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Han H, Liu H, Zhang B, Li Y, Li C, Cao H. Competitive relationships due to similar nutrient preferences reshape soil bacterial metacommunities. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 933:172956. [PMID: 38719036 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.172956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2024] [Revised: 04/30/2024] [Accepted: 05/01/2024] [Indexed: 05/19/2024]
Abstract
Paddy soil, as an ecosystem with alternating drained and flooded conditions, microorganisms in it can maintain the stability of the ecosystem by regulating the composition and diversity of its species when disturbed by external biotic or abiotic factors, and the regulatory mechanism in this process is a controversial topic in ecological research. In this study, we investigate the effects of pigeon feces addition on bacterial communities in three textured soils, two conditions (drained and flooded) based on microcosm experiment using high-throughput sequencing techniques. Our results show that pigeon feces addition reduced environmental heterogeneity and community diversity, both under flooded and drained conditions and in all textured soils, thereby decreasing the effectiveness of environmental selection and increasing diffusion limitations among bacterial communities. Bacterial communities are altered by environmental factors including total organic carbon, available nitrogen, total phosphorus, available phosphorus and available potassium, resulting in the formation of new community structures and dominant genera. Bacteria from pigeon feces did not colonize the original soil in large numbers, and the soil bacterial community structure changed, with some species replaced the indigenous ones as new dominant genera. As nutrient diffusion increases the nutrient content of the soil, this does not lead to species extinction; however, nutrient diffusion creates new nutrient preferences of the bacterial community, which causes direct competition between species, and contributes to the extinction and immigration species. Our results suggest that species replacement is an adaptive strategy of soil bacterial community in response to dispersal of pigeon feces, and that bacterial community regulate diversity and abundance of the community by enhancing species extinction and immigration, thereby preventing bacteria in pigeon feces from colonizing paddy soils and maintaining ecosystem stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heming Han
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Environmental Microbiology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Hao Liu
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Environmental Microbiology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Bo Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Environmental Microbiology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Yue Li
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Environmental Microbiology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Chuanhai Li
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Environmental Microbiology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China; School of Public Health, Qingdao University, Qingdao, Shandong 266071, China.
| | - Hui Cao
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Environmental Microbiology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China.
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Liu Y, Bortier MF, Nijs I, Fu Y, Li Z, Hou F, De Boeck HJ. Three‐dimensional soil heterogeneity modulates responses of grassland mesocosms to an experimentally imposed drought extreme. OIKOS 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/oik.07810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yongjie Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Grassland Agro‐ecosystems, Key Laboratory of Grassland Livestock Industry Innovation, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Pastoral Agriculture Science and Technology, Lanzhou Univ. Lanzhou China
- Plants and Ecosystems, Dept of Biology, Univ. of Antwerp Wilrijk Belgium
| | - Michiel F. Bortier
- Plants and Ecosystems, Dept of Biology, Univ. of Antwerp Wilrijk Belgium
| | - Ivan Nijs
- Plants and Ecosystems, Dept of Biology, Univ. of Antwerp Wilrijk Belgium
| | - Yongshuo Fu
- College of Water Sciences, Beijing Normal Univ. Beijing China
| | - Zhenqing Li
- State Key Laboratory of Vegetation and Environmental Change, Inst. of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing China
- Univ. of Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing China
| | - Fujiang Hou
- State Key Laboratory of Grassland Agro‐ecosystems, Key Laboratory of Grassland Livestock Industry Innovation, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Pastoral Agriculture Science and Technology, Lanzhou Univ. Lanzhou China
| | - Hans J. De Boeck
- Plants and Ecosystems, Dept of Biology, Univ. of Antwerp Wilrijk Belgium
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3
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Wu J, Li M, Zhang X, Fiedler S, Gao Q, Zhou Y, Cao W, Hassan W, Mărgărint MC, Tarolli P, Tietjen B. Disentangling climatic and anthropogenic contributions to nonlinear dynamics of alpine grassland productivity on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2021; 281:111875. [PMID: 33378737 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.111875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Revised: 12/06/2020] [Accepted: 12/19/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Alpine grasslands on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau are sensitive and vulnerable to climate change and human activities. Climate warming and overgrazing have already caused degradation in a large fraction of alpine grasslands on this plateau. However, it remains unclear how human activities (mainly livestock grazing) regulates vegetation dynamics under climate change. Here, alpine grassland productivity (substituted with the normalized difference vegetation index, NDVI) is hypothesized to vary in a nonlinear trajectory to follow climate fluctuations and human disturbances. With generalized additive mixed modelling (GAMM) and residual-trend (RESTREND) analysis together, both magnitude and direction of climatic (in terms of temperature, precipitation, and radiation) and anthropogenic impacts on NDVI variation were examined across alpine meadows, steppes, and desert-steppes on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. The results revealed that accelerating warming and greening, respectively, took place in 76.2% and 78.8% of alpine grasslands on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. The relative importance of temperature, precipitation, and radiation impacts was comparable, between 20.4% and 24.8%, and combined to explain 66.2% of NDVI variance at the pixel scale. The human influence was strengthening and weakening, respectively, in 15.5% and 14.3% of grassland pixels, being slightly larger than any sole climatic variable across the entire plateau. Anthropogenic and climatic factors can be in opposite ways to affect alpine grasslands, even within the same grassland type, likely regulated by plant community assembly and species functional traits. Therefore, the underlying mechanisms of how plant functional diversity regulates nonlinear ecosystem response to climatic and anthropogenic stresses should be carefully explored in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianshuang Wu
- Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 100081, Beijing, China; Freie Universität Berlin, Institute of Biology, Theoretical Ecology, 14195, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Meng Li
- Lhasa National Ecological Research Station, Key Laboratory of Ecosystem Network Observation and Modelling, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100101, Beijing, China; School of Geographic Sciences, Nantong University, 226007, Nantong, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Xianzhou Zhang
- Lhasa National Ecological Research Station, Key Laboratory of Ecosystem Network Observation and Modelling, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100101, Beijing, China
| | - Sebastian Fiedler
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institute of Biology, Theoretical Ecology, 14195, Berlin, Germany; University Bayreuth, Department of Ecological Modelling, 95448, Bayreuth, Germany; Berlin Brandenburg Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research, 14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Qingzhu Gao
- Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 100081, Beijing, China
| | - Yuting Zhou
- Department of Geography, Oklahoma State University, OK, 74078, Stillwater, USA
| | - Wenfang Cao
- Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 100081, Beijing, China; Department of Land, Environment, Agriculture and Forestry, University of Padova, 35020, Legnaro (PD), Italy
| | - Waseem Hassan
- Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 100081, Beijing, China
| | - Mihai Ciprian Mărgărint
- Department of Geography, Geography and Geology Faculty, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iaşi, 700505, RO, Iaşi, Romania
| | - Paolo Tarolli
- Department of Land, Environment, Agriculture and Forestry, University of Padova, 35020, Legnaro (PD), Italy
| | - Britta Tietjen
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institute of Biology, Theoretical Ecology, 14195, Berlin, Germany; Berlin Brandenburg Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research, 14195, Berlin, Germany
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Stover HJ, Henry HAL. Interactions between soil heterogeneity and freezing: Implications for grassland plant diversity and relative species abundances. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2019; 25:2275-2284. [PMID: 30963661 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.14645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2018] [Revised: 02/11/2019] [Accepted: 03/28/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Plant stress resulting from soil freezing is expected to increase in northern temperate regions over the next century due to reductions in snow cover caused by climate change. Within plant communities, soil spatial heterogeneity can potentially buffer the effects of plant freezing stress by increasing the availability of soil microsites that function as microrefugia. Moreover, increased species richness resulting from soil heterogeneity can increase the likelihood of stress-tolerant species being present in a community. We used a field experiment to examine interactions between soil heterogeneity and increased freezing intensity (achieved via snow removal) on plant abundance and diversity in a grassland. Patches of topsoil were mixed with either sand or woodchips to create heterogeneous and homogeneous treatments, and plant community responses to snow removal were assessed over three growing seasons. Soil heterogeneity interacted significantly with snow removal, but it either buffered or exacerbated the snow removal response depending on the specific substrate (sand vs. woodchips) and plant functional group. In turn, snow removal influenced plant responses to soil heterogeneity; for example, adventive forb cover responded to increased heterogeneity under ambient snow cover, but this effect diminished with snow removal. Our results reveal that soil heterogeneity can play an important role in determining plant responses to changes in soil freezing stress resulting from global climate change. While the deliberate creation of soil microsites in ecological restoration projects as a land management practice could increase the frequency of microrefugia that mitigate plant community responses to increased freezing stress, the design of these microsites must be optimized, given that soil heterogeneity also has the potential to exacerbate freezing stress responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holly J Stover
- Department of Biology, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Hugh A L Henry
- Department of Biology, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
