Ovicidal and larvicidal activity of crude extracts of Melia azedarach against Haemonchus contortus (Strongylida)

Evaluation of anthelmintic efficacy of ethanolic leaf extract of Juglans regia L. on Ascaridia galli: a comprehensive in vitro and in vivo study

Anthelmintic resistance in livestock animals has been spreading across the world in prevalence and severity. As a result, researchers are exploring alternative strategies to combat this issue, and one promising avenue is the utilization of medicinal plants. This study aims to investigate the anthelmintic efficacy of the crude ethanolic extract (CEE) derived from the leaves of Juglans regia against one of the most detrimental nematode parasites affecting poultry, namely Ascaridia galli (A. galli). For the in vitro studies, adult A. galli worms were collected from the naturally infected chickens and the efficacy of CEE was measured at the concentration of 25, 50, and 100 mg/ml using adult worm motility inhibition (WMI) assay. In addition, levamisole (0.55 mg/ml) was used as the positive control. Likewise, Phosphate buffered saline (PBS) was used as the negative control. For the in vivo studies, CEE of J.regia at the doses of 500, 1000, and 2000 mg/kg were evaluated in chickens experimentally infected with A. galli. The anthelmintic efficacy was monitored using faecal egg count reduction (FECR) and worm count reduction (WCR) assays. In vitro studies revealed significant (P < 0.001) anthelmintic effects of CEE of J.regia on the motility of A. galli worms at different hours post-exposure. At the concentration of 100 mg/ml, CEE resulted in 96.5% inhibition of worm motility at 24 h post-exposure. While the synthetic anthelmintic drug, levamisole caused the highest inhibition of worm motility (100%) at the same time period. The in vivo anthelmintic activity of CEE of J. regia demonstrated a maximum effect on day 14 post-treatment by inducing 67.28% FECR and 65.03% WCR. We observed no significant difference (P > 0.05) in worm counts between the negative control group and the chickens treated with CEE at the dosage of 500 mg/kg. Together, the results of the present study suggest that CEE of J. regia leaves possess anthelmintic properties and could be a potential source of novel anthelmintic compounds for controlling helminth parasites.

Insecticidal Triterpenes in Meliaceae: Plant Species, Molecules, and Activities: Part II (Cipadessa, Melia)

Plant-originated triterpenes are important insecticidal molecules. Research on the insecticidal activity of molecules from Meliaceae plants has always been a hotspot due to the molecules from this family showing a variety of insecticidal activities with diverse mechanisms of action. In this paper, we discussed 116 triterpenoid molecules with insecticidal activity from 22 plant species of five genera (Cipadessa, Entandrophragma, Guarea, Khaya, and Melia) in Meliaceae. In these genera, the insecticidal activities of plants from Entandrophragma and Melia have attracted substantial research attention in recent years. Specifically, the insecticidal activities of plants from Melia have been systemically studied for several decades. In total, the 116 insecticidal chemicals consisted of 34 ring-intact limonoids, 31 ring-seco limonoids, 48 rearranged limonoids, and 3 tetracyclic triterpenes. Furthermore, the 34 ring-intact limonoids included 29 trichilin-class chemicals, 3 azadirone-class chemicals, and 1 cedrelone-class and 1 havanensin-class limonoid. The 31 ring-seco limonoids consisted of 16 C-seco group chemicals, 8 B,D-seco group chemicals, 4 A,B-seco group chemicals, and 3 D-seco group chemicals. Furthermore, among the 48 rearranged limonoids, 46 were 2,30-linkage group chemicals and 2 were 10,11-linkage group chemicals. Specifically, the 46 chemicals belonging to the 2,30-linkage group could be subdivided into 24 mexicanolide-class chemicals and 22 phragmalin-class chemicals. Additionally, the three tetracyclic triterpenes were three protolimonoids. To sum up, 80 chemicals isolated from 19 plant species exhibited antifeedant activity toward 14 insect species; 18 chemicals isolated from 17 plant species exhibited poisonous activity toward 10 insect species; 16 chemicals isolated from 11 plant species possessed growth-regulatory activity toward 8 insect species. In particular, toosendanin was the most effective antifeedant and insect growth-regulatory agent. The antifeedant activity of toosendanin was significant. Owing to its high effect, toosendanin has been commercially applied. Three other molecules, 1,3-dicinnamoyl-11-hydroxymeliacarpin, 1-cinnamoyl-3-methacryl-11-hydroxymeliacarpin, and 1-cinnamoyl-3-acetyl-11-hydroxymeliacarpin, isolated from Meliaazedarach, exhibited a highly poisonous effect on Spodoptera littoralis; thus, they deserve further attention.

