstoff-kontaminierter Böden. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2000. [DOI: 10.1065/uwsf2000.11.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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44
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Esteve-Nuñez A, Lucchesi G, Philipp B, Schink B, Ramos JL. Respiration of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene by Pseudomonas sp. strain JLR11. J Bacteriol 2000; 182:1352-5. [PMID: 10671458 PMCID: PMC94423 DOI: 10.1128/jb.182.5.1352-1355.2000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/1999] [Accepted: 12/07/1999] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Under anoxic conditions Pseudomonas sp. strain JLR11 can use 2,4, 6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) as the sole N source, releasing nitrite from the aromatic ring and subsequently reducing it to ammonium and incorporating it into C skeletons. This study shows that TNT can also be used as a terminal electron acceptor in respiratory chains under anoxic conditions by Pseudomonas sp. strain JLR11. TNT-dependent proton translocation coupled to the reduction of TNT to aminonitrotoluenes has been observed in TNT-grown cells. This extrusion did not occur in nitrate-grown cells or in anaerobic TNT-grown cells treated with cyanide, a respiratory chain inhibitor. We have shown that in a membrane fraction prepared from Pseudomonas sp. strain JLR11 grown on TNT under anaerobic conditions, the synthesis of ATP was coupled to the oxidation of molecular hydrogen and to the reduction of TNT. This phosphorylation was uncoupled by gramicidin. Respiration by Pseudomonas sp. strain JLR11 is potentially useful for the biotreatment of TNT in polluted waters and soils, particularly in phytorhizoremediation, in which bacterial cells are transported to the deepest root zones, which are poor in oxygen.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Esteve-Nuñez
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Cellular Biology of Plants, Estación Experimental del Zaidín, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, E-18008 Granada, Spain
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45
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Hodgson J, Rho D, Guiot SR, Ampleman G, Thiboutot S, Hawari J. Tween 80 enhanced TNT mineralization by Phanerochaete chrysosporium. Can J Microbiol 2000; 46:110-8. [PMID: 10721478 DOI: 10.1139/w99-126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The effect of a nonionic surfactant (Tween 80) on 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) mineralization by the white-rot fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium strain BKM-F-1767, was investigated in a liquid culture at 20, 50, and 100 mg TNT.L-1. The presence of 1% (w/v) Tween 80, at 20 mg.L-1 TNT, added to a 4-d-old culture, allowed the highest TNT mineralization level, that is 29.3% after 24 d, which is two times more than the control culture, without Tween 80 (13.9%). The mineralization of TNT resumed upon additional Tween 80 supplementation, consequently, 39.0% of the TNT was respired on day 68. Orbital agitation of the fungal culture was found detrimental to TNT mineralization, with or without Tween 80 in the culture medium. The surfactant also stimulated the growth of P. chrysosporium without any notable effect on either the glycerol consumption rate or the extracellular LiP and MnP activity levels. Respirometric assays highlighted some differences between the oxygen uptake rate of the fungal culture supplemented with or without Tween 80.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Hodgson
- Biotechnology Research Institute, National Research Council Canada, Montréal, QC, Canada
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46
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Production of manganese peroxidase and organic acids and mineralization of 14C-labelled lignin (14C-DHP) during solid-state fermentation of wheat straw with the white rot fungus nematoloma frowardii. Appl Environ Microbiol 1999; 65:1864-70. [PMID: 10223971 PMCID: PMC91268 DOI: 10.1128/aem.65.5.1864-1870.1999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The basidiomycetous fungus Nematoloma frowardii produced manganese peroxidase (MnP) as the predominant ligninolytic enzyme during solid-state fermentation (SSF) of wheat straw. The purified enzyme had a molecular mass of 50 kDa and an isoelectric point of 3.2. In addition to MnP, low levels of laccase and lignin peroxidase were detected. Synthetic 14C-ring-labelled lignin (14C-DHP) was efficiently degraded during SSF. Approximately 75% of the initial radioactivity was released as 14CO2, while only 6% was associated with the residual straw material, including the well-developed fungal biomass. On the basis of this finding we concluded that at least partial extracellular mineralization of lignin may have occurred. This conclusion was supported by the fact that we detected high levels of organic acids in the fermented straw (the maximum concentrations in the water phases of the straw cultures were 45 mM malate, 3.5 mM fumarate, and 10 mM oxalate), which rendered MnP effective and therefore made partial direct mineralization of lignin possible. Experiments performed in a cell-free system, which simulated the conditions in the straw cultures, revealed that MnP in fact converted part of the 14C-DHP to 14CO2 (which accounted for up to 8% of the initial radioactivity added) and 14C-labelled water-soluble products (which accounted for 43% of the initial radioactivity) in the presence of natural levels of organic acids (30 mM malate, 5 mM fumarate).
