The physiology of rowing with perspective on training and health

What are the risk factors of injury for a rowing athlete?

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to examine the specific characteristics of injuries (injury location, injury type, and time to return to sports) based on sex and rowing style.

METHODS

We included 60 adolescent rowers (Sweep male and female, 12 respectively; Sculling male and female, 18 respectively) who underwent training in Korea from January to December 2023. Sports injuries were meticulously recorded using the Daily Injury Report form issued by the International Olympic Committee for rowers characteristics (sex, rowing style) and injury characteristics (injury location, injury type). The injury incidence rate (IIR) per 1000 h of training was calculated using the 95% Poisson Confidence Interval. A χ2 test was performed to compare the characteristics of the rowers and injury characteristics.

RESULTS

The overall IIR was 4.25 injuries per 1000 training hours. The IIR was lower for men than for women (P<0.001). However, sweep and sculling were similar (P=0.269). There was a difference in the affected body regions according to the sex and rowing style (P=0.028, P=0.005; respectively). Time to return to sports varied between rowing styles (P=0.049) and sexes (P=0.033), and it also differed in sweep (P=0.002) and sculling (P=0.045) depending on body regions.

CONCLUSIONS

These results should be incorporated into programs that are aimed at improving the performance of these rowers and preventing sports injuries. In addition, can be used as data to determine their return to sport.

Fixed-Seat Rowing versus Sliding-Seat Rowing: Effects on Physical Fitness in Breast Cancer Survivors

This study aimed to analyze the effects of a team rowing-based training program on physical fitness and anthropometric parameters in female breast cancer survivors (n = 40; 56.78 ± 6.38 years). The participants were divided into two groups: one rowed in fixed-seat rowing (FSR) boats (n = 20; 56.35 ± 4.89 years), and the other rowed in sliding-seat rowing (SSR) boats (n = 20; 57.20 ± 7.7 years). Both groups engaged in two 75 min sessions per week for 24 weeks. Significant improvements were observed in both groups in terms of weight (FSR: -1.93 kg, SSR: -1.75 kg), body mass index (FSR: -0.73 kg/m2, SSR: -0.67 kg/m2), waist circumference (FSR: -2.83 cm, SSR: -3.66 cm), and hip circumference (FSR: -2.02 cm, SSR: -2.88 cm). Muscle strength improved in the lower extremities (jump test: FSR: 2.99 cm, SSR: 3.11 cm) and upper extremities (dominant: FSR: 4.13 kgf, SSR: 4.34 kgf; non-dominant: FSR: 3.67 kgf, SSR: 3.32 kgf). Aerobic capacity also improved, with the SSR group showing a greater increase (FSR: 63.05 m, SSR: 93.65 m). Flexibility tests revealed better results in the SSR group for both dominant (SSR: 1.75 cm vs. FSR: -5.55 cm) and non-dominant limbs (SSR: 1.72 cm vs. FSR: -3.81 cm). These findings suggest that the type of rowing modality can influence physical fitness outcomes, with the SSR group showing superior improvements compared to the FSR group.

Nociceptive Processing of Elite Athletes Varies between Sport-Specific Loads: An EEG-Based Study Approach

INTRODUCTION

For the downstream nociceptive processing of elite athletes, recent studies indicate that athletes probably tolerate more pain as compared with a normally active population. Phenotyping the nociceptive processing of athletes in different types of endurance sports can provide insight into training-specific effects, which may help in understanding the long-term effects of specific exercise.

METHODS

Twenty-six elite endurance athletes from the disciplines of rowing, triathlon, and running and 26 age- and sex-matched, recreationally active control subjects who participated in the subjective pain perception and processing of standardized noxious stimuli were investigated by EEG. This included standardized heat pain thresholds (HPT) and contact heat-evoked potentials from heat stimulation, measured with EEG as well as pinprick-evoked potentials from mechanical stimulation.

RESULTS

After noxious stimulation, athletes showed a higher activation of the event-related spectral perturbation (ERSP) patterns in the N2P2 EEG response at the Cz Electrode compared with the controls. After noxious contact heat stimulation, triathletes had a higher ERSP activation compared with the controls, whereas the rowers had a higher ERSP activation after noxious mechanical stimulation. Also, HPT in triathletes were increased despite their increased central activation after thermal stimulation. We found a correlation between increased HPT and training hours and years, although athletes did not differ within these variables.

CONCLUSIONS

Although we were able to identify differences between athletes of different endurance sports, the reasons and implications of these differences remain unclear. The study of sport-specific somatosensory profiles may help to understand the mechanisms of exercise-related long-term effects on pain processing and perception. Furthermore, sport-specific somatosensory effects may support the personalization of exercise interventions and identify risk factors for chronic pain in elite athletes.