A Systematic Review on Comparative Analysis, Toxicology, and Pharmacology of Medicinal Plants Against Haemonchus contortus

Background:Haemonchus contortus is an important pathogenic nematode parasite and major economic constraint of small ruminants in tropics and subtropics regions. This review is an attempt to systematically address the; (a) efficacy of different plants against H. contortus by in vitro and in vivo proof; (b) toxicology, mechanism of action, and active phyto-compounds involve in anti-haemonchiasis activity; (c) and comparative analysis of plant species evaluated both in vitro and in vivo.

Methods: Online databases (Google Scholar, PubMed, Scopus, and ScienceDirect) were searched and published research articles (1980–2020) were gathered and reviewed.

Results: A total of 187 plant species were reported belonging to 59 families and 145 genera with Asteraceae and Fabaceae being frequently used. Out of the total plant species, 171 species were found to be evaluated in vitro and only 40 species in vivo. Twenty-four species were commonly evaluated for in vitro and in vivo anti-haemonchiasis activity. Among the reported assays, egg hatching test (EHT) and fecal egg count reduction (FECR) were the most widely used assays in vitro and in vivo, respectively. Moreover, sheep were the frequently used experimental model in vivo. After comparative analysis, Lachesiodendron viridiflorum, Corymbia citriodora, Calotropis procera, and Artemisia herba-alba were found highly effective both in vitro and in vivo. L. viridiflorum inhibited enzymatic activities and metabolic processes of the parasite and was found to be safe without toxic effects. C. citriodora was moderately toxic in vivo, however, the plant extract produced promising nematicidal effects by causing muscular disorganization and changes in the mitochondrial profile. Additionally, C. procera and A. herba-alba despite of their high anti-haemonchiasis activity were found to be highly toxic at the tested concentrations. C. procera caused perforation and tegumental disorganization along with adult worm paralysis. Nineteen compounds were reported, among which anethole and carvone completely inhibited egg hatching in vitro and significantly reduced fecal egg count, decreased male length, and reproductive capacity of female in vivo.

Conclusion: This review summarized different medicinal plants owing to nematicidal activities against H. contortus eggs, larvae, and adult worms. Plants like L. viridiflorum, C. citriodora, C. procera, and A. herba-alba, while compounds anethole and carvone having promising nematicidal activities and could be an alternative source for developing novel drugs after further investigation.

Ethnoveterinary for food-producing animals and related food safety issues: A comprehensive overview about terpenes

Alternatives to the use of conventional veterinary drugs in food-producing animals have gained attention, such as the use of natural products (NPs), mainly to soften the risks to the animal, the environment, and consumer's health. Although NPs have consistent advantages over conventional drugs, they cannot be considered risk free under food safety matters. In this way, this document presents a comprehensive overview of the importance of considering both the pharmacological and toxicological properties of the constituents of a NP from plants intending the standardization and regulation of its use in food-producing animals. Terpenes are the most diverse class of natural substances present in NP of vegetal origin with a broad range of biological activities that can be explored in veterinary science; however, certain plants and terpenes also have significant toxic effects, a fact that can harm the health of animals and consequently generate economic losses and risks for humans. In this context, this review gathered scientific data of vegetal species of importance to ethnoveterinary for food-producing animals, which produce terpenes, its biological effects, and their implications on food safety issues for consumers. For this, more than 300 documents were selected from different online scientific databases. The present data and discussion may contribute to the rational commercial exploration of this class of NPs in veterinary medicine.

