Organization and function of TRPC channelosomes

Estradiol elicits distinct firing patterns in arcuate nucleus kisspeptin neurons of females through altering ion channel conductances

Hypothalamic kisspeptin (Kiss1) neurons are vital for pubertal development and reproduction. Arcuate nucleus Kiss1 (Kiss1ARH) neurons are responsible for the pulsatile release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). In females, the behavior of Kiss1ARH neurons, expressing Kiss1, neurokinin B (NKB), and dynorphin (Dyn), varies throughout the ovarian cycle. Studies indicate that 17β-estradiol (E2) reduces peptide expression but increases Slc17a6 (Vglut2) mRNA and glutamate neurotransmission in these neurons, suggesting a shift from peptidergic to glutamatergic signaling. To investigate this shift, we combined transcriptomics, electrophysiology, and mathematical modeling. Our results demonstrate that E2 treatment upregulates the mRNA expression of voltage-activated calcium channels, elevating the whole-cell calcium current that contributes to high-frequency burst firing. Additionally, E2 treatment decreased the mRNA levels of canonical transient receptor potential (TPRC) 5 and G protein-coupled K+ (GIRK) channels. When Trpc5 channels in Kiss1ARH neurons were deleted using CRISPR/SaCas9, the slow excitatory postsynaptic potential was eliminated. Our data enabled us to formulate a biophysically realistic mathematical model of Kiss1ARH neurons, suggesting that E2 modifies ionic conductances in these neurons, enabling the transition from high-frequency synchronous firing through NKB-driven activation of TRPC5 channels to a short bursting mode facilitating glutamate release. In a low E2 milieu, synchronous firing of Kiss1ARH neurons drives pulsatile release of GnRH, while the transition to burst firing with high, preovulatory levels of E2 would facilitate the GnRH surge through its glutamatergic synaptic connection to preoptic Kiss1 neurons.

The TRPC5 receptor as pharmacological target for pain and metabolic disease

The transient receptor potential canonical (TRPC) channels are a group of highly homologous nonselective cation channels from the larger TRP channel family. They have the ability to form homo- and heteromers with varying degrees of calcium (Ca2+) permeability and signalling properties. TRPC5 is the one cold-sensitive among them and likewise facilitates the influx of extracellular Ca2+ into cells to modulate neuronal depolarization and integrate various intracellular signalling pathways. Recent research with cryo-electron microscopy revealed its structure, along with clear insight into downstream signalling and protein-protein interaction sites. Investigations using global and conditional deficient mice revealed the involvement of TRPC5 in metabolic diseases, energy balance, thermosensation and conditions such as osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, and inflammatory pain including opioid-induced hyperalgesia and hyperalgesia following tooth decay and pulpitis. This review provides an update on recent advances in our understanding of the role of TRPC5 with focus on metabolic diseases and pain.

Canonical transient receptor potential channels and hypothalamic control of homeostatic functions

Recent molecular biological and electrophysiological studies have identified multiple transient receptor potential (TRP) channels in hypothalamic neurons as critical modulators of homeostatic functions. In particular, the canonical transient receptor potential channels (TRPCs) are expressed in hypothalamic neurons that are vital for the control of fertility and energy homeostasis. Classical neurotransmitters such as serotonin and glutamate and peptide neurotransmitters such as kisspeptin, neurokinin B and pituitary adenylyl cyclase-activating polypeptide signal through their cognate G protein-coupled receptors to activate TPRC 4, 5 channels, which are essentially ligand-gated calcium channels. In addition to neurotransmitters, circulating hormones like insulin and leptin signal through insulin receptor (InsR) and leptin receptor (LRb), respectively, to activate TRPC 5 channels in hypothalamic arcuate nucleus pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) and kisspeptin (arcuate Kiss1 [Kiss1ARH]) neurons to have profound physiological (excitatory) effects. Besides its overt depolarizing effects, TRPC channels conduct calcium ions into the cytoplasm, which has a plethora of downstream effects. Moreover, not only the expression of Trpc5 mRNA but also the coupling of receptors to TRPC 5 channel opening are regulated in different physiological states. In particular, the mRNA expression of Trpc5 is highly regulated in kisspeptin neurons by circulating estrogens, which ultimately dictates the firing pattern of kisspeptin neurons. In obesity states, InsRs are "uncoupled" from opening TRPC 5 channels in POMC neurons, rendering them less excitable. Therefore, in this review, we will focus on the critical role of TRPC 5 channels in regulating the excitability of Kiss1ARH and POMC neurons in different physiological and pathological states.

Estradiol elicits distinct firing patterns in arcuate nucleus kisspeptin neurons of females through altering ion channel conductances

Hypothalamic kisspeptin (Kiss1) neurons are vital for pubertal development and reproduction. Arcuate nucleus Kiss1 (Kiss1ARH) neurons are responsible for the pulsatile release of Gonadotropin-releasing Hormone (GnRH). In females, the behavior of Kiss1ARH neurons, expressing Kiss1, Neurokinin B (NKB), and Dynorphin (Dyn), varies throughout the ovarian cycle. Studies indicate that 17β-estradiol (E2) reduces peptide expression but increases Vglut2 mRNA and glutamate neurotransmission in these neurons, suggesting a shift from peptidergic to glutamatergic signaling. To investigate this shift, we combined transcriptomics, electrophysiology, and mathematical modeling. Our results demonstrate that E2 treatment upregulates the mRNA expression of voltage-activated calcium channels, elevating the whole-cell calcium current and that contribute to high-frequency burst firing. Additionally, E2 treatment decreased the mRNA levels of Canonical Transient Receptor Potential (TPRC) 5 and G protein-coupled K+ (GIRK) channels. When TRPC5 channels in Kiss1ARH neurons were deleted using CRISPR, the slow excitatory postsynaptic potential (sEPSP) was eliminated. Our data enabled us to formulate a biophysically realistic mathematical model of the Kiss1ARH neuron, suggesting that E2 modifies ionic conductances in Kiss1ARH neurons, enabling the transition from high frequency synchronous firing through NKB-driven activation of TRPC5 channels to a short bursting mode facilitating glutamate release. In a low E2 milieu, synchronous firing of Kiss1ARH neurons drives pulsatile release of GnRH, while the transition to burst firing with high, preovulatory levels of E2 would facilitate the GnRH surge through its glutamatergic synaptic connection to preoptic Kiss1 neurons.

Latest Insights into the In Vivo Studies in Murine Regarding the Role of TRP Channels in Wound Healing-A Review

Wound healing involves physical, chemical and immunological processes. Transient receptor potential (TRP) and other ion channels are implicated in epidermal re-epithelization. Ion movement across ion channels can induce transmembrane potential that leads to transepithelial potential (TEP) changes. TEP is present in epidermis surrounding the lesion decreases and induces an endogenous direct current generating an epithelial electric field (EF) that could be implicated in wound re-epithelialization. TRP channels are involved in the activation of immune cells during mainly the inflammatory phase of wound healing. The aim of the study was to review the mechanisms of ion channel involvement in wound healing in in vivo experiments in murine (mice, rats) and how can this process be influenced. This review used the latest results published in scientific journals over the last year and this year to date (1 January 2023-31 December 3000) in order to include the in-press articles. Some types of TRP channels, such as TRPV1, TRPV3 and TRPA1, are expressed in immune cells and can be activated by inflammatory mediators. The most beneficial effects in wound healing are produced using agonists of TRPV1, TRPV4 and TRPA1 channels or by inhibiting with antagonists, antisense oligonucleotides or knocking down TRPV3 and TRPM8 channels.