Acute cardiovascular and muscular response to rowing ergometer exercise in artificial gravity - a pilot trial

Prolonged immobilization and spaceflight cause cardiovascular and musculoskeletal deconditioning. Combining artificial gravity through short-arm centrifugation with rowing exercise may serve as a countermeasure. We aimed to compare the tolerability, muscle force production, cardiovascular response, and power output of rowing on a short-arm centrifuge and under terrestrial gravity. Twelve rowing athletes (4 women, aged 27.2 ± 7.4 years, height 179 ± 0.1 cm, mass 73.7 ± 9.4 kg) participated in two rowing sessions, spaced at least six weeks apart. One session used a short-arm centrifuge with +0.5 Gz, while the other inclined the rowing ergometer by 26.6° to mimic centrifugal loading. Participants started self-paced rowing at 30 W, increasing by 15 W every three minutes until exhaustion. We measured rowing performance, heart rate, blood pressure, ground reaction forces, leg muscle activation, and blood lactate concentration. Rowing on the centrifuge was well-tolerated without adverse events. No significant differences in heart rate, blood pressure, or blood lactate concentration were observed between conditions. Inclined rowing under artificial gravity resulted in lower power output (-33%, p < 0.001) compared to natural gravity, but produced higher mean and peak ground reaction forces (p < 0.0001) and increased leg muscle activation. Muscle activation and ground reaction forces varied with rotational direction. Rowing in artificial gravity shows promise as a strategy against cardiovascular and muscular deconditioning during long-term spaceflight, but further investigation is required to understand its long-term effects.

The combined effect of rowing exercise and the intake of functional foods containing inulin on muscle mass and bone mineral density in older Japanese women

AIM

Aging decreases muscle mass and bone mineral density (BMD), especially in older women. It has been reported that rowing and inulin intake positively affect muscle and bone, respectively. We examined the synergistic effect of rowing and functional food intake, including inulin, on lean body mass, BMD, and physical function parameters in older Japanese women.

METHODS

Fifty women aged 65-79 years were divided into four groups with or without inulin intake and rowing. The interventions were carried out for 12 weeks in each group. We assessed lean body mass and BMD using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry at baseline and after the intervention and examined the changes in the values in each group.

RESULTS

Lean body mass in all groups decreased, and the change in lean body mass in the group with rowing and inulin intake was significantly smaller than that in the group without them (-0.05 ± 0.61; -0.83 ± 0.59 kg; P = 0.030). The BMD in the three intervention groups increased after the 12-week intervention. The change in BMD in each of the three intervention groups showed significant differences compared with the control group (Rowing + Inulin: P = 0.03; Rowing + No inulin: P = 0.01; No rowing + Inulin: P < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Rowing and the intake of functional foods, including inulin, synergistically prevented a decrease in lean body mass. These factors, individually and additively, might increase BMD in older Japanese women. Geriatr Gerontol Int 2023; 23: 779-787.

Mental and physiological wellbeing while rowing across the North Atlantic: a single-case study of subjective versus objective data

Introduction: Unassisted rowing across the Atlantic Ocean is an extreme undertaking challenging the human body in every possible way. The reported rowing journey lasted for 42 days in a small vessel with 12 rowers, each rowing for 12 h a day, broken into 3 h shifts. This schedule disrupts the natural circadian cycle and autonomic balance, affecting subjective and objective wellbeing and sleep quality, that lack continuous empirical quantification. Methods: With a self-reported questionnaire and objective heart rate variability measurements every second day in a single female rower, we monitor evolutions of the subjective sleep quality and mental wellbeing as well as autonomic body control over the journey duration. We evaluate the hypothesis that extreme rowing impairs subjective and objective data in a similar way over time and that 3 h shifts diminish the circadian rhythm of the autonomic body control. Results: The sleep quality was mainly influenced by wake ups during sleep, while mental wellbeing was predominantly influenced by physical exhaustion. The perceived sleep quality and wellbeing dropped 2-3 days after the start with the rower not yet accommodated, in the middle of the journey with major wake ups, and again 5-6 days prior to the end with major exhaustion of the participant. Evolutions of the subjective perceptions diverge from that of the heart rate variability. The body's autonomic recovery during short sleep periods progressively decreases over the journey duration while the vagal activity rises and the sympathovagal balance shifts towards vagal tone. The shifts of 3 h weaken the circadian rhythm of the heart rate variability. Discussion: Our results demonstrate how human body meets extreme mental and physical exhaustion on the high seas. The gained physiological and psychological insights also offer a basis for effective preparation of undertakings involving extreme physical exhaustion and sleep deprivation.

[Association between biological maturity, body constitution and physical fitness with performance on a rowing ergometer in elite youth female rowers]

BACKGROUND

There is a gap in the literature regarding predictors of rowing performance in young rowers. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate associations between parameters of biological maturity, body constitution and physical fitness with rowing performance in young female elite rowers.

