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Expression, purification and characterization of human proton-coupled oligopeptide transporter 1 hPEPT1. Protein Expr Purif 2021; 190:105990. [PMID: 34637915 DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2021.105990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Revised: 09/27/2021] [Accepted: 10/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The human peptide transporter hPEPT1 (SLC15A1) is responsible for uptake of dietary di- and tripeptides and a number of drugs from the small intestine by utilizing the proton electrochemical gradient, and hence an important target for peptide-like drug design and drug delivery. hPEPT1 belongs to the ubiquitous major facilitator superfamily that all contain a 12TM core structure, with global conformational changes occurring during the transport cycle. Several bacterial homologues of these transporters have been characterized, providing valuable insight into the transport mechanism of this family. Here we report the overexpression and purification of recombinant hPEPT1 in a detergent-solubilized state. Thermostability profiling of hPEPT1 at different pH values revealed that hPEPT1 is more stable at pH 6 as compared to pH 7 and 8. Micro-scale thermophoresis (MST) confirmed that the purified hPEPT1 was able to bind di- and tripeptides respectively. To assess the in-solution oligomeric state of hPEPT1, negative stain electron microscopy was performed, demonstrating a predominantly monomeric state.
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Gukasyan HJ, Uchiyama T, Kim KJ, Ehrhardt C, Wu SK, Borok Z, Crandall ED, Lee VHL. Oligopeptide Transport in Rat Lung Alveolar Epithelial Cells is Mediated by Pept2. Pharm Res 2017; 34:2488-2497. [PMID: 28831683 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-017-2234-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2017] [Accepted: 07/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Studies were conducted in primary cultured rat alveolar epithelial cell monolayers to characterize peptide transporter expression and function. METHODS Freshly isolated rat lung alveolar epithelial cells were purified and cultured on permeable support with and without keratinocyte growth factor (KGF). Messenger RNA and protein expression of Pept1 and Pept2 in alveolar epithelial type I- and type II-like cell monolayers (±KGF, resp.) were examined by RT-PCR and Western blotting. 3H-Glycyl-sarcosine (3H-gly-sar) transmonolayer flux and intracellular accumulation were evaluated in both cell types. RESULTS RT-PCR showed expression of Pept2, but not Pept1, mRNA in both cell types. Western blot analysis revealed presence of Pept2 protein in type II-like cells, and less in type I-like cells. Bi-directional transmonolayer 3H-gly-sar flux lacked asymmetry in transport in both types of cells. Uptake of 3H-gly-sar from apical fluid of type II-like cells was 7-fold greater than that from basolateral fluid, while no significant differences were observed from apical vs. basolateral fluid of type I-like cells. CONCLUSIONS This study confirms the absence of Pept1 from rat lung alveolar epithelium in vitro. Functional Pept2 expression in type II-like cell monolayers suggests its involvement in oligopeptide lung disposition, and offers rationale for therapeutic development of di/tripeptides, peptidomimetics employing pulmonary drug delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hovhannes J Gukasyan
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Allergan plc, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Tomomi Uchiyama
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Oozora Pharmacy, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka, Japan
| | - Kwang-Jin Kim
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Will Rogers Institute Pulmonary Research Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Viterbi School of Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Carsten Ehrhardt
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Sharon K Wu
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Amgen, Inc., Thousand Oaks, California, USA
| | - Zea Borok
- Will Rogers Institute Pulmonary Research Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Edward D Crandall
- Will Rogers Institute Pulmonary Research Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Mork Family Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Viterbi School of Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Vincent H L Lee
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA.
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 8/F, Lo Kwee-Seong Integrated Biomedical Sciences Building, Area 39, Shatin, N.T. Hong Kong SAR, China.