MiRNA-26a-5p inhibits preterm labor initiation by targeting and regulating TRPC3 ion channel protein expression

The incidence of preterm birth (PTB) is increasing annually worldwide, leading to various health problems or even fetal deaths. Our previous work demonstrated the activation of transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily C 3 (TRPC3) in mice with PTB, and its activation could promote inward flow of calcium ions and uterine smooth muscle (USM) contraction via regulation of Cav3.2, Cav3.1, and Cav1.2. However, the upstream regulators of TRPC3 and its mechanisms remain unknown. In the present study, the binding of miR-26a-5p to the 3' untranslated region of TRPC3 was predicted by bioinformatics databases (TargetScanHuman and starBase v3.0) and confirmed by a dual-luciferase assay. MiR-26a-5p was downregulated, while TRPC3 was upregulated in the USM tissues of patients with PTB compared to people without PTB. The results showed that miR-26a-5p mimic transfection markedly reduced TRPC3 expression in LPS-stimulated USM cells. Additionally, miR-26a-5p regulated intracellular Ca2+ levels in USM cells by targeting TRPC3. Furthermore, miR-26a-5p inhibited the CPI17/PKC/PLCγ signaling pathway and reduced the expression of Cav3.2, Cav3.1, and Cav1.2. In conclusion, miR-26a-5p regulated the initiation of PTB by targeting TRPC3 and regulating intracellular Ca2+ levels. This study provides a promising diagnostic biomarker and therapeutic target for PTB.

CRISPR/SaCas9 mutagenesis of stromal interaction molecule 1 in proopiomelanocortin neurons increases glutamatergic excitability and protects against diet-induced obesity

OBJECTIVE

Proopiomelanocortin (POMC) neurons are the key anorexigenic hypothalamic neuron for integrating metabolic cues to generate the appropriate output for maintaining energy homeostasis and express the requisite channels as a perfect synaptic integrator in this role. Similar to the metabolic hormones leptin and insulin, glutamate also excites POMC neurons via group I metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR1 and 5, mGluR1/5) that activate Transient Receptor Potential Canonical (TRPC 5) Channels to cause depolarization. A key modulator of TRPC 5 channel activity is stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1), which is involved in recruitment of TRPC 5 channels from receptor-operated to store-operated calcium entry following depletion of calcium from the endoplasmic reticulum.

METHODS

We used a single adeno-associated viral (AAV) vector containing a recombinase-dependent Staphylococcus aureus Cas9 (SaCas) and a single guide RNA (sgRNA) to mutate Stim1 in POMC^Cre neurons in male mice, verified by qPCR of Stim1 mRNA expression in single POMC neurons. Whole-cell patch clamp experiments were conducted to validate the effects of Stim1 mutagenesis. Body weight and food intake were measured in male mice to assess disruptions in energy balance.

RESULTS

Reduced Stim1 expression augmented the efficacy of the mGluR1/5 agonist 3, 5-Dihydroxyphenylglycine (DHPG) to depolarize POMC neurons via a Gα_q-coupled signaling pathway, which is an essential part of excitatory glutamatergic input in regulating energy homeostasis. The TRPC 5 channel blockers HC070 and Pico145 antagonized the excitatory effects of DHPG. As proof of principle, mutagenesis of Stim1 in POMC neurons reduced food intake, attenuated weight gain, reduced body fat and fat pad mass in mice fed a high fat diet.

CONCLUSIONS

Using CRISPR technology we have uncovered a critical role of STIM1 in modulating glutamatergic activation of TRPC 5 channels in POMC neurons, which ultimately is important for maintaining energy balance.

Critical contributions of pre-S1 shoulder and distal TRP box in DAG-activated TRPC6 channel by PIP2 regulation

Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PI(4,5)P₂ or PIP₂) regulates the activities of numerous membrane proteins, including diacylglycerol(DAG)-activated TRPC3/6/7 channels. Although PIP₂ binding is known to support DAG-activated TRP channel activity, its binding site remains unknown. We screened for PIP₂ binding sites within TRPC6 channels through extensive mutagenesis. Using voltage-sensitive phosphatase (DrVSP), we found that Arg437 and Lys442, located in the channel’s pre-S1 domain/shoulder, are crucial for interaction with PIP₂. To gain structural insights, we conducted computer protein–ligand docking simulations with the pre-S1 domain/shoulder of TRPC6 channels. Further, the functional significance of PIP₂ binding to the pre-S1 shoulder was assessed for receptor-operated channel functions, cross-reactivity to DAG activation, and the kinetic model simulation. These results revealed that basic residues in the pre-S1 domain/shoulder play a central role in the regulation of PIP₂-dependent gating. In addition, neutralizing mutation of K771 in the distal TRP box reversed the effect of PIP₂ depletion from inhibiting to potentiating channel activity. A similar effect was seen in TRPV1 channels, which suggests that TRPC6 possesses a common but robust polarity switch mediating the PIP₂-dependent effect. Overall, these mutagenesis studies reveal functional and structural insights for how basic residues and channel segments in TRP channels are controlled through phosphoinositides recognition.

Estrogenic regulation of reproduction and energy homeostasis by a triumvirate of hypothalamic arcuate neurons

Pregnancy is energetically demanding and therefore, by necessity, reproduction and energy balance are inextricably linked. With insufficient or excessive energy stores a female is liable to suffer complications during pregnancy or produce unhealthy offspring. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone neurons are responsible for initiating both the pulsatile and subsequent surge release of luteinizing hormone to control ovulation. Meticulous work has identified two hypothalamic populations of kisspeptin (Kiss1) neurons that are critical for this pattern of release. The involvement of the hypothalamus is unsurprising because its quintessential function is to couple the endocrine and nervous systems, coordinating energy balance and reproduction. Estrogens, more specifically 17β-estradiol (E₂ ), orchestrate the activity of a triumvirate of hypothalamic neurons within the arcuate nucleus (ARH) that govern the physiological underpinnings of these behavioral dynamics. Arising from a common progenitor pool, these cells differentiate into ARH kisspeptin, pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC), and agouti related peptide/neuropeptide Y (AgRP) neurons. Although the excitability of all these subpopulations is subject to genomic and rapid estrogenic regulation, Kiss1 neurons are the most sensitive, reflecting their integral function in female fertility. Based on the premise that E₂ coordinates autonomic functions around reproduction, we review recent findings on how Kiss1 neurons interact with gonadotropin-releasing hormone, AgRP and POMC neurons, as well as how the rapid membrane-initiated and intracellular signaling cascades activated by E₂ in these neurons are critical for control of homeostatic functions supporting reproduction. In particular, we highlight how Kiss1 and POMC neurons conspire to inhibit AgRP neurons and diminish food motivation in service of reproductive success.