METHODS

A total of 26 female rowers aged 13.1 ± 0.5 years (maturity offset: + 2.2 ± 0.5 years from peak height velocity; training volume: 10 hours/week) volunteered to participate in this study. During the performance tests in March 2016/2017, biological maturity (e. g. maturity offset), body constitution (e. g. body height/mass, lean body mass, body fat mass) and physical fitness were assessed. Physical fitness tests included the assessment of muscle strength (1-RM bench pull, leg press, maximal handgrip strength), muscle power (standing long jump test), muscular endurance (trunk muscle endurance test [Bourban test]), dynamic balance (Y-balance test) and change-of-direction speed (multistage shuttle run). Finally, rowing performance was analysed using a 700-m rowing ergometer test. A linear regression analysis was computed for the models (1) biological maturity, (2) biological maturity and body constitution, and (3) biologic maturity, body constitution, and physical fitness.

RESULTS

The statistical analysis showed significant (p≤ 0.01) medium-to-large sized correlations (0.57 ≤r≤ 0.8) between biological maturity, body constitution (e. g. body height/mass, lean body mass) and physical fitness (e. g. 1-RM bench pull, maximal handgrip strength, Bourban test) with rowing performance. Model 3 with the predictors body constitution (i. e. lean mass) and muscular endurance (i. e. Bourban test) showed the largest explained variance for 700-m rowing ergometer performance (R² = 0.94, Akaike information criterion [AIC] = 82.1). Explained variance of model 3 was higher compared with model 1 (R² = 0.6, AIC = 131.5) and model 2 (R² = 0.63, AIC = 111.6).

CONCLUSIONS

As a result of this study, coaches involved in junior rowing should focus on characteristics such as biological maturity, body constitution and physical fitness (muscle strength, muscular endurance) during talent development as these correlated highly with rowing ergometer performance.

A Rigorous and Integrated On-Water Monitoring System for Performance and Technique Improvement in Rowing

This paper presents a prototype, on-water rowing monitoring system and its testing results for a single scull boat. The proposed system aims at recording critical kinetic (athlete biomechanics and oar/seat movements) and kinematic (boat position, velocity, acceleration, and attitude) parameters for sport performance evaluation and rowing technique improvement. The data acquisition unit is organized in two parts: the first part aims at logging boat kinematics based on GNSS/INS filtering, while the second one facilitates kinetics data recording using a series of analog sensors (potentiometers, strain gauges) installed on the athlete's body and the boat seat and oars. Both parts are connected to a central unit featuring analog voltage digitizers and a micro-PC for device handling and data storing. In order to test the performance of the system a series of field trials were undertaken featuring different observation scenarios as well as intentionally induced errors in the rowing technique. Analysis revealed the high performance of the system in terms of sensor completeness and setup procedures as well as operational efficiency. Moreover, system performance evaluation exercised through studying raw data recordings and resultant parameters at stroke cycle and average (standardized) stroke cycle level confirmed the fruitfulness of the proposed approach and system and its potential for implementation on a broad scale. Finally, the data acquired from the proposed system were used to compute the adopted input parameters and performance indicators to characterize the system in terms of functionality and operational efficiency.

The Kinematics of Fixed-Seat Rowing: A Structured Synthesis

Olympic-style sliding-seat rowing is a sport that has been extensively researched, with studies investigating aspects related to the physiology, biomechanics, kinematics, and the performance of rowers. In contrast, studies on the more classic form of fixed-seat rowing are sparse. The aim of this study is to address this lacuna by analysing for the first time the specific kinematics of fixed-seat rowing as practised by able-bodied athletes, thus (i) documenting how this technique is performed in a manner that is replicable by others and (ii) showing how this technique compares and contrasts with the more standard sliding-seat technique. Fixed-seat rowing was replicated in a biomechanics laboratory where experienced fixed-seat rowers, marked with reflective markers following the modified Helen-Hayes model, were asked to row in a manner that mimics rowing on a fixed-seat boat. The findings from this study, complimented with data gathered through the observation of athletes rowing on water, were compared to sliding-seat ergometer rowing and other control experiments. The results show that, in fixed-seat rowing, there is more forward and backward thoracic movement than in sliding-seat rowing (75-77° vs. 44-52°, p < 0.0005). Tilting of the upper body stems was noted to result from rotations around the pelvis, as in sliding-seat rowing, rather than from spinal movements. The results also confirmed knee flexion in fixed-seat rowing with a range of motion of 30-35°. This is less pronounced than in standard-seat rowing, but not insignificant. These findings provide a biomechanical explanation as to why fixed-seat rowers do not have an increased risk of back injuries when compared with their sliding-seat counterparts. They also provide athletes, coaches, and related personnel with precise and detailed information of how fixed-seat rowing is performed so that they may formulate better and more specific evidence-based training programs to meliorate technique and performance.