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Several hPepT1-transported drugs are substrates of the Escherichia coli proton-coupled oligopeptide transporter YdgR. Res Microbiol 2017; 168:443-449. [DOI: 10.1016/j.resmic.2017.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2016] [Revised: 01/24/2017] [Accepted: 01/26/2017] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Nickel S, Clerkin CG, Selo MA, Ehrhardt C. Transport mechanisms at the pulmonary mucosa: implications for drug delivery. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 2016; 13:667-90. [DOI: 10.1517/17425247.2016.1140144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Nickel
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Caoimhe G. Clerkin
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Mohammed Ali Selo
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Kufa University, Al-Najaf, Iraq
| | - Carsten Ehrhardt
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
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Sakamoto A, Matsumaru T, Yamamura N, Suzuki S, Uchida Y, Tachikawa M, Terasaki T. Drug Transporter Protein Quantification of Immortalized Human Lung Cell Lines Derived from Tracheobronchial Epithelial Cells (Calu-3 and BEAS2-B), Bronchiolar–Alveolar Cells (NCI-H292 and NCI-H441), and Alveolar Type II-like Cells (A549) by Liquid Chromatography–Tandem Mass Spectrometry. J Pharm Sci 2015; 104:3029-38. [DOI: 10.1002/jps.24381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2014] [Revised: 01/18/2015] [Accepted: 01/20/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Meindl C, Stranzinger S, Dzidic N, Salar-Behzadi S, Mohr S, Zimmer A, Fröhlich E. Permeation of Therapeutic Drugs in Different Formulations across the Airway Epithelium In Vitro. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0135690. [PMID: 26274590 PMCID: PMC4537286 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0135690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2015] [Accepted: 07/26/2015] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pulmonary drug delivery is characterized by short onset times of the effects and an increased therapeutic ratio compared to oral drug delivery. This delivery route can be used for local as well as for systemic absorption applying drugs as single substance or as a fixed dose combination. Drugs can be delivered as nebulized aerosols or as dry powders. A screening system able to mimic delivery by the different devices might help to assess the drug effect in the different formulations and to identify potential interference between drugs in fixed dose combinations. The present study evaluates manual devices used in animal studies for their suitability for cellular studies. METHODS Calu-3 cells were cultured submersed and in air-liquid interface culture and characterized regarding mucus production and transepithelial electrical resistance. The influence of pore size and material of the transwell membranes and of the duration of air-liquid interface culture was assessed. Compounds were applied in solution and as aerosols generated by MicroSprayer IA-1C Aerosolizer or by DP-4 Dry Powder Insufflator using fluorescein and rhodamine 123 as model compounds. Budesonide and formoterol, singly and in combination, served as examples for drugs relevant in pulmonary delivery. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS Membrane material and duration of air-liquid interface culture had no marked effect on mucus production and tightness of the cell monolayer. Co-application of budesonide and formoterol, applied in solution or as aerosol, increased permeation of formoterol across cells in air-liquid interface culture. Problems with the DP-4 Dry Powder Insufflator included compound-specific delivery rates and influence on the tightness of the cell monolayer. These problems were not encountered with the MicroSprayer IA-1C Aerosolizer. The combination of Calu-3 cells and manual aerosol generation devices appears suitable to identify interactions of drugs in fixed drug combination products on permeation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Meindl
- Center for Medical Research, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | | | - Neira Dzidic
- Research Center Pharmaceutical Engineering GmbH, Graz, Austria
| | | | - Stefan Mohr
- Research Center Pharmaceutical Engineering GmbH, Graz, Austria
| | - Andreas Zimmer
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Karl-Franzens-University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Eleonore Fröhlich
- Center for Medical Research, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
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Takano M, Sugimoto N, Ehrhardt C, Yumoto R. Functional Expression of PEPT2 in the Human Distal Lung Epithelial Cell Line NCl-H441. Pharm Res 2015; 32:3916-26. [PMID: 26168863 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-015-1751-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2015] [Accepted: 07/06/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The peptide transporter PEPT2 is expressed in alveolar type II epithelial cells. So far, however, no appropriate alveolar epithelial cell line for studying PEPT2 function has been known. In this study, we examined the functional expression of PEPT2 in the human distal lung epithelial cell line NCl-H441 (H441). METHODS Expression of PEPT2 mRNA and protein was examined in H441 cells. Transport function of PEPT2 was studied using glycylsarcosine (Gly-Sar) as a substrate. RESULTS Lamellar bodies were well developed in H441 cells and mRNA expression of type II cell markers and PEPT2 increased during time in culture. PEPT2 protein expression was confirmed in H441 cells, but not in A549 cells, by immunostaining and Western blotting. The uptake of Gly-Sar in H441 cells was inhibited by cefadroxil, and the cefadroxil-sensitive uptake was pH-dependent and peaked at pH 6.5. Gly-Sar uptake in H441 cells showed saturation kinetics with a Km value of 112.5 μM. In addition, apical-to-basal, but not basal-to-apical, transport of cephalexin across H441 cell monolayers was sensitive to cefadroxil. CONCLUSIONS PEPT2 is functionally expressed in H441 cells, making the cell line a good in vitro model to study PEPT2 function and its regulation in human distal lung.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikihisa Takano
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Therapeutics, Graduate School of Biomedical & Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, 1-2-3 Kasumi, Minami-ku, Hiroshima, 734-8553, Japan.