Deletion of Stim1 in Hypothalamic Arcuate Nucleus Kiss1 Neurons Potentiates Synchronous GCaMP Activity and Protects against Diet-Induced Obesity

Kisspeptin (Kiss1) neurons are essential for reproduction, but their role in the control of energy balance and other homeostatic functions remains unclear. High-frequency firing of hypothalamic arcuate Kiss1 (Kiss1^ARH) neurons releases kisspeptin into the median eminence, and neurokinin B (NKB) and dynorphin onto neighboring Kiss1^ARH neurons to generate a slow EPSP mediated by TRPC5 channels that entrains intermittent, synchronous firing of Kiss1^ARH neurons. High-frequency optogenetic stimulation of Kiss1^ARH neurons also releases glutamate to excite the anorexigenic proopiomelanocortin (POMC) neurons and inhibit the orexigenic neuropeptide Y/agouti-related peptide (AgRP) neurons via metabotropic glutamate receptors. At the molecular level, the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) calcium-sensing protein stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1) is critically involved in the regulation of neuronal Ca²⁺ signaling and neuronal excitability through its interaction with plasma membrane (PM) calcium (e.g., TRPC) channels. Therefore, we hypothesized that deletion of Stim1 in Kiss1^ARH neurons would increase neuronal excitability and their synchronous firing, which ultimately would affect energy homeostasis. Using optogenetics in combination with whole-cell recording and GCaMP6 imaging in slices, we discovered that deletion of Stim1 in Kiss1 neurons significantly increased the amplitude and duration of the slow EPSP and augmented synchronous [Ca²⁺]i oscillations in Kiss1^ARH neurons. Deletion of Stim1 in Kiss1^ARH neurons amplified the actions of NKB and protected ovariectomized female mice from developing obesity and glucose intolerance with high-fat dieting (HFD). Therefore, STIM1 appears to play a critical role in regulating synchronous firing of Kiss1^ARH neurons, which ultimately affects the coordination between energy homeostasis and reproduction.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Hypothalamic arcuate kisspeptin (Kiss1^ARH) neurons are essential for stimulating the pulsatile release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and maintaining fertility. However, Kiss1^ARH neurons appear to be a key player in coordinating energy balance with reproduction. The regulation of calcium channels and hence calcium signaling is critically dependent on the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) calcium-sensing protein stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1), which interacts with the plasma membrane (PM) calcium channels. We have conditionally deleted Stim1 in Kiss1^ARH neurons and found that it significantly increased the excitability of Kiss1^ARH neurons and protected ovariectomized female mice from developing obesity and glucose intolerance with high-fat dieting (HFD).

TRP Channels Regulation of Rho GTPases in Brain Context and Diseases

Neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders are mediated by several pathophysiological mechanisms, including developmental and degenerative abnormalities caused primarily by disturbances in cell migration, structural plasticity of the synapse, and blood-vessel barrier function. In this context, critical pathways involved in the pathogenesis of these diseases are related to structural, scaffolding, and enzymatic activity-bearing proteins, which participate in Ca²⁺- and Ras Homologs (Rho) GTPases-mediated signaling. Rho GTPases are GDP/GTP binding proteins that regulate the cytoskeletal structure, cellular protrusion, and migration. These proteins cycle between GTP-bound (active) and GDP-bound (inactive) states due to their intrinsic GTPase activity and their dynamic regulation by GEFs, GAPs, and GDIs. One of the most important upstream inputs that modulate Rho GTPases activity is Ca²⁺ signaling, positioning ion channels as pivotal molecular entities for Rho GTPases regulation. Multiple non-selective cationic channels belonging to the Transient Receptor Potential (TRP) family participate in cytoskeletal-dependent processes through Ca²⁺-mediated modulation of Rho GTPases. Moreover, these ion channels have a role in several neuropathological events such as neuronal cell death, brain tumor progression and strokes. Although Rho GTPases-dependent pathways have been extensively studied, how they converge with TRP channels in the development or progression of neuropathologies is poorly understood. Herein, we review recent evidence and insights that link TRP channels activity to downstream Rho GTPase signaling or modulation. Moreover, using the TRIP database, we establish associations between possible mediators of Rho GTPase signaling with TRP ion channels. As such, we propose mechanisms that might explain the TRP-dependent modulation of Rho GTPases as possible pathways participating in the emergence or maintenance of neuropathological conditions.

Mechanisms and significance of Ca2+ entry through TRPC channels

The transient receptor potential (TRP) superfamily of plasma membrane cation channels has been recognized as a signaling hub in highly diverse settings of human physiopathology. In the past three decades of TRP research, attention was focused mainly on the channels Ca2+ signaling function, albeit additional cellular functions, aside of providing a Ca2+ entry pathway, have been identified. Our understanding of Ca2+ signaling by TRP proteins has recently been advanced by a gain in high-resolution structure information on these pore complexes, and by the development of novel tools to investigate their role in spatiotemporal Ca2+ handling. This review summarizes recent discoveries as well as remaining, unresolved aspects of the canonical subfamily of transient receptor potential channels (TRPC) research. We aim at a concise overview on current mechanistic concepts of Ca2+ entry through- and Ca2+ signaling by TRPC channels.

TRPC1 participates in the HSV-1 infection process by facilitating viral entry

Mammalian transient receptor potential (TRP) channels are major components of Ca2+ signaling pathways and control a diversity of physiological functions. Here, we report a specific role for TRPC1 in the entry of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) into cells. HSV-1-induced Ca2+ release and entry were dependent on Orai1, STIM1, and TRPC1. Inhibition of Ca2+ entry or knockdown of these proteins attenuated viral entry and infection. HSV-1 glycoprotein D interacted with the third ectodomain of TRPC1, and this interaction facilitated viral entry. Knockout of TRPC1 attenuated HSV-1-induced ocular abnormality and morbidity in vivo in TRPC1-/- mice. There was a strong correlation between HSV-1 infection and plasma membrane localization of TRPC1 in epithelial cells within oral lesions in buccal biopsies from HSV-1-infected patients. Together, our findings demonstrate a critical role for TRPC1 in HSV-1 infection and suggest the channel as a potential target for anti-HSV therapy.

TRPC5 regulates axonal outgrowth in developing retinal ganglion cells

The TRPC5 ion channel is activated upon depletion of intracellular calcium stores, as well as by various stimuli such as nitric oxide (NO), membrane stretch, and cold temperatures. TRPC5 is abundantly expressed in the central nervous system where it has important neuronal functions. In the chick retina, TRPC5 expression was shown to be restricted to amacrine cells (ACs) and Müller glial cells, although its expression was also observed in the ganglion cell layer (GCL) in displaced ACs, as determined by their characteristic cell morphology. However, it is possible that this expression analysis alone might be insufficient to fully understand the expression of TRPC5 in retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). Hence, we analyzed TRPC5 expression by in situ hybridization and immunostaining in the developing mouse retina, and for the first time identified that developing and mature RGCs strongly express TRPC5. The expression begins at E14.5, and is restricted to ACs and RGCs. It was reported that TRPC5 negatively regulates axonal outgrowth in hippocampal neurons. We thus hypothesized that TRPC5 might have similar functions in RGCs since they extend very long axons toward the brain, and this characteristic significantly differs from other retinal cell types. To elucidate its possible involvement in axonal outgrowth, we inhibited TRPC5 activity in developing RGCs which significantly increased RGC axon length. In contrast, overexpression of TRPC5 inhibited axonal outgrowth in developing RGCs. These results indicate that TRPC5 is an important negative regulator of RGC axonal outgrowth. Since TRPC5 is a mechanosensor, it might function to sense abnormal intraocular pressure changes, and could contribute to the death of RGCs in diseases such as glaucoma. In this case, excessive Ca²⁺ entry through TRPC5 might induce dendritic and axonal remodeling, which could lead to cell death, as our findings clearly indicate that TRPC5 is an important regulator of neurite remodeling.

TRPCing around the hypothalamus

All of the canonical transient receptor potential channels (TRPC) with the exception of TRPC 2 are expressed in hypothalamic neurons and are involved in multiple homeostatic functions. Although the metabotropic glutamate receptors have been shown to be coupled to TRPC channel activation in cortical and sub-cortical brain regions, in the hypothalamus multiple amine and peptidergic G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and growth factor/cytokine receptors are linked to activation of TRPC channels that are vital for reproduction, temperature regulation, arousal and energy homeostasis. In addition to the neurotransmitters, circulating hormones like insulin and leptin through their cognate receptors activate TRPC channels in POMC neurons. Many of the post-synaptic effects of the neurotransmitters and hormones are regulated in different physiological states by expression of TRPC channels in the post-synaptic neurons. Therefore, TRPC channels are key targets not only for neurotransmitters but circulating hormones in their vital role to control multiple hypothalamic functions, which is the focus of this review.