"A feeling for run and rhythm": coaches' perspectives of performance, talent, and progression in rowing

The understanding of rowing performance has been predominantly gained through quantitative sports science-based research. In combination with this objective information, coaches' experiences may provide important contextual information for how this quantitative evidence is implemented into training programmes. The aims of this study were to (1) explore coaches' perspectives of performance indicators for competitive rowing in junior rowers, and (2) identify coaches' recommendations for developing effective technique and movement competency among junior rowers who have the potential to transition to elite competition. Twenty-seven semi-structured interviews were conducted with experienced rowing coaches through purposive sampling of an accredited coaching network. Participants' coaching experience ranged from 5 to 46 (M = 22, SD = 10) years. Data were analysed using thematic analysis. Three overarching themes were identified including, (1) getting the basics right, (2) targeting types of talent, and (3) complexities of performance. Based on these findings, sequence and boat feel, supported through the movement competency provided by hip flexibility and the trunk musculature, were considered critical for executing correct technique. Developing talent and understanding successful performance are both complex concepts when considering the individual athlete. Coaches' perspectives provided insight into key components of performance to enhance our understanding of how to better develop junior rowers.

Acute and Chronic Performance Enhancement in Rowing: A Network Meta-analytical Approach on the Effects of Nutrition and Training

INTRODUCTION

This systematic review and network meta-analysis assessed via direct and indirect comparison the occurrence and magnitude of effects following different nutritional supplementation strategies and exercise interventions on acute and chronic rowing performance and its surrogates.

METHODS

PubMed, Web of Science, PsycNET and SPORTDiscus searches were conducted until March 2022 to identify studies  that met the following inclusion criteria: (a) controlled trials, (b) rowing performance and its surrogate parameters as outcomes, and (c) peer-reviewed and published in English. Frequentist network meta-analytical approaches were calculated based on standardized mean differences (SMD) using random effects models.

RESULTS

71 studies with 1229 healthy rowers (aged 21.5 ± 3.0 years) were included and two main networks (acute and chronic) with each two subnetworks for nutrition and exercise have been created. Both networks revealed low heterogeneity and non-significant inconsistency (I² ≤ 35.0% and Q statistics: p ≥ 0.12). Based on P-score rankings, while caffeine (P-score 84%; SMD 0.43) revealed relevantly favorable effects in terms of acute rowing performance enhancement, whilst prior weight reduction (P-score 10%; SMD - 0.48) and extensive preload (P-score 18%; SMD - 0.34) impaired acute rowing performance. Chronic blood flow restriction training (P-score 96%; SMD 1.26) and the combination of β-hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate and creatine (P-score 91%; SMD 1.04) induced remarkably large positive effects, while chronic spirulina (P-score 7%; SMD - 1.05) and black currant (P-score 9%; SMD - 0.88) supplementation revealed impairment effects.

CONCLUSION

Homogeneous and consistent findings from numerous studies indicate that the choice of nutritional supplementation strategy and exercise training regimen are vital for acute and chronic performance enhancement in rowing.

On the Kinematics of the Forward-Facing Venetian-Style Rowing Technique

This work presents a qualitative and quantitative pilot study which explores the kinematics of Venetian style forward-facing standing rowing as practised by able-bodied competitive athletes. The technique, made famous by the gondoliers, was replicated in a biomechanics laboratory by a cohort of four experienced rowers who compete in this style at National Level events in Malta. Athletes were marked with reflective markers following the modified Helen Hayes model and asked to row in a manner which mimics their on-water practise and recorded using a Vicon optoelectronic motion capture system. Data collected were compared to its equivalent using a standard sliding-seat ergometer as well as data collated from observations of athletes rowing on water, thus permitting the documentation of the manner of how this technique is performed. It was shown that this rowing style is characterised by rather asymmetric and complex kinematics, particularly upper-body movements which provides the athlete with a total-body workout involving all major muscle groups working either isometrically, to provide stability, or actively.

The Time Course of Cardiorespiratory Adaptations to Rowing Indoor Training in Post-Menopausal Women

BACKGROUND

Post-menopausal women have impaired cardiorespiratory responses to exercise compared to young women. Exercise training may counterbalance impairments, but the time-dependent effects of exercise training remain unclear. The current study aims to investigate the effects of rowing training on maximal aerobic capacity and time-course cardiorespiratory adaptations in older women.