| | - Natsumi Sugimoto
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Therapeutics, Graduate School of Biomedical & Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, 1-2-3 Kasumi, Minami-ku, Hiroshima, 734-8553, Japan
| | - Carsten Ehrhardt
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Panoz Institute, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Ryoko Yumoto
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Therapeutics, Graduate School of Biomedical & Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, 1-2-3 Kasumi, Minami-ku, Hiroshima, 734-8553, Japan
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Abstract
Abstract Many epithelial cells form polarized monolayers under in vivo and in vitro conditions. Typically, epithelial cells are cultured for differentiation on insert systems where cells are plated on a porous filter membrane. Although the cultured monolayers have been a standard system to study epithelial physiology, there are some limits: The epithelial cells growing inside the commercial inserts are not optimal to visualize directly through lenses on inverted microscopes. The cell images are optically distorted and background fluorescence is bright due to the filter membrane positioned between the cells and the lens. In addition, the cells are not easily accessible by electrodes due to the presence of tall side walls. Here, we present the design, fabrication, and practical applications of an improved system for analysis of polarized epithelial monolayers. This new system allows (1) direct imaging of cells without an interfering filter membrane, (2) electrophysiological measurements, and (3) detection of apical secretion with minimal dilution. Therefore, our culture method is optimized to study differentiated epithelial cells at the single-cell and subcellular levels, and can be extended to other cell types with minor modifications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jong Bae Seo
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
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Takano M, Horiuchi T, Sasaki Y, Kato Y, Nagai J, Yumoto R. Expression and function of PEPT2 during transdifferentiation of alveolar epithelial cells. Life Sci 2013; 93:630-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2013.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2013] [Revised: 08/10/2013] [Accepted: 08/15/2013] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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Ong HX, Traini D, Young PM. Pharmaceutical applications of the Calu-3 lung epithelia cell line. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 2013; 10:1287-302. [PMID: 23730924 DOI: 10.1517/17425247.2013.805743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The Calu-3 lung cell line has been shown to be a promising in vitro model of airway epithelia due to its similarity to in vivo physiology. Hence, over the past decade, it has found increasing applications in the pharmaceutical industry. AREAS COVERED This review focuses on the pharmaceutical applications of the Calu-3 cell line in areas such as mechanisms of drug transport, studying aerosol deposition, controlled release studies and identification of possible drug-drug interactions. The main findings of various studies, as well as the predictive potential of this model, are presented and discussed in this review. EXPERT OPINION There is still a lack of mechanistic knowledge regarding transport of inhaled therapeutics across the lungs. Cell culture models such as Calu-3 provide a simple and reproducible system to study the underlying mechanisms by which inhaled therapeutics interact with the lungs. However, more complex systems that integrate particle deposition onto different cell culture systems may be useful in addressing some fundamental questions to generate a better understanding of determinants that influences pulmonary drug dissolution, absorption, metabolism and efficacy. Ultimately the use of the Calu-3 cell line provides a basic research tool that enables the development of safer and more effective inhaled therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Xin Ong
- Woolcock Institute of Medical Research, Respiratory Technology, Glebe, NSW, Australia
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Saaby L, Nielsen C, Steffansen B, Larsen S, Brodin B. Current status of rational design of prodrugs targeting the intestinal di/tri-peptide transporter hPEPT1 (SLC15A1). J Drug Deliv Sci Technol 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/s1773-2247(13)50047-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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12
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Identification and Characterization of a Novel Nontranslated Sequence Variant of the Human Intestinal Di-/Tripeptide Transporter, hPEPT1. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PEPTIDES 2012; 2012:743472. [PMID: 23346117 PMCID: PMC3546484 DOI: 10.1155/2012/743472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2012] [Revised: 12/02/2012] [Accepted: 12/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The human H+-coupled di-/tripeptide transporter (hPEPT1) mediates intestinal absorption of dietary di- and tripeptides, as well as several peptidomimetic drug compounds. The aim of the present study was to investigate the possible role of the hPEPT1 variant hPEPT1-RF in hPEPT1 regulation. However, the proposed hPEPT1-RF mRNA sequence could not be detected in Caco-2 cells or in human intestinal samples. Instead, a new sequence variant, hPEPT1-RFI, was found, which is almost identical to the proposed hPEPT1-RF, except for two nucleotide insertions and one deletion that resulted in a changed open reading frame as compared to hPEPT1-RF. In vitro translation analysis showed that hPEPT1-RFI was not translated. In conclusion, the existence of hPEPT1-RF could not be confirmed; furthermore, the identified sequence variant, hPEPT1-RFI, does not appear to be translated and is therefore unlikely to have a regulatory effect on hPEPT1 transport activity.
