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Acton RT, Wiener HW, Barton JC. Estimates of European American Ancestry in African Americans Using HFE p.C282Y. Genet Test Mol Biomarkers 2020; 24:578-583. [PMID: 32757954 DOI: 10.1089/gtmb.2020.0154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: HFE p.C282Y (chromosome 6p22.2; exon 4, c.845G>A; rs1800562), a hemochromatosis-associated polymorphism in European Americans, is absent in sub-Saharan West African blacks. Methods: We estimated European American ancestry in African Americans (M) using published p.C282Y allele frequencies of sub-Saharan West African blacks; and ≥50 unselected African Americans and ≥50 unselected European Americans in the same city/region. Results: p.C282Y allele frequency in 870 West African blacks (The Gambia, Ghana, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone) was 0.0000 (confidence interval [95% CI 0.0000-0.0027]). p.C282Y allele frequencies in European Americans were 0.0600 (12,592 participants; five single-site studies) and 0.0673 (54,882 participants; two multisite studies). p.C282Y allele frequencies in African Americans were 0.0102 (3084 participants; five single-site studies) and 0.0122 (30,762 participants; two multisite studies). M for all data was 0.1803 (standard error 0.0049; [95% CI 0.1706-0.1900]). City/region estimates of M differed 1.8-fold: 0.1321, Rochester, NY; 0.1456, Birmingham, AL; 0.1569, Upper Savannah Region, SC; 0.1612, Portland, OR; 0.1746, San Diego, CA; 0.1780, Hartford, CT; 0.1957, District of Columbia; 0.2377, Oakland, CA; and 0.2429, Irvine, CA. Conclusions: Estimates of M using p.C282Y are consistent with those using other autosomal markers, differ across nine cities/regions, and reflect paternal and maternal contributions of European American ancestry in African Americans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald T Acton
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA.,Southern Iron Disorders Center, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Howard W Wiener
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - James C Barton
- Southern Iron Disorders Center, Birmingham, Alabama, USA.,Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
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Detecting Sex-Biased Gene Flow in African-Americans through the Analysis of Intra- and Inter-Population Variation at Mitochondrial DNA and Y- Chromosome Microsatellites. Balkan J Med Genet 2013; 15:7-14. [PMID: 24052726 PMCID: PMC3776662 DOI: 10.2478/bjmg-2013-0001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
This study reports on variations at the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) hypervariable region 1 (HVR-1) and at seven Y-chromosome microsatellites in an African-American population sample from Chicago, IL, USA. Our results support the hypothesis that the population studied had undergone a European male-biased gene flow. We show that comparisons of intra-and inter-population diversity parameters between African-Americans, Europeans and Africans may help detect sex-biased gene flow, providing a complement to quantitative methods to estimate genetic admixture.
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Pasipanodya JG, Vecino E, Miller TL, Munguia G, Drewyer G, Fernandez M, Slocum P, Weis SE. Non-hispanic whites have higher risk for pulmonary impairment from pulmonary tuberculosis. BMC Public Health 2012; 12:119. [PMID: 22325005 PMCID: PMC3305434 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2458-12-119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2011] [Accepted: 02/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Disparities in outcomes associated with race and ethnicity are well documented for many diseases and patient populations. Tuberculosis (TB) disproportionately affects economically disadvantaged, racial and ethnic minority populations. Pulmonary impairment after tuberculosis (PIAT) contributes heavily to the societal burden of TB. Individual impacts associated with PIAT may vary by race/ethnicity or socioeconomic status. METHODS We analyzed the pulmonary function of 320 prospectively identified patients with pulmonary tuberculosis who had completed at least 20 weeks standard anti-TB regimes by directly observed therapy. We compared frequency and severity of spirometry-defined PIAT in groups stratified by demographics, pulmonary risk factors, and race/ethnicity, and examined clinical correlates to pulmonary function deficits. RESULTS Pulmonary impairment after tuberculosis was identified in 71% of non-Hispanic Whites, 58% of non-Hispanic Blacks, 49% of Asians and 32% of Hispanics (p < 0.001). Predictors for PIAT varied between race/ethnicity. PIAT was evenly distributed across all levels of socioeconomic status suggesting that PIAT and socioeconomic status are not related. PIAT and its severity were significantly associated with abnormal chest x-ray, p < 0.0001. There was no association between race/ethnicity and time to beginning TB treatment, p = 0.978. CONCLUSIONS Despite controlling for cigarette smoking, socioeconomic status and time to beginning TB treatment, non-Hispanic White race/ethnicity remained an independent predictor for disproportionately frequent and severe pulmonary impairment after tuberculosis relative to other race/ethnic groups. Since race/ethnicity was self reported and that race is not a biological construct: these findings must be interpreted with caution. However, because race/ethnicity is a proxy for several other unmeasured host, pathogen or environment factors that may contribute to disparate health outcomes, these results are meant to suggest hypotheses for further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jotam G Pasipanodya
- Department of Internal Medicine, UNT- Health Science Center at Fort Worth, Fort Worth, TX, USA
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious diseases, UT Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Edgar Vecino
- Department of Internal Medicine, UNT- Health Science Center at Fort Worth, Fort Worth, TX, USA
| | - Thaddeus L Miller
- Department of Internal Medicine, UNT- Health Science Center at Fort Worth, Fort Worth, TX, USA
| | - Guadalupe Munguia
- Department of Internal Medicine, UNT- Health Science Center at Fort Worth, Fort Worth, TX, USA
| | - Gerry Drewyer
- Tarrant County Public Health Department, Division of TB Elimination, 1101 S. Main Street, Fort Worth, TX, USA
| | - Michel Fernandez
- Department of Internal Medicine, UNT- Health Science Center at Fort Worth, Fort Worth, TX, USA
- Tarrant County Public Health Department, Division of TB Elimination, 1101 S. Main Street, Fort Worth, TX, USA
| | - Philip Slocum
- Department of Internal Medicine, A.T. Still University of Health Sciences, Kirksville, MO, USA
| | - Stephen E Weis
- Department of Internal Medicine, UNT- Health Science Center at Fort Worth, Fort Worth, TX, USA
- Tarrant County Public Health Department, Division of TB Elimination, 1101 S. Main Street, Fort Worth, TX, USA
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Signorello LB, Williams SM, Zheng W, Smith JR, Long J, Cai Q, Hargreaves MK, Hollis BW, Blot WJ. Blood vitamin d levels in relation to genetic estimation of African ancestry. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2010; 19:2325-31. [PMID: 20647395 DOI: 10.1158/1055-9965.epi-10-0482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND African-Americans generally have lower circulating levels of 25 hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] than Whites, attributed to skin pigmentation and dietary habits. Little is known about the genetic determinants of 25(OH)D levels nor whether the degree of African ancestry associates with circulating 25(OH)D. METHODS With the use of a panel of 276 ancestry informative genetic markers, we estimated African and European admixture for a sample of 758 African-American and non-Hispanic White Southern Community Cohort Study participants. For African-Americans, cut points of <85%, 85% to 95%, and >or=95% defined low, medium, and high African ancestry, respectively. We estimated the association between African ancestry and 25(OH)D and also explored whether vitamin D exposure (sunlight, diet) had varying effects on 25(OH)D levels dependent on ancestry level. RESULTS The mean serum 25(OH)D levels among Whites and among African-Americans of low, medium, and high African ancestry were 27.2, 19.5, 18.3, and 16.5 ng/mL, respectively. Serum 25(OH)D was estimated to decrease by 1.0 to 1.1 ng/mL per 10% increase in African ancestry. The effect of high vitamin D exposure from sunlight and diet was 46% lower among African-Americans with high African ancestry than among those with low/medium ancestry. CONCLUSIONS We found novel evidence that the level of African ancestry may play a role in clinical vitamin D status. IMPACT This is the first study to describe how 25(OH)D levels vary in relation to genetic estimation of African ancestry. Further study is warranted to replicate these findings and uncover the potential pathways involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa B Signorello
- 1International Epidemiology Institute, Rockville, Maryland 20850, USA.