METHODS

Female participants (n = 23) were randomly allocated to the experimental group (EXP; n = 23; 66 ± 5 years old) enrolled in rowing exercise training and control group (CON; n = 10; 64 ± 4 years old). The cardiopulmonary exercise test (CET) was performed in a cycle ergometer pre- and post-interventions. Oxygen uptake (VO2), stroke volume (SV), cardiac output (CO), and HR were recorded during CET and analyzed at the peak of the exercise. HR was monitored during exercise recovery, and the index of HRR was calculated by ΔHRR (HRpeak-HR one-minute recovery). Every two weeks, Rowing Stepwise Exercise (RSE) in a rowing machine was performed to track specific adaptations to the exercise modality. HR was continuously recorded during RSE and corrected for the average power of each step (HR/watts). The rowing training protocol consisted of three weekly sessions of 30 min at an intensity corresponding to 60-80% of peak HR for ten weeks.

RESULTS

Rowing exercise training increased VO2, SV, and CO at the peak of the CET, and ΔHRR. Increased workload (W) and reduced HR response to a greater achieved workload (HR/W) during RSE were observed after six weeks of training.

CONCLUSIONS

Rowing exercise training is a feasible method to improve cardiorespiratory performance, vagal reactivation and heart rate adjustments to exercise in older women.

Feasibility and impact of whole-body high-intensity interval training in patients with stable coronary artery disease: a randomised controlled trial

Exercise training reduces cardiovascular mortality and improves quality of life in CAD patients. We investigated the feasibility and impact of 12 weeks of low-volume high-intensity interval training (HIIT) in CAD-patients. Patients with stable CAD were randomized 1:1 to supervised HIIT or standard care. HIIT sessions were completed three times weekly for 12 weeks on a rowing ergometer. Before and after the 12-week intervention, patients completed a physiological evaluation of cardiorespiratory performance and quality of life questionnaires. Mixed model analysis was used to evaluate differences between and within groups. A total of 142 patients (67 ± 9 years, n_HIIT = 64, n_{Standard care} = 78) completed the trial. Training adherence was 97% (range 86-100%). Six patients dropped out because of non-fatal adverse events. Weekly training duration was 54 min with an average power output of 138 W. HIIT increased peak oxygen uptake by 2.5 mL/kg/min (95% CI 2.1-3.0), whereas no change was observed in standard care (0.2 mL/kg/min, 95% CI - 0.2-0.6, P < 0.001). In addition, HIIT improved markers of quality of life, including physical functioning, limitations due to physical illness, general health and vitality (P < 0.05). Twelve weeks of low-volume whole-body HIIT increased cardiorespiratory capacity and improved quality of life in patients with stable CAD compared to standard care. In addition, our study demonstrates that the applied vigorous training regime is feasible for this patient group.Clinical trial registration: www.clinicaltrials.gov . Identification number: NCT04268992.

Functional whole-brain mechanisms underlying effects of tDCS on athletic performance of male rowing athletes revealed by resting-state fMRI

Introduction

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a noninvasive brain stimulation technique that applied to modulate brain activity and enhance motor recovery. However, the neurobiological substrates underlying the effects of tDCS on brain function remain poorly understood. This study aimed to investigate the central mechanisms of tDCS on improving the athletic performance of male rowing athletes.

Methods

Twelve right-handed male professional rowing athletes received tDCS over the left primary motor cortex while undergoing regular training. The resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) data were acquired before and after tDCS. Measures of amplitude of low-frequency fluctuation (ALFF) and regional homogeneity (ReHo) were calculated and compared between baseline and follow-up, as well as topological measures including global and local efficiency of functional brain networks constructed by graph theoretical analysis.

Results

Male rowing athletes showed increased isokinetic muscle strength of the left knee and left shoulder after tDCS. Increased ALFF values were found in the right precentral gyrus of male rowing athletes after tDCS when compared with those before tDCS. In addition, male rowing athletes showed increased ReHo values in the left paracentral lobule following tDCS. Moreover, increased nodal global efficiency was identified in the left inferior frontal gyrus (opercular part) of male rowing athletes after tDCS.

Conclusion

The findings suggested that simultaneous tDCS-induced excitation over the primary motor cortex might potentially improve the overall athletic performance in male rowing athletes through the right precentral gyrus and left paracentral lobule, as well as left inferior frontal gyrus.

High Energetic Demand of Elite Rowing - Implications for Training and Nutrition

Purpose: Elite rowers have large body dimensions, a high metabolic capacity, and they realize high training loads. These factors suggest a high total energy requirement (TER), due to high exercise energy expenditure (EEE) and additional energetic needs. We aimed to study EEE and intensity related substrate utilization (SU) of elite rowers during rowing (EEE_ROW) and other (EEE_NON-ROW) training.

Methods: We obtained indirect calorimetry data during incremental (N = 174) and ramp test (N = 42) ergometer rowing in 14 elite open-class male rowers (body mass 91.8 kg, 95% CI [87.7, 95.9]). Then we calculated EEE_ROW and SU within a three-intensity-zone model. To estimate EEE_NON-ROW, appropriate estimates of metabolic equivalents of task were applied. Based on these data, EEE, SU, and TER were approximated for prototypical high-volume, high-intensity, and tapering training weeks. Data are arithmetic mean and 95% confidence interval (95% CI).