Deregulation of calcium homeostasis in Bcr-Abl-dependent chronic myeloid leukemia

Background

Chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) results from hematopoietic stem cell transformation by the bcr-abl chimeric oncogene, encoding a 210 kDa protein with constitutive tyrosine kinase activity. In spite of the efficiency of tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKI; Imatinib), other strategies are explored to eliminate CML leukemia stem cells, such as calcium pathways.

Results

In this work, we showed that Store-Operated Calcium Entry (SOCE) and thrombin induced calcium influx were decreased in Bcr-Abl expressing 32d cells (32d-p210). The 32d-p210 cells showed modified Orai1/STIM1 ratio and reduced TRPC1 expression that could explain SOCE reduction. Decrease in SOCE and thrombin induced calcium entry was associated to reduced Nuclear Factor of Activated T cells (NFAT) nucleus translocation in 32d-p210 cells. We demonstrated that SOCE blockers enhanced cell mobility of 32d-p210 cells and reduced the proliferation rate in both 32d cell lines. TKI treatment slightly reduced the thrombin-induced response, but imatinib restored SOCE to the wild type level. Bcr-Abl is also known to deregulate Protein Kinase C (PKC), which was described to modulate calcium entries. We showed that PKC enhances SOCE and thrombin induced calcium entries in control cells while this effect is lost in Bcr-Abl-expressing cells.

Conclusion

The tyrosine kinase activity seems to regulate calcium entries probably not directly but through a global cellular reorganization involving a PKC pathway. Altogether, calcium entries are deregulated in Bcr-Abl-expressing cells and could represent an interesting therapeutic target in combination with TKI.

Molecular Regulation of Sprouting Angiogenesis

The term angiogenesis arose in the 18th century. Several studies over the next 100 years laid the groundwork for initial studies performed by the Folkman laboratory, which were at first met with some opposition. Once overcome, the angiogenesis field has flourished due to studies on tumor angiogenesis and various developmental models that can be genetically manipulated, including mice and zebrafish. In addition, new discoveries have been aided by the ability to isolate primary endothelial cells, which has allowed dissection of various steps within angiogenesis. This review will summarize the molecular events that control angiogenesis downstream of biochemical factors such as growth factors, cytokines, chemokines, hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs), and lipids. These and other stimuli have been linked to regulation of junctional molecules and cell surface receptors. In addition, the contribution of cytoskeletal elements and regulatory proteins has revealed an intricate role for mobilization of actin, microtubules, and intermediate filaments in response to cues that activate the endothelium. Activating stimuli also affect various focal adhesion proteins, scaffold proteins, intracellular kinases, and second messengers. Finally, metalloproteinases, which facilitate matrix degradation and the formation of new blood vessels, are discussed, along with our knowledge of crosstalk between the various subclasses of these molecules throughout the text. Compr Physiol 8:153-235, 2018.

Smooth Muscle Ion Channels and Regulation of Vascular Tone in Resistance Arteries and Arterioles

Vascular tone of resistance arteries and arterioles determines peripheral vascular resistance, contributing to the regulation of blood pressure and blood flow to, and within the body's tissues and organs. Ion channels in the plasma membrane and endoplasmic reticulum of vascular smooth muscle cells (SMCs) in these blood vessels importantly contribute to the regulation of intracellular Ca2+ concentration, the primary determinant of SMC contractile activity and vascular tone. Ion channels provide the main source of activator Ca2+ that determines vascular tone, and strongly contribute to setting and regulating membrane potential, which, in turn, regulates the open-state-probability of voltage gated Ca2+ channels (VGCCs), the primary source of Ca2+ in resistance artery and arteriolar SMCs. Ion channel function is also modulated by vasoconstrictors and vasodilators, contributing to all aspects of the regulation of vascular tone. This review will focus on the physiology of VGCCs, voltage-gated K+ (KV) channels, large-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ (BKCa) channels, strong-inward-rectifier K+ (KIR) channels, ATP-sensitive K+ (KATP) channels, ryanodine receptors (RyRs), inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors (IP3Rs), and a variety of transient receptor potential (TRP) channels that contribute to pressure-induced myogenic tone in resistance arteries and arterioles, the modulation of the function of these ion channels by vasoconstrictors and vasodilators, their role in the functional regulation of tissue blood flow and their dysfunction in diseases such as hypertension, obesity, and diabetes. © 2017 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 7:485-581, 2017.

Stromal Interaction Molecule 1 (STIM1) Regulates ATP-sensitive Potassium (KATP) and Store-operated Ca2+ Channels in MIN6 β-Cells

Stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1) regulates store-operated Ca²⁺ entry (SOCE) and other ion channels either as an endoplasmic reticulum Ca²⁺-sensing protein or when present in the plasma membrane. However, the role of STIM1 in insulin-secreting β-cells is unresolved. We report that lowering expression of STIM1, the gene that encodes STIM1, in insulin-secreting MIN6 β-cells with RNA interference inhibits SOCE and ATP-sensitive K⁺ (K_ATP) channel activation. The effects of STIM1 knockdown were reversed by transduction of MIN6 cells with an adenovirus gene shuttle vector that expressed human STIM1 Immunoprecipitation studies revealed that STIM1 binds to nucleotide binding fold-1 (NBF1) of the sulfonylurea receptor 1 (SUR1) subunit of the K_ATP channel. Binding of STIM1 to SUR1 was enhanced by poly-lysine. Our data indicate that SOCE and K_ATP channel activity are regulated by STIM1. This suggests that STIM1 is a multifunctional signaling effector that participates in the control of membrane excitability and Ca²⁺ signaling events in β-cells.

Reprint of "Mechanisms of lipid regulation and lipid gating in TRPC channels"

TRPC proteins form cation channels that integrate and relay cellular signals by mechanisms involving lipid recognition and lipid-dependent gating. The lipohilic/amphiphilic molecules that function as cellular activators or modulators of TRPC proteins span a wide range of chemical structures. In this context, cellular redox balance is likely linked to the lipid recognition/gating features of TRPC channels. Both classical ligand-protein interactions as well as indirect and promiscuous sensory mechanisms have been proposed. Some of the recognition processes are suggested to involve ancillary lipid-binding scaffolds or regulators as well as dynamic protein-protein interactions determined by bilayer architecture. A complex interplay of protein-protein and protein-lipid interactions is likely to govern the gating and/or plasma membrane recruitment of TRPC channels, thereby providing a distinguished platform for signal integration and coincident signal detection. Both the primary molecular event(s) of lipid recognition by TRPC channels as well as the transformation of these events into distinct gating movements is poorly understood at the molecular level, and it remains elusive whether lipid sensing in TRPCs is conferred to a distinct sensor domain. Recent structural information on the molecular action of lipophilic activators in distantly related members of the TRP superfamily encourages speculations on TRPC gating mechanisms involved in lipid recognition/gating. This review aims to provide an update on the current understanding of the lipid-dependent control of TRPC channels with focus on the TRPC lipid sensing, signal-integration hub and a short discussion of potential links to redox signaling.