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5
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Patterson N, Petersen DC, van der Ross RE, Sudoyo H, Glashoff RH, Marzuki S, Reich D, Hayes VM. Genetic structure of a unique admixed population: implications for medical research. Hum Mol Genet 2009; 19:411-9. [DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddp505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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6
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Harris EF, Clark LL. Hypodontia: An epidemiologic study of American black and white people. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop 2008; 134:761-7. [PMID: 19061802 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajodo.2006.12.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2006] [Revised: 12/01/2006] [Accepted: 12/01/2006] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Edward F Harris
- Department of Orthodontics, College of Dentistry, University of Tennessee, Memphis, TN 38163, USA.
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The potentially deleterious functional variant flavin-containing monooxygenase 2*1 is at high frequency throughout sub-Saharan Africa. Pharmacogenet Genomics 2008; 18:877-86. [PMID: 18794725 DOI: 10.1097/fpc.0b013e3283097311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The drug-metabolizing enzyme flavin-containing monooxygenase 2 (FMO2) is the predominant FMO isoform present in the lung of most mammals, including non-human primates. All Europeans and Asians tested have been shown to be homozygous for a non-functional variant, FMO2*2A, which contains a premature stop codon due to a single-nucleotide change in exon 9 (g.23238C>T). The ancestral allele, FMO2*1, encodes a functionally active protein and has been found in African-Americans (26%) and Hispanics (2% to 7%). Possessing this variant increases the risk of pulmonary toxicity when exposed to thioureas, a widely used class of industrial compounds. FMO2 may also be involved in the metabolism of drugs that are used to treat diseases that are prevalent in Africa. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION We conducted a survey of g.23238C>T variation across Africa that revealed that the distribution of this SNP is relatively homogeneous across sub-Saharan Africa, with approximately one third of individuals possessing at least one FMO2*1 allele, though in some populations the incidence of these individuals approached 50%. Thus many sub-Saharan Africans may be at substantially increased health risk when encountering thiourea-containing substrates of FMO2. Analysis of HapMap data with the Long-Range Haplotype test found no evidence for positive selection of either 23238C>T allele and maximum-likelihood coalescent analysis indicated that this mutation occurred some 500,000 years before present. This study demonstrates the value of performing genetic surveys in Africa, a continent in which human genetic diversity is thought to be greatest, but where studies of the distribution of this diversity are few.
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Abstract
Guidelines for use of antiretroviral agents presently recommend first-line treatments with nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor-based regimens. Efavirenz is the standard-of-care comparator for nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor-based antiretroviral therapy. As with many antiretroviral medications, efavirenz is subject to interindividual variation in metabolism, effectiveness, and tolerability. Demographic factors such as age, sex, and ethnicity have been demonstrated to influence this variability, but other underlying factors such as genetics, disease state, and concomitant drug use can also play a role. The clinical impactions of these factors are only beginning to be understood. Although significant advances have led to a greater understanding of interactions between genetic and host factors that influence the efficacy and toxicity of efavirenz, providers should not withhold treatment of HIV infection with an efavirenz-based regimen on the basis of racial or ethic categorizations.
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Flores C, Ma SF, Maresso K, Ober C, Garcia JGN. A variant of the myosin light chain kinase gene is associated with severe asthma in African Americans. Genet Epidemiol 2007; 31:296-305. [PMID: 17266121 DOI: 10.1002/gepi.20210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Asthma is a complex phenotype influenced by environmental and genetic factors for which severe irreversible structural airway alterations are more frequently observed in African Americans. In addition to a multitude of factors contributing to its pathobiology, increased amounts of myosin light chain kinase (MLCK), the central regulator of cellular contraction, have been found in airway smooth muscle from asthmatics. The gene encoding MLCK (MYLK) is located in 3q21.1, a region noted by a number of genome-wide studies to show linkage with asthma and asthma-related phenotypes. We studied 17 MYLK genetic variants in European and African Americans with asthma and severe asthma and identified a single non-synonymous polymorphism (Pro147Ser) that was almost entirely restricted to African populations and which was associated with severe asthma in African Americans. These results remained highly significant after adjusting for proportions of ancestry estimated using 30 unlinked microsatellites (adjusted odds ratio: 1.76 [95% confidence interval, CI: 1.17-2.65], p = 0.005). Since all common HapMap polymorphisms in approximately 500 kb contiguous regions have low-to-moderate linkage disequilibrium with Pro147Ser, we speculate that this polymorphism is causally related to the severe asthma phenotype in African Americans. The association of this polymorphism, located in the N-terminal region of the non-muscle MLCK isoform, emphasizes the potential importance of the vascular endothelium, a tissue in which MLCK is centrally involved in multiple aspects of the inflammatory response, in the pathogenesis of severe asthma. This finding also offers a possible genetic explanation for some of the more severe asthma phenotype observed in African American asthmatics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Flores
- Department of Medicine, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
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Shao J, Chen L, Marrs B, Lee L, Huang H, Manton KG, Martin GM, Oshima J. SOD2 polymorphisms: unmasking the effect of polymorphism on splicing. BMC MEDICAL GENETICS 2007; 8:7. [PMID: 17331249 PMCID: PMC1819367 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2350-8-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2006] [Accepted: 03/01/2007] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Background The SOD2 gene encodes an antioxidant enzyme, mitochondrial superoxide dismutase. SOD2 polymorphisms are of interest because of their potential roles in the modulation of free radical-mediated macromolecular damage during aging. Results We identified a new splice variant of SOD2 in human lymphoblastoid cell lines (LCLs). The alternatively spliced product was originally detected by exon trapping of a minigene in order to examine the consequences of an intronic polymorphism found upstream of exon 4 (nucleotide 8136, 10T vs 9T). Examination of the transcripts derived from the endogenous loci in five LCLs with or without the intron 3 polymorphism revealed low levels of an in-frame deletion of exon 4 that were different from those detected by the exon trap assay. This suggested that exon trapping of the minigene unmasked the effect of the 10T vs 9T polymorphism on the splicing of the adjacent exon. We also determined the frequencies of single nucleotide polymorphisms in a sample of US African-Americans and non-African-Americans ages 65 years and older who participated in the 1999 wave of the National Long Term Care Survey (NLTCS). Particularly striking differences between African-Americans and non-African-Americans were found for the frequencies of genotypes at the 10T/9T intron 3 polymorphism. Conclusion Exon trapping can unmask in vitro splicing differences caused by a 10T/9T intron 3 polymorphism. Given the recent evidence that SOD2 is in a region on chromosome 6 linked to susceptibility to hypertension, it will be of interest to investigate possible associations of this polymorphism with cardiovascular disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Shao