Results: EEE_ROW for zone 1 to 3 ranged from 15.6 kcal·min⁻¹, 95% CI [14.8, 16.3] to 49.8 kcal·min⁻¹, 95% CI [48.1, 51.6], with carbohydrate utilization contributing from 46.4%, 95% CI [42.0, 50.8] to 100.0%, 95% CI [100.0, 100.0]. During a high-volume, a high-intensity, or a taper week, TER was estimated to 6,775 kcal·day⁻¹, 95% CI [6,651, 6,898], 5,772 kcal·day⁻¹, 95% CI [5,644, 5,900], or 4,626 kcal∙day⁻¹, 95% CI [4,481, 4,771], respectively.

Conclusion: EEE in elite open-class male rowers is remarkably high already during zone 1 training and carbohydrates are dominantly utilized, indicating relatively high metabolic stress even during low intensity rowing training. In high-volume training weeks, TER is presumably at the upper end of the sustainable total energy expenditure. Periodized nutrition seems warranted for rowers to avoid low energy availability, which might negatively impact performance, training, and health.

Wheelchair-modified ergometer rowing exercise in individuals with spinal cord injury: a feasibility, acceptability, and preliminary efficacy study

STUDY DESIGN

Exploratory clinical investigation.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the feasibility, acceptability, and preliminary efficacy of upper-body rowing exercise adapted to wheelchair users with spinal cord injury (SCI).

SETTING

University exercise laboratory.

METHODS

Eight individuals with SCI exercised on a rowing ergometer modified for wheelchair users (REMW), three times weekly, for up to 30 min per session. Participants completed feasibility and acceptability questionnaire (1-5 Likert scale), and the Wheelchair Users Shoulder Pain Index (WUSPI) before and after six weeks of exercise. Average power output (PO_AVG), distance rowed, percent peak heart rate (%HR_peak), and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) (6-20 scale) were monitored throughout the 18 exercise sessions and analyzed to evaluate preliminary efficacy of the exercise modality.

RESULTS

All eight participants completed the study (97% adherence). Participants rated the exercise high on the feasibility and acceptability scale; median (interquartile range) = 5.0 (4.0-5.0), where higher numbers indicated greater feasibility. Shoulder pain was reduced by 21% yet not significantly different from baseline (p = 0.899). Physiological measures (%HR_peak = 80-83%; RPE = 15.0-16.0) indicated a high cardiovascular training load. From week 1 to week 6, PO_AVG and distance rowed increased by 37 and 36%, respectively (both p ≤ 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Data from six weeks of exercise on the REMW suggests that upper-body rowing is a feasible and acceptable exercise modality for wheelchair users with SCI. Session data on %HR_peak, RPE, and shoulder pain indicate that REMW evoked moderate to vigorous intensity exercise without exacerbation of shoulder pain. Future research is required to quantify potential training-induced changes in cardiorespiratory fitness.

Patterns of Intervertebral Disk Alteration in Asymptomatic Elite Rowers: A T2* MRI Mapping Study

Background:

Repetitive loading of the back puts elite rowers at risk for acute and chronic back injuries.

Hypothesis:

That asymptomatic elite rowers would demonstrate characteristic intervertebral disk (IVD) alterations on T2* magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) mapping compared with asymptomatic nonrowers.

Study Design:

Cross-sectional study; Level of evidence, 3.

Methods:

This study included 20 asymptomatic elite rowers (mean age, 23.4 ± 3.03 years; 9 women, 11 men) studied at 2 different times, once before (t₁) and once after (t₂) the competition phase. MRI including T2* mapping was performed on a 3-T scanner. The authors derived normative T2* data from a previous study on 40 asymptomatic volunteers (20 men, 20 women) who were not competitive rowers; based on complete T2* data sets, 37 controls were included. T2* values were compared between groups in 4 lumbar IVDs, and midsagittal T2* values were compared in 5 zones: anterior annulus fibrosus (AF), anterior nucleus pulposus (NP), central NP, posterior NP, and posterior AF. The Pfirrmann grade was used for morphological assessment of disk degeneration. Statistical analysis was conducted using the Mann-Whitney U test, Wilcoxon matched-pairs test, and Spearman rank correlation coefficient.