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Behrend C, Heesche-Wagner K. Formation of hydride-Meisenheimer complexes of picric acid (2,4, 6-trinitrophenol) and 2,4-dinitrophenol during mineralization of picric acid by Nocardioides sp. strain CB 22-2. Appl Environ Microbiol 1999; 65:1372-7. [PMID: 10103224 PMCID: PMC91194 DOI: 10.1128/aem.65.4.1372-1377.1999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
There are only a few examples of microbial conversion of picric acid (2,4,6-trinitrophenol). None of the organisms that have been described previously is able to use this compound as a sole source of carbon, nitrogen, and energy at high rates. In this study we isolated and characterized a strain, strain CB 22-2, that was able to use picric acid as a sole source of carbon and energy at concentrations up to 40 mM and at rates of 1.6 mmol. h(-1). g (dry weight) of cells(-1) in continuous cultures and 920 micromol. h(-1). g (dry weight) of cells(-1) in flasks. In addition, this strain was able to use picric acid as a sole source of nitrogen at comparable rates in a nitrogen-free medium. Biochemical characterization and 16S ribosomal DNA analysis revealed that strain CB 22-2 is a Nocardioides sp. strain. High-pressure liquid chromatography and UV-visible light data, the low residual chemical oxygen demand, and the stoichiometric release of 2.9 +/- 0.1 mol of nitrite per mol of picric acid provided strong evidence that complete mineralization of picric acid occurred. During transformation, the metabolites detected in the culture supernatant were the [H-]-Meisenheimer complexes of picric acid and 2,4-dinitrophenol (H--DNP), as well as 2,4-dinitrophenol. Experiments performed with crude extracts revealed that H--DNP formation indeed is a physiologically relevant step in picric acid metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Behrend
- Institut für Biochemie, Universität Witten/Herdecke, D-58453 Witten, Germany
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Klapproth A, Linnemann S, Bahnemann D, Dillert R, Fels G. 14C-trinitrotoluene: synthesis and photocatalytic degradation. J Labelled Comp Radiopharm 1998. [DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1099-1344(199804)41:4<337::aid-jlcr83>3.0.co;2-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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49
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Hofrichter M, Scheibner K, Schneegass I, Fritsche W. Enzymatic Combustion of Aromatic and Aliphatic Compounds by Manganese Peroxidase from
Nematoloma frowardii. Appl Environ Microbiol 1998; 64:399-404. [PMID: 16349496 PMCID: PMC106057 DOI: 10.1128/aem.64.2.399-404.1998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
ABSTRACT
The direct involvement of manganese peroxidase (MnP) in the mineralization of natural and xenobiotic compounds was evaluated. A broad spectrum of aromatic substances were partially mineralized by the MnP system of the white rot fungus
Nematoloma frowardii
. The cell-free MnP system partially converted several aromatic compounds, including [U-
14
C]pentachlorophenol ([U-
14
C]PCP), [U-
14
C]catechol, [U-
14
C]tyrosine, [U-
14
C]tryptophan, [4,5,9,10-
14
C]pyrene, and [ring U-
14
C]2-amino-4,6-dinitrotoluene ([
14
C]2-AmDNT), to
14
CO
2
. Mineralization was dependent on the ratio of MnP activity to concentration of reduced glutathione (thiol-mediated oxidation), a finding which was demonstrated by using [
14
C]2-AmDNT as an example. At [
14
C]2-AmDNT concentrations ranging from 2 to 120 μM, the amount of released
14
CO
2
was directly proportional to the concentration of [
14
C]2-AmDNT. The formation of highly polar products was also observed with [
14
C]2-AmDNT and [U-
14
C]PCP; these products were probably low-molecular-weight carboxylic acids. Among the aliphatic compounds tested, glyoxalate was mineralized to the greatest extent. Eighty-six percent of the
14
COOH-glyoxalate and 9% of the
14
CHO-glyoxalate were converted to
14
CO
2
, indicating that decarboxylation reactions may be the final step in MnP-catalyzed mineralization. The extracellular enzymatic combustion catalyzed by MnP could represent an important pathway for the formation of carbon dioxide from recalcitrant xenobiotic compounds and may also have general significance in the overall biodegradation of resistant natural macromolecules, such as lignins and humic substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Hofrichter
- Institute of Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University of Jena, D-07743 Jena, Germany
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50
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Sens C, Scheidemann P, Klunk A, Werner D. Distribution of 14C-TNT and derivatives in different biochemical compartments of Phaseolus vulgaris. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 1998; 5:202-208. [PMID: 19002633 DOI: 10.1007/bf02986402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/1998] [Accepted: 03/09/1998] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
(14)C-TNT was used to quantify the uptake rate and metabolic turnover of TNT in Phaseolus vulgaris. Seventeen plants were analysed by a special cell fractionation method with polar and nonpolar solvents and enzymes. We obtained three cytoplasmic fractions and five cell wall derived fractions. The recovery rate was 72% as measured by liquid scintillation counting. (14)C partitioned almost in equal amounts with approximately 50% in the cytoplasm and in the cell wall. The majority of the TNT-metabolites are present in the cytoplasm as was shown by GC/ECD and thin layer chromatography. The(14)C in the cell wall is bound probably resulting in long-term immobilisation of these metabolites. We conclude that plants may also be a model for nitroaromatic turnover and immobilisation in soil components.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Sens
- Fachgebiet Zellbiologie und Angewandte Botanik, Fachbereich Biologie der Philipps Universität Marburg, D-35032, Marburg, Germany
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