Mechanisms of lipid regulation and lipid gating in TRPC channels

TRPC proteins form cation channels that integrate and relay cellular signals by mechanisms involving lipid recognition and lipid-dependent gating. The lipohilic/amphiphilic molecules that function as cellular activators or modulators of TRPC proteins span a wide range of chemical structures. In this context, cellular redox balance is likely linked to the lipid recognition/gating features of TRPC channels. Both classical ligand-protein interactions as well as indirect and promiscuous sensory mechanisms have been proposed. Some of the recognition processes are suggested to involve ancillary lipid-binding scaffolds or regulators as well as dynamic protein-protein interactions determined by bilayer architecture. A complex interplay of protein-protein and protein-lipid interactions is likely to govern the gating and/or plasma membrane recruitment of TRPC channels, thereby providing a distinguished platform for signal integration and coincident signal detection. Both the primary molecular event(s) of lipid recognition by TRPC channels as well as the transformation of these events into distinct gating movements is poorly understood at the molecular level, and it remains elusive whether lipid sensing in TRPCs is conferred to a distinct sensor domain. Recent structural information on the molecular action of lipophilic activators in distantly related members of the TRP superfamily encourages speculations on TRPC gating mechanisms involved in lipid recognition/gating. This review aims to provide an update on the current understanding of the lipid-dependent control of TRPC channels with focus on the TRPC lipid sensing, signal-integration hub and a short discussion of potential links to redox signaling.

Role of Scaffolding Proteins in the Regulation of TRPC-Dependent Calcium Entry

Plasma membrane ion channels, and in particular TRPC channels need a specific membrane environment and association with scaffolding, signaling, and cytoskeleton proteins in order to play their important functional role. The molecular composition of TRPC channels is an important factor in determining channel activation mechanisms. TRPC proteins are incorporated in macromolecular complexes including several key Ca(2 +) signaling proteins as well as proteins involved in vesicle trafficking, cytoskeletal interactions, and scaffolding. Evidence has been provided for association of TRPC with calmodulin (CaM), IP3R, PMCA, Gq/11, RhoA, and a variety of scaffolding proteins. The interaction between TRPC channels with adaptor proteins, determines their mode of regulation as well as their cellular localization and function. Adaptor proteins do not display any enzymatic activity but act as scaffold for the building of signaling complexes. The scaffolding proteins are involved in the assembling of these Ca(2+) signaling complexes, the correct sub-cellular localization of protein partners, and the regulation of the TRPC channelosome. In particular, these proteins, via their multiple protein-protein interaction motifs, can interact with various ion channels involved in the transmembrane potential, and membrane excitability. Scaffolding proteins are key components for the functional organization of TRPC channelosomes that serves as a platform regulating slow Ca(2+) entry, spatially and temporally controlled [Ca(2+)]i signals and Ca(2+) -dependent cellular functions.

Multiple types of calcium channels arising from alternative translation initiation of the Orai1 message

In mammals exclusively, the pore-forming Ca(2+) release-activated Ca(2+) (CRAC) channel subunit Orai1 occurs in two forms because of alternative translation initiation. The longer, mammal-specific Orai1α contains an additional 63 amino acids upstream of the conserved start site for Orai1β, which occurs at methionine 64 in Orai1α. Orai1 participates in the generation of three distinct Ca(2+) currents, including two store-operated currents: Icrac, which involves activation of Orai1 channels by the Ca(2+)-sensing protein STIM1 (stromal interaction molecule 1), and Isoc, which involves an interaction among Orai1, the transient receptor potential (TRP) family member TRPC1 (TRP canonical 1), and STIM1. Orai1 is also a pore-forming subunit of an arachidonic acid (or leukotriene C4)-regulated current Iarc that involves interactions among Orai1, Orai3, and STIM1. We evaluated the roles of the two Orai1 forms in the Ca(2+) currents Icrac, Isoc, and Iarc. We found that Orai1α and Orai1β were largely interchangeable for Icrac and Isoc, although Orai1α exhibited stronger inhibition by Ca(2+). Only the mammalian-specific Orai1α functioned in the arachidonic acid-regulated current Iarc. Thus, alternative translation initiation of the Orai1 message produces at least three types of Ca(2+) channels with distinct signaling and regulatory properties.

Chronic hypoxia increases TRPC6 expression and basal intracellular Ca2+ concentration in rat distal pulmonary venous smooth muscle

BACKGROUND

Hypoxia causes remodeling and contractile responses in both pulmonary artery (PA) and pulmonary vein (PV). Here we explore the effect of hypoxia on PV and pulmonary venous smooth muscle cells (PVSMCs).

METHODS

Chronic hypoxic pulmonary hypertension (CHPH) model was established by exposing rats to 10% O2 for 21 days. Rat distal PVSMCs were isolated and cultured for in vitro experiments. The fura-2 based fluorescence calcium imaging was used to measure the basal intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) and store-operated Ca2+ entry (SOCE). Quantitative RT-PCR and western blotting were performed to measure the expression of mRNA and levels of canonical transient receptor potential (TRPC) protein respectively.

RESULTS

Hypoxia increased the basal [Ca2+]i and SOCE in both freshly dissociated and serum cultured distal PVSMCs. Moreover, hypoxia increased TRPC6 expression at mRNA and protein levels in both cultured PVSMCs exposed to prolonged hypoxia (4% O2, 60 h) and distal PV isolated from CHPH rats. Hypoxia also enhanced proliferation and migration of rat distal PVSMCs.

CONCLUSIONS

Hypoxia induces elevation of SOCE in distal PVSMCs, leading to enhancement of basal [Ca2+]i in PVSMCs. This enhancement is potentially correlated with the increased expression of TRPC6. Hypoxia triggered intracellular calcium contributes to promoted proliferation and migration of PVSMCs.

TRP channels and STIM/ORAI proteins: sensors and effectors of cancer and stroma cell migration

Cancer cells are strongly influenced by host cells within the tumour stroma and vice versa. This leads to the development of a tumour microenvironment with distinct physical and chemical properties that are permissive for tumour progression. The ability to migrate plays a central role in this mutual interaction. Migration of cancer cells is considered as a prerequisite for tumour metastasis and the migration of host stromal cells is required for reaching the tumour site. Increasing evidence suggests that transient receptor potential (TRP) channels and STIM/ORAI proteins affect key calcium-dependent mechanisms implicated in both cancer and stroma cell migration. These include, among others, cytoskeletal remodelling, growth factor/cytokine signalling and production, and adaptation to tumour microenvironmental properties such as hypoxia and oxidative stress. In this review, we will summarize the current knowledge regarding TRP channels and STIM/ORAI proteins in cancer and stroma cell migration. We focus on how TRP channel or STIM/ORAI-mediated Ca(2+) signalling directly or indirectly influences cancer and stroma cell migration by affecting the above listed mechanisms.

LINKED ARTICLES

This article is part of a themed section on Cytoskeleton, Extracellular Matrix, Cell Migration, Wound Healing and Related Topics. To view the other articles in this section visit http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/bph.2014.171.issue-24.