Results:

Lower T2* values were noted in the rower group compared with the controls (37.08 ± 33.63 vs 45.59 ± 35.73 ms, respectively; P < .001). The intersegmental comparison revealed lower mean T2* values among rowers (P ≤ .027 for all). The interzonal comparison indicated significantly lower mean T2* values for the rowers in all zones except for the anterior NP (P ≤ .008 for all). Lower mean T2* values were observed for the rowers at t₁ versus t₂ (39.25 ± 36.19 vs 43.97 ± 38.67 ms, respectively; P = .008). The authors noted a higher level of IVD damage according to Pfirrmann assessment in the rower cohort (P < .001); the Pfirrmann grade distributions of rowers versus controls, respectively, were as follows: 51.3% versus 73.7% (grade 1), 20.5% versus 19.5% (grade 2), 21.8% versus 6.8% (grade 3), 5.1% versus 0% (grade 4), and 1.3% versus 0% (grade 5). The authors also noted a correlation between low T2* and high Pfirrmann grade at t₁ (r =–0.48; P < .001) and t₂ (r =–0.71; P < .001).

Conclusion:

The cohort of elite rowers revealed more degenerative IVD changes compared with controls. The T2* values suggest that repetitive loading of the spine has demonstrable short-term and possibly permanent effects on the lumbar IVD.

Dose of Bicarbonate to Maintain Plasma pH During Maximal Ergometer Rowing and Consequence for Plasma Volume

Rowing performance may be enhanced by attenuated metabolic acidosis following bicarbonate (BIC) supplementation. This study evaluated the dose of BIC needed to eliminate the decrease in plasma pH during maximal ergometer rowing and assessed the consequence for change in plasma volume. Six oarsmen performed “2,000-m” maximal ergometer rowing trials with BIC (1 M; 100–325 ml) and control (CON; the same volume of isotonic saline). During CON, pH decreased from 7.42 ± 0.01 to 7.17 ± 0.04 (mean and SD; p < 0.05), while during BIC, pH was maintained until the sixth minute where it dropped to 7.32 ± 0.08 and was thus higher than during CON (p < 0.05). The buffering effect of BIC on metabolic acidosis was dose dependent and 300–325 mmol required to maintain plasma pH. Compared to CON, BIC increased plasma sodium by 4 mmol/L, bicarbonate was maintained, and lactate increased to 25 ± 7 vs. 18 ± 3 mmol/L (p < 0.05). Plasma volume was estimated to decrease by 24 ± 4% in CON, while with BIC the estimate was by only 7 ± 6% (p < 0.05) and yet BIC had no significant effect on performance [median 6 min 27 s (range 6 min 09 s to 6 min 57 s) vs. 6 min 33 s (6 min 14 s to 6 min 55 s)]. Bicarbonate administration attenuates acidosis during maximal rowing in a dose-dependent manner and the reduction in plasma volume is attenuated with little consequence for performance.

Estimation of Cerebral Hemodynamics and Oxygenation During Various Intensities of Rowing Exercise: An NIRS Study

Purpose

This study aimed to investigate changes in cerebral hemodynamics and oxygenation at moderate, heavy, maximal and supramaximal intensities of rowing exercise. It also examined whether these changes reflect alterations in sensation of effort and mood. We also aimed to examine the effects of peak pulmonary oxygen consumption (V.O_2peak) on cerebral oxygenation.

Methods

Eleven rowers, consisting out of six athletes and five recreational rowers [two female; age, 27 ± 9 years; height, 171 ± 7 cm, body mass, 67 ± 9 kg; V.O_2peak, 53.5 ± 6.5 mL min^–1 kg^–1] rowed a 13-min session separated by 10 and 3 min, at 70 (Ex_70%) and 80% of V.O_2peak (Ex_80%), respectively, on a rowing ergometer, followed by three sessions of 1-min supramaximal exercise (ExSp). After a warm-up at 60% of V.O_2peak (ExM), seven male rowers performed a 2,000 m all-out test (Ex₂₀₀₀). Cardiovascular and respiratory variables were measured. Cerebral oxygenation was investigated by near-infrared time-resolved spectroscopy (TRS) to measure cerebral hemoglobin oxygen saturation (ScO₂) and total hemoglobin concentration ([HbT]) in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) quantitatively. We estimated the relative changes from rest in cerebral metabolic rate for oxygen (rCMRO₂) using TRS at all intensities. During Ex_70% and Ex_80%, ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) were monitored, and alteration of the subject’s mood was evaluated using a questionnaire of Positive-and-Negative-Affect-Schedule after Ex_70% and Ex_80%.

Results

When exercise intensity changed from Ex_70% to Ex_80%, the sense of effort increased while ScO₂ decreased. [HbT] remained unchanged. After Ex_70% and Ex_80%, a negative mood state was less prominent compared to rest and was accompanied by increases in both ScO₂ and [HbT]. At termination of Ex₂₀₀₀, ScO₂ decreased by 23% compared to rest. Changes in ScO₂ correlated with V.O_2peak only during Ex₂₀₀₀ (r = −0.86; p = 0.01). rCMRO₂ did not decrease at any intensities.