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Zarogoulidis P, Chatzaki E, Porpodis K, Domvri K, Hohenforst-Schmidt W, Goldberg EP, Karamanos N, Zarogoulidis K. Inhaled chemotherapy in lung cancer: future concept of nanomedicine. Int J Nanomedicine 2012; 7:1551-72. [PMID: 22619512 PMCID: PMC3356182 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s29997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Regional chemotherapy was first used for lung cancer 30 years ago. Since then, new methods of drug delivery and pharmaceuticals have been investigated in vitro, and in animals and humans. An extensive review of drug delivery systems, pharmaceuticals, patient monitoring, methods of enhancing inhaled drug deposition, safety and efficacy, and also additional applications of inhaled chemotherapy and its advantages and disadvantages are presented. Regional chemotherapy to the lung parenchyma for lung cancer is feasible and efficient. Safety depends on the chemotherapy agent delivered to the lungs and is dose-dependent and time-dependent. Further evaluation is needed to provide data regarding early lung cancer stages, and whether regional chemotherapy can be used as neoadjuvant or adjuvant treatment. Finally, inhaled chemotherapy could one day be administered at home with fewer systemic adverse effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Zarogoulidis
- Pulmonary Department, G Papanikolaou General Hospital, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece.
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Stentebjerg-Andersen A, Notlevsen IV, Brodin B, Nielsen CU. Calu-3 cells grown under AIC and LCC conditions: implications for dipeptide uptake and transepithelial transport of substances. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2010; 78:19-26. [PMID: 21195173 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2010.12.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2010] [Revised: 12/15/2010] [Accepted: 12/20/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to investigate whether Calu-3 cell culture conditions influence drug and nutrient transport known to occur via carriers or transporters. Calu-3 cell layers, an in vitro model of the lung epithelium, were cultured using air interfaced culture (AIC) or liquid covered culture (LCC) on either polycarbonate or polyester as filter support material. We found that the development of the Calu-3 cell layer barrier function did not depend on the filter material but rather on the culture conditions as follows: (i) the apical uptake of Gly-Sar was significantly larger for cells grown in AIC compared to LCC, (ii) the TEER values for cells grown in LCC were approximately three times larger than for cells grown in AIC, (iii) the transepithelial transport in both AIC and LCC Calu-3 cells was polarized in the apical-basolateral direction of proline, glycine, α-methyl-d-glucoside, glipizide, taurocholic acid and estrone-3-sulfate, whereas inulin, mannitol and Gly-Sar showed no polarized transport. Etoposide showed polarized efflux (basolateral to apical transport) in AIC and LCC Calu-3 layers. These findings provide information about nutrient and drug transport in Calu-3 cells, and this may have implications for selecting culture conditions for transport studies in this in vitro model of the lung epithelium.
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Bosquillon C. Drug transporters in the lung--do they play a role in the biopharmaceutics of inhaled drugs? J Pharm Sci 2010; 99:2240-55. [PMID: 19950388 DOI: 10.1002/jps.21995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The role of transporters in drug absorption, distribution and elimination processes as well as in drug-drug interactions is increasingly being recognised. Although the lungs express high levels of both efflux and uptake drug transporters, little is known of the implications for the biopharmaceutics of inhaled drugs. The current knowledge of the expression, localisation and functionality of drug transporters in the pulmonary tissue and the few studies that have looked at their impact on pulmonary drug absorption is extensively reviewed. The emphasis is on transporters most likely to affect the disposition of inhaled drugs: (1) the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) superfamily which includes the efflux pumps P-glycoprotein (P-gp), multidrug resistance associated proteins (MRPs), breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP) and (2) the solute-linked carrier (SLC and SLCO) superfamily to which belong the organic cation transporter (OCT) family, the peptide transporter (PEPT) family, the organic anion transporter (OAT) family and the organic anion transporting polypeptide (OATP) family. Whenever available, expression and localisation in the intact human tissue are compared with those in animal lungs and respiratory epithelial cell models in vitro. The influence of lung diseases or exogenous agents on transporter expression is also mentioned.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cynthia Bosquillon
- Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham NG72RD, United Kingdom.
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