In Vitro Anthelmintic Activity of Three Tropical Plant Extracts on Haemonchus contortus

AIM

To evaluate the anthelmintic activity of Anacardium occidentale shell, Illicium verum fruit, and Artocarpus heterophyllus seed to substantiate their traditional use against helminths.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In vitro anthelmintic activity of hydroalcoholic extracts of three plants was evaluated against eggs, infective larvae (L3), adult, and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) of Haemonchus contortus of naturally infected sheep.

RESULTS

The three extracts exhibited significant (P < 0.001) dose-dependent anthelmintic responses by inhibiting egg hatching and causing paralysis of larvae and mortality of worms. The extracts were most effective on egg and adult stage of H. contortus than on L3 stage at a higher concentration of 6 mg/mL. Anacardium occidentale shell exhibited maximum activity with 100% paralysis of L3 larvae. Probit analysis revealed that the extracts of A. Occidentale shell induced 50% egg hatch inhibition (LD50 = 0.0255 mg/mL), larval paralysis (LD50 = 0.196 mg/mL), and adult worm mortality (LD50 = 1.0365 mg/mL) at a lower concentration (LD50) compared with those of I. verum fruit and A. heterophyllus seed extracts. Further, all extracts significantly (P < 0.01) inhibited the LDH activity catalyzing the oxidation of lactate in adult H. contortus, with maximum level of inhibition caused by A. occidentale shell extract.

CONCLUSION

Phytochemical screening of the extracts revealed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, saponins, and amino acids that could be responsible for the anthelmintic effects noticed. The results warrant further in vivo evaluation of these plants for potential use as anthelmintic agents.

EB, Rocha CQ, Lima AS, Silva CR, Tangerina MMP, Lima Neto JS, Costa-Junior LM. Antiparasitic activities of hydroethanolic extracts of Ipomoea imperati (Vahl) Griseb. (Convolvulaceae)

Ipomoea imperati is widely used in tropical areas to treat several pathological conditions. The effect of this plant against parasitic species has not been investigated even being used for this purpose in the Brazilian northeastern. This study aimed to evaluate the anthelmintic and acaricide potential of a hydroethanolic extract of I. imperati leaves and stolons. I. imperati leaves and stolons were crushed and subjected to maceration in ethanol 70% (v/v), after which the solvent was removed using a rotary evaporator. The chromatographic profile of the extract was obtained by UV Spectrum high-performance liquid chromatography and compounds were identified by liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry. Identification of the compounds present in the extract was achieved by comparing their retention times and UV spectra with data in the literature. Anthelmintic activity was evaluated by larval exsheathment inhibition assays using Haemonchus contortus larvae and five concentrations of each extract ranging from 0.07 to 1.2 mg/mL. Acaricide activity was evaluated via larval immersion of Rhipicephalus microplus in eight concentrations of each extract ranging from 5.0 to 25.0 mg/mL. Live and dead larvae were counted after 24 hours. The median inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) for H. contortus larvae and the median lethal concentration (LC₅₀) for R. microplus larvae were calculated. Twelve compounds were observed in the hydroethanolic extract of leaves, with a predominance of the aglycone form of flavonoids and tannins. This extract was effective against H. contortus larvae, presenting an average inhibitory concentration of 0.22 mg/mL, but showed no activity toward R. microplus larvae. The stolon hydroethanolic extract presented 11 compounds, with phenolic acids and glycosylated flavonoids prevailing. This extract showed low activity on R. microplus and no effect on inhibiting H. contortus larval exsheathment at the concentrations tested. This study is the first to assess the anthelmintic and acaricidal activities of I. imperati. Data reported confirm promising potential of I. imperati leaves hydroethanolic extract against H. contortus. This effect could be due to its secondary compounds presents in this extract, such as procyanidin, kaempferol, isoquercitrin and rutin.