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Lishan Chen
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Brian Marrs
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Lin Lee
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Hai Huang
- Center for Demographic Studies, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Kenneth G Manton
- Center for Demographic Studies, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - George M Martin
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Junko Oshima
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
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Cai WM, Nikoloff DM, Pan RM, de Leon J, Fanti P, Fairchild M, Koch WH, Wedlund PJ. CYP2D6 genetic variation in healthy adults and psychiatric African-American subjects: implications for clinical practice and genetic testing. THE PHARMACOGENOMICS JOURNAL 2006; 6:343-50. [PMID: 16550211 DOI: 10.1038/sj.tpj.6500378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Limited information is available on the frequency of the many CYP2D6 alleles found in African-Americans. DNA was isolated and genetic testing was performed on samples from 222 African-Americans, healthy controls (n=131), and psychiatric patients (n=91). Each DNA was tested for CYP2D6 alleles *2, *3, *4, *5, *6, *7, *8, *9, *10, *11, *14, *15, *17, *18, *19, *20, *25, *26, *29, *30, *31, *35, *36, *37, *40, *41 and *43 and 8 multiple copy alleles (*1xn, *2xn, *4xn, *41xn, *2Lxn, *17xn, *35xn and *10xn) using the AmpliChip CYP450 prototype microarray assay, along with allele-specific-PCR and PCR restriction fragment length polymorphism methods. No significant difference was noted between controls and psychiatric patients in any CYP2D6 allele frequencies. Three subjects were genotyped as poor metabolizers (1.4%; 0.0-2.9%, 95% confidence intervals (CI)), and 10 were classified as ultrarapid metabolizers (4.5%; 1.8-7.2%, 95% CI). A new CYP2D6 allele (*58) and two new duplicated CYP2D6 alleles (*17xn and *2Lxn) not previously reported were also identified. The frequency of the CYP2D6 overexpression in African-Americans may represent a greater therapeutic challenge than its deficiency based on these results. The most common alleles found in African-Americans including CYP2D6*1, *17 and *41 need to be investigated more closely for race-specific allelic variations and the mechanism responsible for differences in allele function more closely examined. The diversity of CYP2D6 alleles suggests that nucleotide arrays or similar methods are needed to efficiently test for the most prominent/relevant CYP2D6 alleles in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- W-M Cai
- College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536-0082, USA
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12
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Harris EF. Mineralization of the mandibular third molar: A study of American blacks and whites. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2006; 132:98-109. [PMID: 17078032 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.20490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The tempo of tooth mineralization is under significant genetic control, and the orderly progression of morphological changes-in concert with the long span during growth in which teeth form-makes "dental age" a useful measure of a person's degree of biological maturity. The third molar is of particular interest because (1) it is the last and most variable tooth to form and (2) it is the only tooth to complete formation after puberty, which has made it attractive in forensic and legal circles as an estimator of adulthood. Age standards are described here for mandibular third molar formation stages in a cross-sectional sample of 4,010 persons (age range: 3-25 years), with proportionate sample sizes of American blacks and whites and males and females. Formation was scored against the 15-grade ordinal scheme of Moorrees, and descriptive statistics were computed using proportional hazards survival analysis. Blacks achieved each formation stage significantly ahead of whites, but not in a uniform manner. Instead, there was an enhanced advancement in blacks during crown formation and during late stages of root formation. In both races formation proceeded faster in males, which is unique for the third molar, as prior studies suggest. Sample variance increases with the stage of formation, such that 95% confidence limits span 8 or more years for root formation stages. Consequently, the third molar provides a rough gauge of an individual's chronological age, but the considerable variability precludes any precise estimate, particularly in late adolescence where most forensic interest has focused.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward F Harris
- Department of Orthodontics, College of Dentistry, University of Tennessee, Memphis, TN 38163, USA.
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13
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Genetic Variation and Discriminating Power of Four DNA Microsatellites in the Russian Population. Mol Biol 2005. [DOI: 10.1007/s11008-005-0104-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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15
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Abstract
Admixture is an important evolutionary force that can and should be used in efforts to apply genomic data and technology to the study of complex disease genetics. Admixture linkage disequilibrium (ALD) is created by the process of admixture and, in recently admixed populations, extends for substantial distances (of the order of 10 to 20 cM). The amount of ALD generated depends on the level of admixture, ancestry information content of markers and the admixture dynamics of the population, and thus influences admixture mapping (AM). The authors discuss different models of admixture and how these can have an impact on the success of AM studies. Selection of markers is important, since markers informative for parental population ancestry are required and these are uncommon. Rarely does the process of admixture result in a population that is uniform for individual admixture levels, but instead there is substantial population stratification. This stratification can be understood as variation in individual admixtures and can be both a source of statistical power for ancestry-phenotype correlation studies as well as a confounder in causing false-positives in gene association studies. Methods to detect and control for stratification in case/control and AM studies are reviewed, along with recent studies showing individual ancestry-phenotype correlations. Using skin pigmentation as a model phenotype, implications of AM in complex disease gene mapping studies are discussed. Finally, the article discusses some limitations of this approach that should be considered when designing an effective AM study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Indrani Halder
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16801, USA
| | - Mark D Shriver
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16801, USA
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16
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Abstract
Besides its obvious intrinsic value, knowledge of population history, and of the demographic and evolutionary changes that accompany it, has proven fundamental to address applied research in human genetics. In this review we place current European genetic diversity in the context of the global human genome diversity and review the evidence supporting a recent African origin of the Europeans. We then discuss the results and the interpretation of genetic studies attempting to quantify the relative importance of various gene flow processes, both within Europe and from Asia into Europe, focusing especially on the initial, Paleolithic colonization of the continent, and on later, Paleolithic postglacial and Neolithic dispersals. Finally, we discuss how knowledge of the patterns of genetic diversity in Europe, and of their inferred generating processes, can be extremely useful in planning health care and in biomedical research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guido Barbujani
- Department of Biology, University of Ferrara , 44100 Ferrara, Italy.