KCa and Ca(2+) channels: the complex thought

Potassium channels belong to the largest and the most diverse super-families of ion channels. Among them, Ca(2+)-activated K(+) channels (KCa) comprise many members. Based on their single channel conductance they are divided into three subfamilies: big conductance (BKCa), intermediate conductance (IKCa) and small conductance (SKCa; SK1, SK2 and SK3). Ca(2+) channels are divided into two main families, voltage gated/voltage dependent Ca(2+) channels and non-voltage gated/voltage independent Ca(2+) channels. Based on their electrophysiological and pharmacological properties and on the tissue where there are expressed, voltage gated Ca(2+) channels (Cav) are divided into 5 families: T-type, L-type, N-type, P/Q-type and R-type Ca(2+). Non-voltage gated Ca(2+) channels comprise the TRP (TRPC, TRPV, TRPM, TRPA, TRPP, TRPML and TRPN) and Orai (Orai1 to Orai3) families and their partners STIM (STIM1 to STIM2). A depolarization is needed to activate voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels while non-voltage gated Ca(2+) channels are activated by Ca(2+) depletion of the endoplasmic reticulum stores (SOCs) or by receptors (ROCs). These two Ca(2+) channel families also control constitutive Ca(2+) entries. For reducing the energy consumption and for the fine regulation of Ca(2+), KCa and Ca(2+) channels appear associated as complexes in excitable and non-excitable cells. Interestingly, there is now evidence that KCa-Ca(2+) channel complexes are also found in cancer cells and contribute to cancer-associated functions such as cell proliferation, cell migration and the capacity to develop metastases. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Calcium signaling in health and disease. Guest Editors: Geert Bultynck, Jacques Haiech, Claus W. Heizmann, Joachim Krebs, and Marc Moreau.

Functional properties of ion channels and transporters in tumour vascularization

Vascularization is crucial for solid tumour growth and invasion, providing metabolic support and sustaining metastatic dissemination. It is now accepted that ion channels and transporters play a significant role in driving the cancer growth at all stages. They may represent novel therapeutic, diagnostic and prognostic targets for anti-cancer therapies. On the other hand, although the expression and role of ion channels and transporters in the vascular endothelium is well recognized and subject of recent reviews, only recently has their involvement in tumour vascularization been recognized. Here, we review the current literature on ion channels and transporters directly involved in the angiogenic process. Particular interest will be focused on tumour angiogenesis in vivo as well as in the different steps that drive this process in vitro, such as endothelial cell proliferation, migration, adhesion and tubulogenesis. Moreover, we compare the 'transportome' system of tumour vascular network with the physiological one.

TRPC5

Human canonical transient receptor potential channel 5 (TRPC5) has been cloned from the Xq23 region on chromosome X as a suspect in nonsyndromic mental retardation. TRPC5 is a Ca(2+)-permeable cation channel predominantly expressed in the CNS, including the hippocampus, cerebellum, amygdala, sensory neurons, and retina. It also shows more restricted expression in the periphery, notably in the kidney and cardiovascular system. Homotetrameric TRPC5 channels are primarily activated by receptors coupled to Gq and phospholipase C and/or Gi proteins, but TRPC5 channels may also gate in a store-dependent manner, which requires other partner proteins such TRPC1, STIM1, and Orai1. There is an impressive array of other activators of TRPC5 channels, such as nitric oxide, lysophospholipids, sphingosine-1-phosphate, reduced thioredoxin, protons, lanthanides, and calcium, and many can cause its direct activation. Moreover, TRPC5 shows constitutive activity, and it is responsive to membrane stretch and cold. Thus, TRPC5 channels have significant potential for synergistic activation and may serve as an important focal point in Ca(2+) signalling and electrogenesis. Moreover, TRPC5 functions in partnership with about 60 proteins, including TRPC1, TRPC4, calmodulin, IP3 receptors, NHERF, NCS-1, junctate, stathmin 2, Ca(2+)-binding protein 1, caveolin, and SESTD1, while its desensitisation is mediated by both protein kinases A and C. TRPC5 has a distinct voltage dependence shared only with its closest relative, TRPC4. Its unique N-shaped activation curve underlined by intracellular Mg(2+) block seems to be perfectly "shaped" to trigger action potential discharge, but not to grossly interfere with the action potential shape. The range of biological functions of TRPC5 channels is also impressive, from neurotransmission to control of axon guidance and vascular smooth muscle cell migration and contractility. Recent studies of Trpc5 gene knockouts begin to uncover its roles in fear, anxiety, seizures, and cold sensing.

Physiological functions and regulation of TRPC channels

The TRP-canonical (TRPC) subfamily, which consists of seven members (TRPC1-TRPC7), are Ca(2+)-permeable cation channels that are activated in response to receptor-mediated PIP2 hydrolysis via store-dependent and store-independent mechanisms. These channels are involved in a variety of physiological functions in different cell types and tissues. Of these, TRPC6 has been linked to a channelopathy resulting in human disease. Two key players of the store-dependent regulatory pathway, STIM1 and Orai1, interact with some TRPC channels to gate and regulate channel activity. The Ca(2+) influx mediated by TRPC channels generates distinct intracellular Ca(2+) signals that regulate downstream signaling events and consequent cell functions. This requires localization of TRPC channels in specific plasma membrane microdomains and precise regulation of channel function which is coordinated by various scaffolding, trafficking, and regulatory proteins.

The Concise Guide to PHARMACOLOGY 2013/14: ion channels

The Concise Guide to PHARMACOLOGY 2013/14 provides concise overviews of the key properties of over 2000 human drug targets with their pharmacology, plus links to an open access knowledgebase of drug targets and their ligands (www.guidetopharmacology.org), which provides more detailed views of target and ligand properties. The full contents can be found at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.12444/full. Ion channels are one of the seven major pharmacological targets into which the Guide is divided, with the others being G protein-coupled receptors, ligand-gated ion channels, catalytic receptors, nuclear hormone receptors, transporters and enzymes. These are presented with nomenclature guidance and summary information on the best available pharmacological tools, alongside key references and suggestions for further reading. A new landscape format has easy to use tables comparing related targets. It is a condensed version of material contemporary to late 2013, which is presented in greater detail and constantly updated on the website www.guidetopharmacology.org, superseding data presented in previous Guides to Receptors and Channels. It is produced in conjunction with NC-IUPHAR and provides the official IUPHAR classification and nomenclature for human drug targets, where appropriate. It consolidates information previously curated and displayed separately in IUPHAR-DB and the Guide to Receptors and Channels, providing a permanent, citable, point-in-time record that will survive database updates.

Emerging role of TRP channels in cell migration: from tumor vascularization to metastasis

Transient Receptor Potential (TRP) channels modulate intracellular Ca(2+) concentrations, controlling critical cytosolic and nuclear events that are involved in the initiation and progression of cancer. It is not, therefore, surprising that the expression of some TRP channels is altered during tumor growth and metastasis. Cell migration of both epithelial and endothelial cells is an essential step of the so-called metastatic cascade that leads to the spread of the disease within the body. It is in fact required for both tumor vascularization as well as for tumor cell invasion into adjacent tissues and intravasation into blood/lymphatic vessels. Studies from the last 15 years have unequivocally shown that the ion channles and the transport proteins also play important roles in cell migration. On the other hand, recent literature underlies a critical role for TRP channels in the migration process both in cancer cells as well as in tumor vascularization. This will be the main focus of our review. We will provide an overview of recent advances in this field describing TRP channels contribution to the vascular and cancer cell migration process, and we will systematically discuss relevant molecular mechanism involved.