Inhibition and Larvicidal Activity of Phenylpropanoids from Piper sarmentosum on Acetylcholinesterase against Mosquito Vectors and Their Binding Mode of Interaction

Aedes aegypti, Aedes albopictus and Culex quinquefasciatus are vectors of dengue fever and West Nile virus diseases. This study was conducted to determine the toxicity, mechanism of action and the binding interaction of three active phenylpropanoids from Piper sarmentosum (Piperaceae) toward late 3rd or early 4th larvae of above vectors. A bioassay guided-fractionation on the hexane extract from the roots of Piper sarmentosum led to the isolation and identification of three active phenylpropanoids; asaricin 1, isoasarone 2 and trans-asarone 3. The current study involved evaluation of the toxicity and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition of these compounds against Aedes aegypti, Aedes albopictus and Culex quinquefasciatus larvae. Asaricin 1 and isoasarone 2 were highly potent against Aedes aegypti, Aedes albopictus and Culex quinquefasciatus larvae causing up to 100% mortality at ≤ 15 μg/mL concentration. The ovicidal activity of asaricin 1, isoasarone 2 and trans-asarone 3 were evaluated through egg hatching. Asaricin 1 and isoasarone 2 showed potent ovicidal activity. Ovicidal activity for both compounds was up to 95% at 25μg/mL. Asaricin 1 and isoasarone 2 showed strong inhibition on acetylcholinesterase with relative IC50 values of 0.73 to 1.87 μg/mL respectively. These findings coupled with the high AChE inhibition may suggest that asaricin 1 and isoasarone 2 are neuron toxic compounds toward Aedes aegypti, Aedes albopictus and Culex quinquefasciatus. Further computational docking with Autodock Vina elaborates the possible interaction of asaricin 1 and isoasarone 2 with three possible binding sites of AChE which includes catalytic triads (CAS: S238, E367, H480), the peripheral sites (PAS: E72, W271) and anionic binding site (W83). The binding affinity of asaricin 1 and isoasarone 2 were relatively strong with asaricin 1 showed a higher binding affinity in the anionic pocket.

Ação anti-helmíntica do extrato hidroalcóolico da raiz da Tarenaya spinosa (Jacq.) Raf. no controle de Haemonchus contortus em ovinos

Para investigar o potencial anti-helmíntico do extrato hidroalcóolico da raiz de Tarenaya spinosa, como alternativa no controle do nematóide gastrintestinal Haemonchus contortus de ovinos, foram realizados testes in vitro com Artemia salina, em seguida, sobre coproculturas contendo ovos do helminto, avaliando a ação ovicida e larvicida do extrato. Após os testes preliminares, foi realizado o teste in vivo em 20 ovinos machos os quais foram divididos em quatro tratamentos Grupo 1: ivermectina 1%; Grupo 2: sem tratamento; Grupo 3: extrato hidroalcóolico de T. spinosa 150μg/mL; Grupo 4: extrato hidroalcóolico de T. spinosa 300μg/mL, amostras de fezes e de sangue foram coletadas para exames parasitológicos e hematológicos. No teste in vitro, a toxicidade frente a A. salina foi de 150μg/mL, obteve-se eficiência de 81,53% sobre ovos e larvas do H. contortus. No teste in vivo, a avaliação da eficácia dos tratamentos foi realizada pelo teste de redução na contagem de ovos fecais (RCOF), os grupos tratados com Ivermectina e T. spinosa a 150μg/mL e 300μg/mL obtiveram os melhores resultados, reduzindo o OPG após 28 dias em 40,6, 41 e 40,2% respectivamente, revelando assim seu potencial fitoterápico para fins de controle de nematódeos gastrintestinais em ovinos.

Efficacy of extracts of immature mango on ovine gastrointestinal nematodes

The principal health problem in small ruminants is helminthiasis and the rapid development of nematode resistance to anthelminthics has limited the success of control in several countries, stimulating the search for alternatives. In this study, extracts of immature fruits of the mango Mangifera indica L. var Ubá were evaluated for inhibition of larval development and fecal egg count reduction in sheep naturally infected with gastrointestinal nematodes. In the phytochemical analyses, tannins and flavonoids were the metabolites identified. Aqueous extracts of immature fruits at 100 mg ml(-1) showed 100 % inhibition of larval development. The LC(90) of the extract was 35.9 mg ml(-1) and the in vivo anthelminthic efficacy at 0.740 g kg(-1) (BW, orally) was 53 %. The identification of larvae showed that 99.8 % were Haemonchus spp. In vitro and in vivo results indicate that this fruit could assist ovine nematode control.