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Choisy M, Franck P, Cornuet JM. Estimating admixture proportions with microsatellites: comparison of methods based on simulated data. Mol Ecol 2004; 13:955-68. [PMID: 15012768 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-294x.2004.02107.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Several methods have been developed to estimate the parental contributions in the genetic pool of an admixed population. Some pair-comparisons have been performed on real data but, to date, no systematic comparison of a large number of methods has been attempted. In this study, we performed a simulated data-based comparison of six of the most cited methods in the literature of the last 20 years. Five of these methods use allele frequencies and differ in the statistical treatment of the data. The last one also considers the degree of molecular divergence by estimating the coalescence times. Comparisons are based on the frequency at which the method can be applied, the bias and the mean square error of the estimation, and the frequency at which the true value is within the confidence interval. Eventually, each method was applied to a real data set of variously introgressed honeybee populations. In optimal conditions (highly differentiated parental populations, recent hybridization event), all methods perform equally well. When conditions are not optimal, the methods perform differently, but no method is always better or worse than all others. Some guidelines are given for the choice of the method.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Choisy
- Centre d'Etude sur le Polymorphisme des Micro-organismes, UMR CNRS-IRD 9926, Montpellier, France
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18
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Wright BS, Nwokoro NA, Wassif CA, Porter FD, Waye JS, Eng B, Nowaczyk MJM. Carrier frequency of the RSH/Smith-Lemli-Opitz IVS8-1G>C mutation in African Americans. Am J Med Genet A 2003; 120A:139-41. [PMID: 12794707 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.a.10207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Kayser M, Brauer S, Schädlich H, Prinz M, Batzer MA, Zimmerman PA, Boatin BA, Stoneking M. Y chromosome STR haplotypes and the genetic structure of U.S. populations of African, European, and Hispanic ancestry. Genome Res 2003; 13:624-34. [PMID: 12671003 PMCID: PMC430174 DOI: 10.1101/gr.463003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
To investigate geographic structure within U.S. ethnic populations, we analyzed 1705 haplotypes on the basis of 9 short tandem repeat (STR) loci on the Y-chromosome from 9-11 groups each of African-Americans, European-Americans, and Hispanics. There were no significant differences in the distribution of Y-STR haplotypes among African-American groups, whereas European-American and Hispanic groups did exhibit significant geographic heterogeneity. However, the significant heterogeneity resulted from one sample; removal of that sample in each case eliminated the significant heterogeneity. Multidimensional scaling analysis of R(ST) values indicated that African-American groups formed a distinct cluster, whereas there was some intermingling of European-American and Hispanic groups. MtDNA data exist for many of these same groups; estimates of the European-American genetic contribution to the African-American gene pool were 27.5%-33.6% for the Y-STR haplotypes and 9%-15.4% for the mtDNA types. The lack of significant geographic heterogeneity among Y-STR and mtDNA haplotypes in U.S ethnic groups means that forensic DNA databases do not need to be constructed for separate geographic regions of the U.S. Moreover, absence of significant geographic heterogeneity for these two loci means that regional variation in disease susceptibility within ethnic groups is more likely to reflect cultural/environmental factors, rather than any underlying genetic heterogeneity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manfred Kayser
- Department of Evolutionary Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, D-04103 Leipzig, Germany.
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Abstract
Pharmacogenomics has emerged in the popular press as a key vehicle ushering in a new era of personalized medicine. Often described in utopian terms, gene-sequencing technology is predicted to result in the creation of a new line of therapeutics tailored to individual genetic signatures. In the absence of cost-effective, ubiquitous genome scanning tests, it may be more accurate to describe the next wave of genomic medicine as population-based rather than one focused on individual differences. Although the completion of the Human Genome Project seemed to confirm the fallacy of a genetic basis of 'race', the use of race in understanding human genetic variation has become a central focal point in the development of tools in genomic research in medicine. Despite the often repeated statement that humans share 99.9% of their genetic makeup, the growing number of privately and publicly funded cell repositories collecting DNA samples from racially identified populations reflects the increasing salience of the relationship between race and genes. Research on the ethical implications of identifying race in pharmacogenomics research has thus far, been fairly limited. As the field surges ahead, it is critical to examine the use of race in pharmacogenomics research and its attendant benefits and potential harm to individuals and groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Soo-Jin Lee
- Center for Biomedical Ethics, Stanford University Medical School and the Department of Cultural and Social Anthropology, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94304-1703, USA.
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21
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Nebert DW. Proposal for an allele nomenclature system based on the evolutionary divergence of haplotypes. Hum Mutat 2002; 20:463-72. [PMID: 12442271 DOI: 10.1002/humu.10143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The classical view of what constitutes an "allele" has been challenged by recent findings of a great deal of human genetic variability, i.e., we can expect, on average, one variant site every 100-250 bases of our haploid genome. The haplotype is defined as "the patterns of co-occurrence of variant sites on the same chromosome" (and therefore within each particular gene). Sufficient evidence exists for the divergence of haplotypes during evolution of Homo sapiens sapiens, and the total number of haplotypes per gene will reflect the amount of time any particular ethnic group has existed on the planet, e.g., greatest in Africans, fewer in East Asians, and still fewer in Caucasians. If the average gene spans 30 kb, we can expect approximately 170 polymorphic variant sites per gene in the world population. We do not see 2(170) haplotypes, however; we might find only 10 to 200 haplotypes (depending on the gene's size and degree of conservation of the gene product). This finite number allows for a reasonable haplotype nomenclature system for each gene, based on evolutionary divergence. For polymorphic variants (i.e., frequency > or = 0.01), I propose using Arabic numerals for the major clades (e.g., *1, *2, em leader *20, *21), capital letters for sublineages (e.g., *2A, *2B, *2C), and Arabic numerals for sub-sublineages (e.g., *22G12, *22G13); additional subcategories may be added, in an alternating number/letter/number/letter sequence, depending on the complexity of present-day haplotypes of a particular gene. Web sites with a web master and external advisory committee should be set up for each gene superfamily, family, or individual gene (depending on complexity), and an international haplotype nomenclature committee, perhaps comprised of several dozen of these web masters, should oversee haplotype nomenclature for the entire human genome. The higher heterozygosity and multiallelic nature makes haplotypes more informative than biallelic SNPs. Ultimately, our knowledge of haplotype patterns, rather than single variant sites, of perhaps several hundred genes will likely be helpful in finding associations between genotype and any multiplex phenotype (e.g., complex diseases including cancer, and/or toxicity of pharmaceutical agents or environmental pollutants).