Kisspeptin activation of TRPC4 channels in female GnRH neurons requires PIP2 depletion and cSrc kinase activation

Kisspeptin signaling via its Gαq-coupled receptor GPR54 plays a crucial role in modulating GnRH neuronal excitability, which controls pituitary gonadotropins secretion and ultimately reproduction. Kisspeptin potently depolarizes GnRH neurons primarily through the activation of canonical transient receptor potential (TRPC) channels, but the intracellular signaling cascade has not been elucidated. Presently, we have established that kisspeptin activation of TRPC channels requires multiple membrane and intracellular signaling molecules. First, phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PIP(2)) hydrolysis by phospholipase Cβ is required because whole-cell dialysis of Dioctanoylglycerol-PIP(2) (DiC8-PIP(2)) inhibited the kisspeptin activation of TRPC channels, and the phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase inhibitor wortmannin, which attenuates PIP(2) synthesis, prolonged TRPC channel activation. Using single cell RT-PCR, we identified that the mRNA for the PIP(2)-interacting TRPC channel subunit, TRPC4α, is expressed in GnRH neurons. Depletion of intracellular Ca(2+) stores by thapsigargin and inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate had no effect, indicating that the TRPC channels are not store-operated. Neither removing extracellular Ca(2+) nor buffering intracellular Ca(2+) with EGTA or BAPTA had any effect on the kisspeptin activation of the TRPC channels. However, the Ca(2+) channel blocker Ni(2+) inhibited the kisspeptin-induced inward current. Moreover, inhibition of protein kinase C by bisindolylmaleimide-I or calphostin C had no effect, but activation of protein kinase C by phorbol 12,13-dibutyrate occluded the kisspeptin-activated current. Finally, inhibition of the cytoplasmic tyrosine kinase cSrc by genistein or the pyrazolo-pyrimidine PP2 blocked the activation of TRPC channels by kisspeptin. Therefore, TRPC channels in GnRH neurons are receptor-operated, and kisspeptin activates TRPC channels through PIP(2) depletion and cSrc tyrosine kinase activation, which is a novel signaling pathway for peptidergic excitation of GnRH neurons.

TRPC1-mediated Ca2+ and Na+ signalling in astroglia: differential filtering of extracellular cations

Canonical transient receptor potential 1 (TRPC1) plasmalemmal cation channels mediate Ca2+ and Na+ fluxes and control respective cytoplasmic ion signals in rat cortical astrocytes. Mechanical stimulation of astrocytes results in an increase in the levels of cytosolic Ca2+ and Na+ that are in part due to entry of extracellular cations through TRPC1 containing channels. Inhibition of the TRPC1 pore with an antibody against its selective filter reduced cytosolic Ca2+ accumulation caused by mechanical stimulation. In contrast, this immunological treatment increased the cytosolic Na+ peak accumulation induced by mechanical stimulation. We propose that TRPC channels are amenable to changes in selective filtering, as mutations in previous studies and antibody binding in our present study differentially affect the flux of Ca2) and Na+. TRPC1 containing channels might represent focal points for co-ordination of Ca2+ and Na+ signalling in astroglia and this can have consequences on Ca(2+)- and Na(+)-dependent processes such as regulated exocytosis and lactate production, respectively, which in turn can modulate neuronal synaptic transmission.

Stress peptide PACAP engages multiple signaling pathways within the carotid body to initiate excitatory responses in respiratory and sympathetic chemosensory afferents

Consistent with a critical role in respiratory and autonomic stress responses, the carotid bodies are strongly excited by pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP), a neuropeptide implicated in stress responses throughout the sympathetic nervous system. PACAP excites isolated carotid body glomus cells via activation of PAC1 receptors, with one study suggesting PAC1-induced excitation is due entirely to protein kinase A (PKA)-mediated inhibition of TASK channels. However, in other systems, PAC1 is known to be coupled to multiple intracellular signaling pathways, including PKA, phospholipase C (PLC), phospholipase D (PLD), and protein kinase C (PKC), that trigger multiple downstream effectors including increased Ca²⁺ mobilization, inhibition of various K⁺ channels, and activation of nonselective cation channels. This study tests if non-PKA/TASK channel signaling helps mediate the stimulatory effects of PACAP on the carotid body. Using an ex vivo arterially perfused rat carotid body preparation, we show that PACAP-38 stimulates carotid sinus nerve activity in a biphasic manner (peak response, falling to plateau). PKA blocker H-89 only reduced the plateau response (~41%), whereas the TASK-1-like K⁺ channel blocker/transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 channel agonist anandamide only inhibited the peak response (~48%), suggesting involvement of additional pathways. The PLD blocker CAY10594 significantly inhibited both peak and plateau responses. The PLC blocker U73122 decimated both peak and plateau responses. Brefeldin A, a blocker of Epac (cAMP-activated guanine exchange factor, reported to link Gs-coupled receptors with PLC/PLD), also reduced both phases of the response, as did blocking signaling downstream of PLC/PLD with the PKC inhibitors chelerythrine chloride and GF109203X. Suggesting the involvement of non-TASK ion channels in the effects of PACAP, the A-type K⁺ channel blocker 4-aminopyridine, and the putative transient receptor potential channel (TRPC)/T-type calcium channel blocker SKF96365 each significantly inhibited the peak and steady-state responses. These data suggest the stimulatory effect of PACAP-38 on carotid body sensory activity is mediated through multiple signaling pathways: the PLC-PKC pathways predominates, with TRPC and/or T-type channel activation and Kv channel inactivation; only partial involvement is attributable to PKA and PLD activation.

Kisspeptin excitation of GnRH neurons

Kisspeptin binding to its cognate G protein-coupled receptor (GPR54, aka Kiss1R) in gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons stimulates peptide release and activation of the reproductive axis in mammals. Kisspeptin has pronounced pre- and postsynaptic effects, with the latter dominating the excitability of GnRH neurons. Presynaptically, kisspeptin increases the excitatory drive (both GABA-A and glutamate) to GnRH neurons and postsynaptically, kisspeptin inhibits an A-type and inwardly rectifying K(+) (Kir 6.2 and GIRK) currents and activates nonselective cation (TRPC) currents to cause long-lasting depolarization and increased action potential firing. The signaling cascades and the multiple intracellular targets of kisspeptin actions in native GnRH neurons are continuing to be elucidated. This review summarizes our current state of knowledge about kisspeptin signaling in GnRH neurons.

Macrophage function in atherosclerosis: potential roles of TRP channels

Cation channels of the Transient Receptor Potential Canonical (TRPC) group, which belong to the larger TRP superfamily of channel proteins, are critical players in cardiovascular disease. Recent studies underscored a role of TRPC3 in macrophage survival and efferocytosis, two critical events in atherosclerosis lesion development. Also, other members of the TRP channel superfamily are found expressed in monocytes/macrophages, where they participate in processes that might be of significance to atherogenesis. These observations set a framework for future studies aimed at defining the ultimate functions not only of TRPC3, but probably other TRP channels, in macrophage biology. The purpose of this manuscript is to provide a timely revision of existing evidence on the role of members of the TRP channel superfamily, in particular TRPCs, in macrophages and discuss it in the context of the macrophage's function in atherogenesis.

Effects of acetylcholine on neuronal properties in entorhinal cortex

The entorhinal cortex (EC) receives prominent cholinergic innervation from the medial septum and the vertical limb of the diagonal band of Broca (MSDB). To understand how cholinergic neurotransmission can modulate behavior, research has been directed toward identification of the specific cellular mechanisms in EC that can be modulated through cholinergic activity. This review focuses on intrinsic cellular properties of neurons in EC that may underlie functions such as working memory, spatial processing, and episodic memory. In particular, the study of stellate cells (SCs) in medial entorhinal has resulted in discovery of correlations between physiological properties of these neurons and properties of the unique spatial representation that is demonstrated through unit recordings of neurons in medial entorhinal cortex (mEC) from awake-behaving animals. A separate line of investigation has demonstrated persistent firing behavior among neurons in EC that is enhanced by cholinergic activity and could underlie working memory. There is also evidence that acetylcholine plays a role in modulation of synaptic transmission that could also enhance mnemonic function in EC. Finally, the local circuits of EC demonstrate a variety of interneuron physiology, which is also subject to cholinergic modulation. Together these effects alter the dynamics of EC to underlie the functional role of acetylcholine in memory.