Cassia alata L: potential role as anthelmintic agent against Hymenolepis diminuta

The efficacy of Cassia alata against cestode Hymenolepis diminuta was evaluated in our study. Worms were maintained between rat model and beetle. Air-dried leaves of C. alata were subjected to ethanol extraction. Different concentrations (10-80 mg/ml) of the extract were prepared in phosphate buffer saline and tested on the parasite in vitro. Parasites treated with C. alata showed a decrease in motility with an increase in concentrations and complete immobilization took lesser time compared to control. The paralyzed parasites were further processed for electron microscopic studies. Ultrastructural micrographs revealed swelling of the tegument and blebbing on the tegumental surface throughout the body accompanied with destruction of microtriches and changes such as shrinkage in the scolex region. Depletion of parenchyma cells and destruction in the connective tissues along with sparsely cytoplasmic cytons were also observed, and these observations are similar with worms treated with a known drug praziquantel. These results may suggest that the plant leaves could be considered for controlling helminth infection and can represent a step forward in the search for alternative anthelmintic drug.

In vivo anthelmintic activity of Clerodendrum colebrookianum Walp., a traditionally used taenicidal plant in Northeast India

Although there are several effective drugs available for the treatment of intestinal helminths, the fact remains that they continue to remain out of reach to a vast majority of people in the world, especially in developing countries. On the other hand, there are a great many herbal remedies that are effective against common intestinal worms and are easily available to common people in developing countries. Clerodendrum colebrookianum Walp. (Lamiaceae) is a perennial shrub which is native to South and Southeast Asia. Traditionally, the leaves of this plant are used by the indigenous people of Northeast India as a remedy for the treatment of intestinal tapeworm infections. The aim of this study was to evaluate and authenticate the anthelmintic efficacy of C. colebrookianum leaf extract in experimentally induced Hymenolepis diminuta (a zoonotic tapeworm) infections in Wistar rats. The efficacy of the plant extract was assessed by monitoring the eggs per gram of faeces (EPG) counts and worm recovery rates of experimental animals, following treatment with the leaf extract of this plant at three different doses, i.e. 200, 400 and 800 mg/kg body weight, each given singly for 5 days. The results obtained revealed that the leaf extract of C. colebrookianum possesses a dose-dependent efficacy against the larval, immature and adult stages of H. diminuta. However, the efficacy of the extract was found to be considerably high only against the adult stages of the parasite. For this stage, a single 800-mg/kg dose of extract, given for 5 days, resulted into 68.42% reduction in the EPG counts and 62.50% reduction in the worm counts in the extract-treated group of animals, as compared to the control. The reference drug, praziquantel (5 mg/kg, single dose), however, showed slightly better efficacy and caused 95.16 and 87.00% reductions in the EPG and worm counts of treated animals, respectively. Unlike the adult stages, the efficacy of the plant extract was recorded to be comparatively low against the larval and immature stages of the parasite, as the treatment of animals with the highest dose of extract (800 mg/kg) could cause only 37.50 and 54.00% reductions in worm counts, respectively. The experimental evidence obtained in this study suggests that leaves of C. colebrookianum possess significant anthelminthic properties and supports their use against intestinal tapeworm infections in traditional medicine.