Conclusion

Our results suggest that alterations in the sense of effort are associated with oxygenation in the PFC, while positive changes in mood status are associated with cerebral perfusion and oxygen metabolism estimated by TRS. At exhaustion, the cerebral metabolic rate for oxygen is maintained despite a decrease in ScO₂.

The Effect of Hyperoxia on Central and Peripheral Factors of Arm Flexor Muscles Fatigue Following Maximal Ergometer Rowing in Men

Purpose

This study evaluates the effect of hyperoxia on cerebral oxygenation and neuromuscular fatigue mechanisms of the elbow flexor muscles following ergometer rowing.

Methods

In 11 competitive male rowers (age, 30 ± 4 years), we measured near-infrared spectroscopy determined frontal lobe oxygenation (ScO₂) and transcranial Doppler ultrasound determined middle cerebral artery mean flow velocity (MCA V_mean) combined with maximal voluntary force (MVC), peak resting twitch force (P_tw) and cortical voluntary activation (VA_TMS) of the elbow flexor muscles using electrical motor point and magnetic motor cortex stimulation, respectively, before, during, and immediately after 2,000 m all-out effort on rowing ergometer with normoxia and hyperoxia (30% O₂).

Results

Arterial hemoglobin O₂ saturation was reduced to 92.5 ± 0.2% during exercise with normoxia but maintained at 98.9 ± 0.2% with hyperoxia. The MCA V_mean increased by 38% (p < 0.05) with hyperoxia, while only marginally increased with normoxia. Similarly, ScO₂ was not affected with hyperoxia but decreased by 7.0 ± 4.8% from rest (p = 0.04) with normoxia. The MVC and P_tw were reduced (7 ± 3% and 31 ± 9%, respectively, p = 0.014), while VA_TMS was not affected by the rowing effort in normoxia. With hyperoxia, the deficit in MVC and P_tw was attenuated, while VA_TMS was unchanged.

Conclusion

These data indicate that even though hyperoxia restores frontal lobe oxygenation the resultant attenuation of arm muscle fatigue following maximal rowing is peripherally rather than centrally mediated.

Training-Induced Muscle Adaptations During Competitive Preparation in Elite Female Rowers

Training-induced adaptations in muscle morphology, including their magnitude and individual variation, remain relatively unknown in elite athletes. We reported changes in rowing performance and muscle morphology during the general and competitive preparation phases in elite rowers. Nineteen female rowers completed 8 weeks of general preparation, including concurrent endurance and high-load resistance training (HLRT). Seven rowers were monitored during a subsequent 16 weeks of competitive preparation, including concurrent endurance and resistance training with additional plyometric loading (APL). Vastus lateralis muscle volume, physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA), fascicle length, and pennation angle were measured using 3D ultrasonography. Rowing ergometer power output was measured as mean power in the final 4 minutes of an incremental test. Rowing ergometer power output improved during general preparation [+2 ± 2%, effect size (ES) = 0.22, P = 0.004], while fascicle length decreased (−5 ± 8%, ES = −0.47, P = 0.020). Rowing power output further improved during competitive preparation (+5 ± 3%, ES = 0.52, P = 0.010). Here, morphological adaptations were not significant, but demonstrated large ESs for fascicle length (+13 ± 19%, ES = 0.93), medium for pennation angle (−9 ± 15%, ES = −0.71), and small for muscle volume (+8 ± 13%, ES = 0.32). Importantly, rowers showed large individual differences in their training-induced muscle adaptations. In conclusion, vastus lateralis muscles of elite female athletes are highly adaptive to specific training stimuli, and adaptations largely differ between individual athletes. Therefore, coaches are encouraged to closely monitor their athletes' individual (muscle) adaptations to better evaluate the effectiveness of their training programs and finetune them to the athlete's individual needs.

Under-appreciated and Overlooked Modes of Exercises on Key Vascular Functions

The arterial system has two primary functions. The conduit function is to transport adequate supply of oxygen and nutrients to the tissues, and the cushioning function is to buffer and cushion the pulsatile pressure exerted by intermittent ventricular contractions. The impairments in these two functions often result from physiological changes characterized by endothelial dysfunction and arterial stiffening. Habitual physical exercise has been advocated to combat these physiological dysfunctions. However, exercise is remarkably diverse, as it can be performed in different media (water, land or snow), seasons (winter or summer), and settings (individual, pair or team). In contrast to mainstream modes of exercise including walking and running, many of the alternative or "minor" forms of exercise have been under-researched by investigators in research fields and overlooked by clinicians and practitioners in clinical settings. It remains largely unknown whether these alternative forms of exercise are associated with favorable changes in arterial stiffness and endothelium-dependent vasodilation. The current review introduces and summarizes research investigations that evaluated the impacts of these under-appreciated and overlooked exercises and their impacts on key markers of vascular functions in humans.