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel W Nebert
- Center for Environmental Genetics, Department of Environmental Health, University of Cincinnati Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio 45267-0056, USA.
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22
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Ardlie KG, Lunetta KL, Seielstad M. Testing for population subdivision and association in four case-control studies. Am J Hum Genet 2002; 71:304-11. [PMID: 12096349 PMCID: PMC379163 DOI: 10.1086/341719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 172] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2002] [Accepted: 05/09/2002] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Population structure has been presumed to cause many of the unreplicated disease-marker associations reported in the literature, yet few actual case-control studies have been evaluated for the presence of structure. Here, we examine four moderate case-control samples, comprising 3,472 individuals, to determine if detectable population subdivision is present. The four population samples include: 500 U.S. whites and 236 African Americans with hypertension; and 500 U.S. whites and 500 Polish whites with type 2 diabetes, all with matched control subjects. Both diabetes populations were typed for the PPARg Pro12Ala polymorphism, to replicate this well-supported association (Altshuler et al. 2000). In each of the four samples, we tested for structure, using the sum of the case-control allele frequency chi(2) statistics for 9 STR and 35 SNP markers (Pritchard and Rosenberg 1999). We found weak evidence for population structure in the African American sample only, but further refinement of the sample, to include only individuals with U.S.-born parents and grandparents, eliminated the stratification. Our examples provide insight into the factors affecting the replication of association studies and suggest that carefully matched, moderate-sized case-control samples in cosmopolitan U.S. and European populations are unlikely to contain levels of structure that would result in significantly inflated numbers of false-positive associations. We explore the role that extreme differences in power among studies, due to sample size and risk-allele frequency differences, may play in the replication problem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin G Ardlie
- Genomics Collaborative, 99 Erie Street, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA.
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23
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Nebert DW, Menon AG. Pharmacogenomics, ethnicity, and susceptibility genes. THE PHARMACOGENOMICS JOURNAL 2002; 1:19-22. [PMID: 11913722 DOI: 10.1038/sj.tpj.6500002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- D W Nebert
- Department of Environmental Health, Center for Environmental Genetics, University of Cincinnati Medical Center, OH45267-0056, USA.
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24
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Van Den Oord EJ, Rowe DC. A step in another direction: looking for maternal genetic and environmental effects on racial differences in birth weight. Demography 2001; 38:573-6. [PMID: 11723954 DOI: 10.1353/dem.2001.0040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
To advance research on birth weight differences between black and white infants, it may be useful to study maternal effects. These effects present a set of risk factors that are largely unrelated to those that are presently under investigation and fail to explain the gap in birth weight; empirical findings suggest their involvement. Although maternal effects can be environmental, as illustrated by recent findings, genetic effects could be important as well because gene frequencies are known to differ across the "racial" groups as studied by birth weight researchers, and maternal genes can exert a causal effect on birth weight.
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Affiliation(s)
- E J Van Den Oord
- Virginia Institute of Psychiatric and Behavioral Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University, P.O. Box 980126, Richmond, VA 23298-0126, USA.
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25
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Smith MW, Lautenberger JA, Shin HD, Chretien JP, Shrestha S, Gilbert DA, O'Brien SJ. Markers for mapping by admixture linkage disequilibrium in African American and Hispanic populations. Am J Hum Genet 2001; 69:1080-94. [PMID: 11590548 PMCID: PMC1274377 DOI: 10.1086/323922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2001] [Accepted: 08/20/2001] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Population linkage disequilibrium occurs as a consequence of mutation, selection, genetic drift, and population substructure produced by admixture of genetically distinct ethnic populations. African American and Hispanic ethnic groups have a history of significant gene flow among parent groups, which can be of value in affecting genome scans for disease-gene discovery in the case-control and transmission/disequilibrium test designs. Disease-gene discovery using mapping by admixture linkage disequilibrium (MALD) requires a map of polymorphic markers that differentiate between the founding populations, along with differences in disease-gene allele frequencies. We describe markers appropriate for MALD mapping by assessing allele frequencies of 744 short tandem repeats (STRs) in African Americans, Hispanics, European Americans, and Asians, by choosing STR markers that have large differences in composite delta, log-likelihood ratios, and/or I*(2) for MALD. Additional markers can be added to this MALD map by utilization of the rapidly growing single-nucleotide-polymorphism databases and the literature, to achieve a 3-10-cM scanning scale. The map will be useful for studies of diseases, including prostate and breast cancer, diabetes, hypertension, and end-stage renal disease, that have large differences in incidence between the founding populations of either Hispanics or African Americans.
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Affiliation(s)
- M W Smith
- Intramural Research Support Program, Science Applications International Corporation-Frederick, National Cancer Institute, MD 21702, USA.