In vitro and in vivo efficacy of aqueous extract of Caryocar brasiliense Camb. to control gastrointestinal nematodes in sheep

A major problem faced in sheep rearing has been the rapid acquisition of anthelminthic-resistant populations of gastrointestinal nematodes. In the search for alternatives, aqueous extract of the peel of Caryocar brasiliense was evaluated for larval development inhibition, egg-hatching inhibition, and fecal nematode egg count reduction in sheep. For in vivo analysis, the doses were calculated according to a 10% lethal dose derived from acute toxicity tests in mice, and the efficacy was evaluated for two periods following oral administration of the extract. Egg-hatching inhibition at concentrations of 15 and 7.5 mg/ml was significantly higher than observed in negative controls with distilled water. For larval development inhibition, all concentrations showed anthelminthic activity significantly higher than controls and were not significantly different from ivermectin treatment. The LC(90) of larval development inhibition was 53.19 mg/ml. In vivo analysis for first and second weeks after treatment found 32.2% and 33% anthelminthic efficacy, respectively.

Studies on larvicidal and pupicidal activity of Leucas aspera Willd. (Lamiaceae) and bacterial insecticide, Bacillus sphaericus, against malarial vector, Anopheles stephensi Liston. (Diptera: Culicidae)

The efficacy of whole plant extracts of Leucas aspera and Bacillus sphaericus has been proven against larvicidal and pupicidal activities of the malarial vector, Anopheles stephensi. The present study investigated the larvicidal and pupicidal activity against the first to fourth instar lavae and pupae of the laboratory-reared mosquitoes, A. stephensi. The medicinal plants were collected from the area around Maruthamalai hills, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India. L. aspera whole plant was washed with tap water and shade dried at room temperature. The dried plant materials were powdered by an electric blender. From the powder, 100 g of the plant materials was extracted with 300 ml of organic solvents of ethanol for 8 h using a Soxhlet apparatus. The extracts were filtered through a Buchner funnel with Whatman number 1 filter paper. The crude plant extracts were evaporated to dryness in a rotary vacuum evaporator. The plant extract showed larvicidal and pupicidal effects after 24 h of exposure. All larval instars and pupae have considerably moderate mortality; however, the highest larval mortality was the ethanolic extract of whole plant L. aspera against the first to fourth instar larvae and pupae values of LC(50) = I instar was 9.695%, II instar was 10.272%, III instar was 10.823%, and IV instar was 11.303%, and pupae was 12.732%. B. spaericus against the first to fouth instar larvae and pupae had the following values: I instar was 0.051%, II instar was 0.057%, III instar was 0.062%, IV instar was 0.066%, and for the pupae was 0.073%. No mortality was observed in the control. The present results suggest that the ethanolic extracts of L. aspera and B. sphaericus provided an excellent potential for controlling of malarial vector, A. stephensi.

Efficacy of anthelmintic properties of medicinal plant extracts against Haemonchus contortus

The development of anthelmintic resistance has made the search for alternatives to control gastrointestinal nematodes of small ruminants imperative. Among these alternatives are several medicinal plants traditionally used as anthelmintics. This present work evaluated the efficacy of ethyl acetate, acetone, and methanol dried leaf and seed extracts of five medicinal plants were tested in vitro ovicidal and larvicidal activities on Haemonchus contortus. The in vitro assay was based on egg hatch assay (EHA) and larval development assay (LDA), all plant extracts were evaluated at five concentrations 50, 25, 12.5, 6.25 and 3.13 mg/ml. The leaf and seed ethyl acetate, acetone and methanol of Annona squamosa, Eclipta prostrata, Solanum torvum, Terminalia chebula, and Catharanthus roseus extracts were showed complete inhibition (100%) at the maximum concentration tested (50 mg/ml). The overall findings of the present study have shown that our experimental plant extracts contain possible anthelmintic compounds.

Cytotoxic tirucallane triterpenoids from Melia azedarach fruits

The phytochemical investigation of the dichloromethane-soluble part of the methanol extract obtained from the fruits of Melia azedarach afforded one new tirucallane-type triterpene, 3-α-tigloylmelianol (1) and three known tirucallanes, melianone (2), 21-β-acetoxy-melianone (3), and methyl kulonate (4). The structure of the isolated compounds was mainly determined by 1D and 2D NMR experiments as well as HPLC-Q-TOF mass spectrometry. The cytotoxicity of the isolated compounds toward the human lung adenocarcinoma epithelial cell line A549 was determined, while no activity was observed against the phytonematode Meloidogyne incognita.