The TR (i)P to Ca²⁺ signaling just got STIMy: an update on STIM1 activated TRPC channels

Calcium is a ubiquitous signaling molecule, indispensable for cellular metabolism of organisms from unicellular life forms to higher eukaryotes. The biological function of most eukaryotic cells is uniquely regulated by changes in cytosolic calcium, which is largely achieved by the universal phenomenon of store-operated calcium entry (SOCE). The canonical TRPs and Orai channels have been described as the molecular components of the store-operated calcium channels (SOCC). Importantly, the ER calcium-sensor STIM1 has been shown to initiate SOCE via gating of SOCC. Since the discovery of STIM1, as the critical regulator of SOCE, there has been a flurry of observations suggesting its obligatory role in regulating TRPC and Orai channel function. Considerable effort has been made to identify the molecular details as how STIM1 activates SOCC. In this context, findings as of yet has substantially enriched our understanding on, the modus operandi of SOCE, the distinct cellular locales that organize STIM1-SOCC complexes, and the physiological outcomes entailing STIM1-activated SOCE. In this review we discuss TRPC channels and provide an update on their functional regulation by STIM1.

The dynamic complexity of the TRPC1 channelosome

A rise in cytoplasmic [Ca2+] due to store-operated Ca2+ entry (SOCE) triggers a plethora of responses, both acute and long term. This leads to the important question of how this initial signal is decoded to regulate specific cellular functions. It is now clearly established that local [Ca2+] at the site of SOCE can vary significantly from the global [Ca2+] in the cytosol. Such Ca2+ microdomains are generated by the assembly of key Ca2+ signaling proteins within the domains. For example, GPCR, IP 3 receptors, TRPC3 channels, the plasma membrane Ca2+ pump and the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca2+ pump have all been found to be assembled in a complex and all of them contribute to the Ca2+ signal. Recent studies have revealed that two other critical components of SOCE, STIM1 and Orai1, are also recruited to these regions. Thus, the entire machinery for activation and regulation of SOCE is compartmentalized in specific cellular domains which facilitates the specificity and rate of protein-protein interactions that are required for activation of the channels. In the case of TRPC1-SOC channels, it appears that specific lipid domains, lipid raft domains (LRDs), in the plasma membrane, as well as cholesterol-binding scaffolding proteins such as caveolin-1 (Cav-1), are involved in assembly of the TRPC channel complexes. Thus, plasma membrane proteins and lipid domains as well as ER proteins contribute to the SOCE-Ca2+ signaling microdomain and modulation of the Ca2+ signals per se. Of further interest is that modulation of Ca2+ signals, i.e. amplitude and/or frequency, can result in regulation of specific cellular functions. The emerging data reveal a dynamic Ca2+ signaling complex composed of TRPC1/Orai1/STIM1 that is physiologically consistent with the dynamic nature of the Ca2+ signal that is generated. This review will focus on the recent studies which demonstrate critical aspects of the TRPC1 channelosome that are involved in the regulation of TRPC1 function and TRPC1-SOC-generated Ca2+ signals.

Regulators of Ca(2+) signaling in mast cells: potential targets for treatment of mast cell-related diseases?

A calcium signal is essential for degranulation, generation of eicosanoids and optimal production of cytokines in mast cells in response to antigen and other stimulants. The signal is initiated by phospholipase C-mediated production of inositol1,4,5-trisphosphate resulting in release of stored Ca(2+) from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and Golgi. Depletion of these stores activates influx of extracellular Ca(2+), usually referred to as store-operated calcium entry (SOCE), through the interaction of the Ca(2+)-sensor, stromal interacting molecule-1 (STIM1 ), in ER with Orai1(CRACM1) and transient receptor potential canonical (TRPC) channel proteins in the plasma membrane (PM). This interaction is enabled by microtubular-directed reorganization of ER to form ER/PM contact points or "punctae" in which STIM1 and channel proteins colocalize. The ensuing influx of Ca(2+) replenishes Ca(2+) stores and sustains elevated levels of cytosolic Ca(2+) ions-the obligatory signal for mast-cell activation. In addition, the signal can acquire spatial and dynamic characteristics (e.g., calcium puffs, waves, oscillations) that encode signals for specific functional outputs. This is achieved by coordinated regulation of Ca(2+) fluxes through ATP-dependent Ca(2+)-pumps and ion exchangers in mitochondria, ER and PM. As discussed in this chapter, studies in mast cells revealed much about the mechanisms described above but little about allergic and autoimmune diseases although studies in other types of cells have exposed genetic defects that lead to aberrant calcium signaling in immune diseases. Pharmacologic agents that inhibit or activate the regulatory components of calcium signaling in mast cells are also discussed along with the prospects for development of novel SOCE inhibitors that may prove beneficial in the treatment inflammatory mast-cell related diseases.

Emerging roles of canonical TRP channels in neuronal function

Ca(2+) signaling in neurons is intimately associated with the regulation of vital physiological processes including growth, survival and differentiation. In neurons, Ca(2+) elicits two major functions. First as a charge carrier, Ca(2+) reveals an indispensable role in information relay via membrane depolarization, exocytosis, and the release of neurotransmitters. Second on a global basis, Ca(2+) acts as a ubiquitous intracellular messenger to modulate neuronal function. Thus, to mediate Ca(2+)-dependent physiological events, neurons engage multiple mode of Ca(2+) entry through a variety of Ca(2+) permeable plasma membrane channels. Here we discuss a subset of specialized Ca(2+)-permeable non-selective TRPC channels and summarize their physiological and pathological role in the context of excitable cells. TRPC channels are predominately expressed in neuronal cells and are activated through complex mechanisms, including second messengers and store depletion. A growing body of evidence suggests a prime contribution of TRPC channels in regulating fundamental neuronal functions. TRPC channels have been shown to be associated with neuronal development, proliferation and differentiation. In addition, TRPC channels have also been suggested to have a potential role in regulating neurosecretion, long term potentiation, and synaptic plasticity. During the past years, numerous seminal discoveries relating TRPC channels to neurons have constantly emphasized on the significant contribution of this group of ion channels in regulating neuronal function. Here we review the major groundbreaking work that has uniquely placed TRPC channels in a pivotal position for governing neuronal Ca(2+) signaling and associated physiological responses.

Impairment of survival signaling and efferocytosis in TRPC3-deficient macrophages

We have recently shown that in macrophages proper operation of the survival pathways phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT and nuclear factor kappa B (NFkB) has an obligatory requirement for constitutive, non-regulated Ca(2+) influx. In the present work we examined if Transient Receptor Potential Canonical 3 (TRPC3), a member of the TRPC family of Ca(2+)-permeable cation channels, contributes to the constitutive Ca(2+) influx that supports macrophage survival. We used bone marrow-derived macrophages obtained from TRPC3(-/-) mice to determine the activation status of survival signaling pathways, apoptosis and their efferocytic properties. Treatment of TRPC3(+/+) macrophages with the pro-apoptotic cytokine TNFα induced time-dependent phosphorylation of IκBα, AKT and BAD, and this was drastically reduced in TRPC3(-/-) macrophages. Compared to TRPC3(+/+) cells TRPC3(-/-) macrophages exhibited reduced constitutive cation influx, increased apoptosis and impaired efferocytosis. The present findings suggest that macrophage TRPC3, presumably through its constitutive function, contributes to survival signaling and efferocytic properties.