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26
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Flores C, Maca-Meyer N, Peŕez JA, Cabrera VM. The peopling of the Canary Islands: a CD4/Alu microsatellite haplotype perspective. Hum Immunol 2001; 62:949-53. [PMID: 11543897 DOI: 10.1016/s0198-8859(01)00311-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
A new CD4 microsatellite allele with three TTTTC complete repetitions, previously described only in hominoids, has been found in this screening. The number of haplotypes and heterozygosities in the Canary Islands (15 and 0.746+/-0.007) is more similar to Iberian (14 and 0.748+/-0.015) than to North African (18 and 0.827+/-0.009) values. However, in some islands, with less European migratory impact, haplotypes with major African assignation (90[+] and 130[+]) reach frequencies similar to African populations. There is a significant negative correlation between geographic distances to Africa and insular heterozygosity values, which suggests a main aborigine colonization from East to West still detectable today.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Flores
- Departamento de Genética, Universidad de La Laguna, E-38271, Islas Canarias, Spain
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27
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Destro-Bisol G, Boschi I, Caglià A, Tofanelli S, Pascali V, Paoli G, Spedini G. Microsatellite variation in Central Africa: an analysis of intrapopulational and interpopulational genetic diversity. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2000; 112:319-37. [PMID: 10861350 DOI: 10.1002/1096-8644(200007)112:3<319::aid-ajpa4>3.0.co;2-f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
As a part of a research project on molecular variation in Central Africa, we have analyzed 10 microsatellites (CD4, CSFO, D3S1358, D18S51, D21S11, F13A1, FES, TH01, TPOX, and VWA) in the Bamileke and Ewondo from Cameroon and the Sanga and Mbenzele Pygmies from the Central African Republic (a total of 390 chromosomes). A statistically significant trend towards heterozygote deficiency was detected in the Mbenzele Pygmies. This was established through the use of powerful exact tests for the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. A certain degree of isolation and a small effective size may explain this finding. However, the lack of any substantial reduction in allelic diversity in the Mbenzele does not support the possibility that this group has a smaller effective size in evolutionary terms. A possible explanation based on ethnographic studies suggests that the gene flow from non-Pygmies to Pygmies could have been interrupted only in relatively recent times. The analysis of association between genotypes at pairs of independent loci indicates that the level of subheterogeneity is markedly lower in the Bamileke than in other sampled populations. This may be explained by the combined effect of larger population size, more rigid respect of clanic exogamy, and higher matrimonial mobility of the Bamileke. Finally, we have analyzed interpopulational relationships among our sampled populations and other Central African populations. The results are consistent with a previous study of protein loci (Spedini et al. 1999), which suggests the recent history of the Bamileke and Ewondo has led them to aquire a substantial genetic similarity. Furthermore, the Mbenzele Pygmies diverge from Biaka Pygmies, despite their common origin and geographical proximity. This is probably due to the differentiating effect of genetic drift, which is enhanced by the small effective size of Pygmy populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Destro-Bisol
- Department of Animal and Human Biology, University La Sapienza, Rome, Italy.
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28
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Nebert DW. Suggestions for the nomenclature of human alleles: relevance to ecogenetics, pharmacogenetics and molecular epidemiology. PHARMACOGENETICS 2000; 10:279-90. [PMID: 10862518 DOI: 10.1097/00008571-200006000-00001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The current number of 9422 symbols for human gene names (http://www.gene.ucl.ac.uk/nomenclature/) is expected to increase 7- to 15-fold over the next 2 years. In and around each gene, a tremendous degree of single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) heterogeneity is now realized to exist. This review is intended to be visionary, to point out some of the enormously complex nomenclature issues that we face, and to offer some reasonable solutions to these issues. For example, I believe that a 'gene' should be defined as that region from the furthest 5'-ward enhancer to at least 150 bases downstream of the last exon. Just as established rules are critically important for the systematic naming of all new genes, standardized nomenclature rules for the naming of allelic variants are also desperately needed. The evolving consensus for naming the alleles of all human genes (ideally based on evolutionarily diverging haplotype patterns) is described herein. Because of the anticipated explosion in finding new genes and allelic variants due to high-throughput resequencing and DNA-chip technologies, this excess of new knowledge will undoubtedly overwhelm their publication by scientific journals alone. I suggest that the best approach to this staggering 'information overload' is to place the data on appropriate web sites--with numerous links between sites, and frequent updates of all information--so that colleagues in all fields of medical and genetic research can remain knowledgeable. Examples of successful web sites to date include those for the cytochrome P450 (CYP) genes and human CYP alleles, UDP glycosyltransferase (UGT) genes and human alleles, human N-acetylaminotransferase (NAT2, NAT1) alleles, and aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) genes and human alleles. Many more web sites will be necessary. For each site, the webmaster will need to be responsible, accurate, energetic, highly organized, and keen to keep the site current. I believe that interactive discussions on these sites should be encouraged, and advisory committees must be willing to check frequently to ensure that all new information is accurate. Lastly, for the field of molecular epidemiology, the importance of correlating an informative genotype with an unequivocal phenotype is emphasized, and the emerging realization that racial and ethnic groups are highly admixed is summarized and updated.
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Affiliation(s)
- D W Nebert
- Center for Environmental Genetics and Department of Environmental Health, University of Cincinnati Medical Center, Ohio 45267-0056, USA.
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29
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Lautenberger JA, Stephens JC, O'Brien SJ, Smith MW. Significant admixture linkage disequilibrium across 30 cM around the FY locus in African Americans. Am J Hum Genet 2000; 66:969-78. [PMID: 10712211 PMCID: PMC1288177 DOI: 10.1086/302820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/1999] [Accepted: 09/30/1999] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Scientists, to understand the importance of allelic polymorphisms on phenotypes that are quantitative and environmentally interacting, are now turning to population-association screens, especially in instances in which pedigree analysis is difficult. Because association screens require linkage disequilibrium between markers and disease loci, maximizing the degree of linkage disequilibrium increases the chances of discovering functional gene-marker associations. One theoretically valid approach-mapping by admixture linkage disequilibrium (MALD), using recently admixed African Americans-is empirically evaluated here by measurement of marker associations with 15 short tandem repeats (STRs) and an insertion/deletion polymorphism of the AT3 locus in a 70-cM segment at 1q22-23, around the FY (Duffy) locus. The FY polymorphism (-46T-->C) disrupts the GATA promoter motif, specifically blocking FY erythroid expression and has a nearly fixed allele-frequency difference between European Americans and native Africans that is likely a consequence of a selective advantage of FY-/- in malaria infections. Analysis of linkage disequilibrium around the FY gene has indicated that there is strong and consistent linkage disequilibrium between FY and three flanking loci (D1S303, SPTA1, and D1S484) spanning 8 cM. We observed significant linkage-disequilibrium signals over a 30-cM region from -4.4 to 16.3 cM (from D1S2777 to D1S196) for STRs and at 26.4 cM (AT3), which provided quantitative estimates of centimorgan limits, by MALD assessment in African American population-association analyses, of 5-10 cM.
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Affiliation(s)
- James A. Lautenberger
- Laboratory of Genomic Diversity, National Cancer Institute, and Intramural Research Support Program, Science Applications International Corporation–Frederick, National Cancer Institute, Frederick Cancer Research and Development Center, Frederick, MD
| | - J. Claiborne Stephens
- Laboratory of Genomic Diversity, National Cancer Institute, and Intramural Research Support Program, Science Applications International Corporation–Frederick, National Cancer Institute, Frederick Cancer Research and Development Center, Frederick, MD
| | - Stephen J. O'Brien
- Laboratory of Genomic Diversity, National Cancer Institute, and Intramural Research Support Program, Science Applications International Corporation–Frederick, National Cancer Institute, Frederick Cancer Research and Development Center, Frederick, MD
| | - Michael W. Smith
- Laboratory of Genomic Diversity, National Cancer Institute, and Intramural Research Support Program, Science Applications International Corporation–Frederick, National Cancer Institute, Frederick Cancer Research and Development Center, Frederick, MD
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Crawford DC, Schwartz CE, Meadows KL, Newman JL, Taft LF, Gunter C, Brown WT, Carpenter NJ, Howard-Peebles PN, Monaghan KG, Nolin SL, Reiss AL, Feldman GL, Rohlfs EM, Warren ST, Sherman SL. Survey of the fragile X syndrome CGG repeat and the short-tandem-repeat and single-nucleotide-polymorphism haplotypes in an African American population. Am J Hum Genet 2000; 66:480-93. [PMID: 10677308 PMCID: PMC1288101 DOI: 10.1086/302762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies have shown that specific short-tandem-repeat (STR) and single-nucleotide-polymorphism (SNP)-based haplotypes within and among unaffected and fragile X white populations are found to be associated with specific CGG-repeat patterns. It has been hypothesized that these associations result from different mutational mechanisms, possibly influenced by the CGG structure and/or cis-acting factors. Alternatively, haplotype associations may result from the long mutational history of increasing instability. To understand the basis of the mutational process, we examined the CGG-repeat size, three flanking STR markers (DXS548-FRAXAC1-FRAXAC2), and one SNP (ATL1) spanning 150 kb around the CGG repeat in unaffected (n=637) and fragile X (n=63) African American populations and compared them with unaffected (n=721) and fragile X (n=102) white populations. Several important differences were found between the two ethnic groups. First, in contrast to that seen in the white population, no associations were observed among the African American intermediate or "predisposed" alleles (41-60 repeats). Second, two previously undescribed haplotypes accounted for the majority of the African American fragile X population. Third, a putative "protective" haplotype was not found among African Americans, whereas it was found among whites. Fourth, in contrast to that seen in whites, the SNP ATL1 was in linkage equilibrium among African Americans, and it did not add new information to the STR haplotypes. These data indicate that the STR- and SNP-based haplotype associations identified in whites probably reflect the mutational history of the expansion, rather than a mutational mechanism or pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dana C. Crawford
- Departments of Genetics and Biochemistry, Emory University School of Medicine, and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Atlanta; Greenwood Genetic Center, Greenwood, South Carolina; Genetics & IVF Institute, Fairfax, Virginia; Medical College of Virginia, Richmond; Department of Human Genetics, New York Staten Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, Staten Island; Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Child Development, Departments of Psychiatry and Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill; Department of Medical Genetics, Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit; H. A. Chapman Institute of Medical Genetics, Tulsa
| | - Charles E. Schwartz
- Departments of Genetics and Biochemistry, Emory University School of Medicine, and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Atlanta; Greenwood Genetic Center, Greenwood, South Carolina; Genetics & IVF Institute, Fairfax, Virginia; Medical College of Virginia, Richmond; Department of Human Genetics, New York Staten Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, Staten Island; Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Child Development, Departments of Psychiatry and Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill; Department of Medical Genetics, Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit; H. A. Chapman Institute of Medical Genetics, Tulsa
| | - Kellen L. Meadows
- Departments of Genetics and Biochemistry, Emory University School of Medicine, and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Atlanta; Greenwood Genetic Center, Greenwood, South Carolina; Genetics & IVF Institute, Fairfax, Virginia; Medical College of Virginia, Richmond; Department of Human Genetics, New York Staten Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, Staten Island; Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Child Development, Departments of Psychiatry and Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill; Department of Medical Genetics, Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit; H. A. Chapman Institute of Medical Genetics, Tulsa
| | - James L. Newman
- Departments of Genetics and Biochemistry, Emory University School of Medicine, and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Atlanta; Greenwood Genetic Center, Greenwood, South Carolina; Genetics & IVF Institute, Fairfax, Virginia; Medical College of Virginia, Richmond; Department of Human Genetics, New York Staten Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, Staten Island; Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Child Development, Departments of Psychiatry and Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill; Department of Medical Genetics, Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit; H. A. Chapman Institute of Medical Genetics, Tulsa
| | - Lisa F. Taft
- Departments of Genetics and Biochemistry, Emory University School of Medicine, and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Atlanta; Greenwood Genetic Center, Greenwood, South Carolina; Genetics & IVF Institute, Fairfax, Virginia; Medical College of Virginia, Richmond; Department of Human Genetics, New York Staten Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, Staten Island; Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Child Development, Departments of Psychiatry and Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill; Department of Medical Genetics, Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit; H. A. Chapman Institute of Medical Genetics, Tulsa
| | - Chris Gunter
- Departments of Genetics and Biochemistry, Emory University School of Medicine, and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Atlanta; Greenwood Genetic Center, Greenwood, South Carolina; Genetics & IVF Institute, Fairfax, Virginia; Medical College of Virginia, Richmond; Department of Human Genetics, New York Staten Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, Staten Island; Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Child Development, Departments of Psychiatry and Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill; Department of Medical Genetics, Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit; H. A. Chapman Institute of Medical Genetics, Tulsa
| | - W. Ted Brown
- Departments of Genetics and Biochemistry, Emory University School of Medicine, and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Atlanta; Greenwood Genetic Center, Greenwood, South Carolina; Genetics & IVF Institute, Fairfax, Virginia; Medical College of Virginia, Richmond; Department of Human Genetics, New York Staten Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, Staten Island; Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Child Development, Departments of Psychiatry and Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill; Department of Medical Genetics, Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit; H. A. Chapman Institute of Medical Genetics, Tulsa
| | - Nancy J. Carpenter
- Departments of Genetics and Biochemistry, Emory University School of Medicine, and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Atlanta; Greenwood Genetic Center, Greenwood, South Carolina; Genetics & IVF Institute, Fairfax, Virginia; Medical College of Virginia, Richmond; Department of Human Genetics, New York Staten Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, Staten Island; Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Child Development, Departments of Psychiatry and Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill; Department of Medical Genetics, Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit; H. A. Chapman Institute of Medical Genetics, Tulsa
| | - Patricia N. Howard-Peebles
- Departments of Genetics and Biochemistry, Emory University School of Medicine, and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Atlanta; Greenwood Genetic Center, Greenwood, South Carolina; Genetics & IVF Institute, Fairfax, Virginia; Medical College of Virginia, Richmond; Department of Human Genetics, New York Staten Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, Staten Island; Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Child Development, Departments of Psychiatry and Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill; Department of Medical Genetics, Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit; H. A. Chapman Institute of Medical Genetics, Tulsa
| | - Kristin G. Monaghan
- Departments of Genetics and Biochemistry, Emory University School of Medicine, and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Atlanta; Greenwood Genetic Center, Greenwood, South Carolina; Genetics & IVF Institute, Fairfax, Virginia; Medical College of Virginia, Richmond; Department of Human Genetics, New York Staten Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, Staten Island; Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Child Development, Departments of Psychiatry and Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill; Department of Medical Genetics, Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit; H. A. Chapman Institute of Medical Genetics, Tulsa
| | - Sarah L. Nolin
- Departments of Genetics and Biochemistry, Emory University School of Medicine, and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Atlanta; Greenwood Genetic Center, Greenwood, South Carolina; Genetics & IVF Institute, Fairfax, Virginia; Medical College of Virginia, Richmond; Department of Human Genetics, New York Staten Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, Staten Island; Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Child Development, Departments of Psychiatry and Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill; Department of Medical Genetics, Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit; H. A. Chapman Institute of Medical Genetics, Tulsa
| | - Allan L. Reiss
- Departments of Genetics and Biochemistry, Emory University School of Medicine, and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Atlanta; Greenwood Genetic Center, Greenwood, South Carolina; Genetics & IVF Institute, Fairfax, Virginia; Medical College of Virginia, Richmond; Department of Human Genetics, New York Staten Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, Staten Island; Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Child Development, Departments of Psychiatry and Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill; Department of Medical Genetics, Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit; H. A. Chapman Institute of Medical Genetics, Tulsa
| | - Gerald L. Feldman
- Departments of Genetics and Biochemistry, Emory University School of Medicine, and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Atlanta; Greenwood Genetic Center, Greenwood, South Carolina; Genetics & IVF Institute, Fairfax, Virginia; Medical College of Virginia, Richmond; Department of Human Genetics, New York Staten Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, Staten Island; Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Child Development, Departments of Psychiatry and Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill; Department of Medical Genetics, Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit; H. A. Chapman Institute of Medical Genetics, Tulsa
| | - Elizabeth M. Rohlfs
- Departments of Genetics and Biochemistry, Emory University School of Medicine, and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Atlanta; Greenwood Genetic Center, Greenwood, South Carolina; Genetics & IVF Institute, Fairfax, Virginia; Medical College of Virginia, Richmond; Department of Human Genetics, New York Staten Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, Staten Island; Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Child Development, Departments of Psychiatry and Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill; Department of Medical Genetics, Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit; H. A. Chapman Institute of Medical Genetics, Tulsa
| | - Stephen T. Warren
- Departments of Genetics and Biochemistry, Emory University School of Medicine, and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Atlanta; Greenwood Genetic Center, Greenwood, South Carolina; Genetics & IVF Institute, Fairfax, Virginia; Medical College of Virginia, Richmond; Department of Human Genetics, New York Staten Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, Staten Island; Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Child Development, Departments of Psychiatry and Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill; Department of Medical Genetics, Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit; H. A. Chapman Institute of Medical Genetics, Tulsa
| | - Stephanie L. Sherman
- Departments of Genetics and Biochemistry, Emory University School of Medicine, and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Atlanta; Greenwood Genetic Center, Greenwood, South Carolina; Genetics & IVF Institute, Fairfax, Virginia; Medical College of Virginia, Richmond; Department of Human Genetics, New York Staten Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, Staten Island; Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Child Development, Departments of Psychiatry and Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill; Department of Medical Genetics, Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit; H. A. Chapman Institute of Medical Genetics, Tulsa
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Goddard KA, Hopkins PJ, Hall JM, Witte JS. Linkage disequilibrium and allele-frequency distributions for 114 single-nucleotide polymorphisms in five populations. Am J Hum Genet 2000; 66:216-34. [PMID: 10631153 PMCID: PMC1288328 DOI: 10.1086/302727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 163] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/1999] [Accepted: 11/04/1999] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) may be extremely important for deciphering the impact of genetic variation on complex human diseases. The ultimate value of SNPs for linkage and association mapping studies depends in part on the distribution of SNP allele frequencies and intermarker linkage disequilibrium (LD) across populations. Limited information is available about these distributions on a genomewide scale, particularly for LD. Using 114 SNPs from 33 genes, we compared these distributions in five American populations (727 individuals) of African, European, Chinese, Hispanic, and Japanese descent. The allele frequencies were highly correlated across populations but differed by >20% for at least one pair of populations in 35% of SNPs. The correlation in LD was high for some pairs of populations but not for others (e.g., Chinese American or Japanese American vs. any other population). Regardless of population, average minor-allele frequencies were significantly higher for SNPs in noncoding regions (20%-25%) than for SNPs in coding regions (12%-16%). Interestingly, we found that intermarker LD may be strongest with pairs of SNPs in which both markers are nonconservative substitutions, compared to pairs of SNPs where at least one marker is a conservative substitution. These results suggest that population differences and marker location within the gene may be important factors in the selection of SNPs for use in the study of complex disease with linkage or association mapping methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- K A Goddard
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44109-1998, USA.
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Abstract
Adverse drug reactions, due at least in part to interindividual variability in drug response, rank between the 4th and 6th leading causes of death in the USA. The field of 'pharmacogenetics', which is 'the study of variability in drug response due to heredity', should help in reducing drug-caused morbidity and mortality. The recently coined term 'pharmacogenomics' usually refers to 'the field of new drug development based on our rapidly increasing knowledge of all genes in the human genome'. However, the two terms - pharmacogenetics and pharmacogenomics - are often used interchangeably. A classification of more than five dozen pharmacogenetic differences is presented here. Most of these variations occur in drug-metabolizing enzyme (DME) genes, with some presumed to exist in the DME receptor and drug transporter genes, and others have not yet been explained on a molecular basis. A method for unequivocally defining a quantitative phenotype (drug efficacy, toxicity, etc.) is proposed; this is where help from the clinical geneticist can be especially important. Our current appreciation of the degree of variability (including single-nucleotide polymorphisms, SNPs) in the human genome is described, with emphasis on the need to prove that a particular genotype is indeed the cause of a specific phenotype; this topic has been termed 'functional genomics'. Furthermore, the current amount of admixture amongst almost all ethnic groups will obviously make studies of gene-drug interactions more complicated, as will the withholding of ethnic information about DNA samples during any molecular epidemiologic study. DME genes and DME receptor and drug transporter genes can be regarded as 'modifier genes', because they influence disorders as diverse as risk of cancer, bone marrow toxicity resulting from occupational exposure, and Parkinson's disease; for this reason, the clinical geneticist, as well as the medical genetics counselor, should be knowledgeable in the rapidly expanding fields of pharmacogenetics and pharmacogenomics.
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Affiliation(s)
- D W Nebert
- Center for Environmental Genetics, Department of Environmental Health, University of Cincinnati Medical Center, OH 45267-0056, USA.
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