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Zhang X, Zhai P, Huang J, Zhao X, Dong K. Responses of ecosystem water use efficiency to spring snow and summer water addition with or without nitrogen addition in a temperate steppe. PLoS One 2018. [PMID: 29529082 PMCID: PMC5846795 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0194198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Water use efficiency (WUE) is an important indicator of ecosystem functioning but how ecosystem WUE responds to climate change including precipitation and nitrogen (N) deposition increases is still unknown. To investigate such responses, an experiment with a randomized block design with water (spring snowfall or summer water addition) and nitrogen addition was conducted in a temperate steppe of northern China. We investigated net ecosystem CO2 production (NEP), gross ecosystem production (GEP) and evapotranspiration (ET) to calculate ecosystem WUE (WUEnep = NEP/ET or WUEgep = GEP/ET) under spring snow and summer water addition with or without N addition from 2011 to 2013. The results showed that spring snow addition only had significant effect on ecosystem WUE in 2013 and summer water addition showed positive effect on ecosystem WUE in 2011 and 2013, as their effects on NEP and GEP is stronger than ET. N addition increased ecosystem WUE in 2012 and 2013 both in spring snow addition and summer water addition for its increasing effects on NEP and GEP but no effect on ET. Summer water addition had less but N addition had greater increasing effects on ecosystem WUE as natural precipitation increase indicating that natural precipitation regulates ecosystem WUE responses to water and N addition. Moreover, WUE was tightly related with atmospheric vapor-pressure deficit (VPD), photosynthetic active radiation (PAR), precipitation and soil moisture indicating the regulation of climate drivers on ecosystem WUE. In addition, it also was affected by aboveground net primary production (ANPP). The study suggests that ecosystem WUE responses to water and N addition is determined by the change in carbon process rather than that in water process, which are regulated by climate change in the temperate steppe of northern China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaolin Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, China
- State Key Laboratory of Grassland Agro-ecosystems, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
- * E-mail:
| | - Penghui Zhai
- College of Agriculture, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, China
| | - Jianhui Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Vegetation and Environmental Change, Institute of Botany, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiang Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Vegetation and Environmental Change, Institute of Botany, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Kuanhu Dong
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, China
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6
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Curd EE, Martiny JBH, Li H, Smith TB. Bacterial diversity is positively correlated with soil heterogeneity. Ecosphere 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.2079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Emily E. Curd
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of California Los Angeles 612 Charles E. Young Drive South, Box 957246 Los Angeles California 90095 USA
| | - Jennifer B. H. Martiny
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of California Irvine 321 Steinhaus Hall Irvine California 92697 USA
| | - Huiying Li
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging David Geffen School of Medicine University of California Los Angeles 650 Charles E. Young Drive South Los Angeles California 90095 USA
- DOE Institute University of California Los Angeles 611 Charles E. Young Drive East Los Angeles California 90095 USA
| | - Thomas B. Smith
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of California Los Angeles 612 Charles E. Young Drive South, Box 957246 Los Angeles California 90095 USA
- Center for Tropical Research University of California Los Angeles LaKretz Hall, 619 Charles E. Young Drive East, #300 Los Angeles California 90095 USA
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You C, Wu F, Gan Y, Yang W, Hu Z, Xu Z, Tan B, Liu L, Ni X. Grass and forbs respond differently to nitrogen addition: a meta-analysis of global grassland ecosystems. Sci Rep 2017; 7:1563. [PMID: 28484219 PMCID: PMC5431500 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-01728-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2016] [Accepted: 04/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Nitrogen (N) deposition has increased globally and has profoundly influenced the structure and function of grasslands. Previous studies have discussed how N addition affects aboveground biomass (AGB), but the effects of N addition on the AGB of different functional groups in grasslands remain unclear. We conducted a meta-analysis to identify the responses of AGB and the AGB of grasses (AGBgrass) and forbs (AGBforb) to N addition across global grasslands. Our results showed that N addition significantly increased AGB and AGBgrass by 31 and 79%, respectively, but had no significant effect on AGBforb. The effects of N addition on AGB and AGBgrass increased with increasing N addition rates, but which on AGBforb decreased. Although study durations did not regulate the response ratio of N addition for AGB, which for AGBgrass increased and for AGBforb decreased with increasing study durations. Furthermore, the N addition response ratios for AGB and AGBgrass increased more strongly when the mean annual precipitation (MAP) was 300-600 mm but decreased with an increase in the mean annual temperature (MAT). AGBforb was only slightly affected by MAP and MAT. Our findings suggest that an acceleration of N deposition will increase grassland AGB by altering species composition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chengming You
- Long-term Research Station of Alpine Forest Ecosystems, Provincial Key Laboratory of Ecological Forestry Engineering, Institute of Ecology and Forestry, Sichuan Agricultural University, 211 Huimin Road, Wenjiang District, Chengdu, 611130, China
- Key Laboratory of Ecosystem Network Observation and Modeling, Institute of Geographical Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, 211 Huimin Road, Wenjiang District, Chengdu, 611130, China
| | - Fuzhong Wu
- Long-term Research Station of Alpine Forest Ecosystems, Provincial Key Laboratory of Ecological Forestry Engineering, Institute of Ecology and Forestry, Sichuan Agricultural University, 211 Huimin Road, Wenjiang District, Chengdu, 611130, China
| | - Youmin Gan
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, 211 Huimin Road, Wenjiang District, Chengdu, 611130, China
| | - Wanqin Yang
- Long-term Research Station of Alpine Forest Ecosystems, Provincial Key Laboratory of Ecological Forestry Engineering, Institute of Ecology and Forestry, Sichuan Agricultural University, 211 Huimin Road, Wenjiang District, Chengdu, 611130, China.
| | - Zhongmin Hu
- Key Laboratory of Ecosystem Network Observation and Modeling, Institute of Geographical Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China.
| | - Zhenfeng Xu
- Long-term Research Station of Alpine Forest Ecosystems, Provincial Key Laboratory of Ecological Forestry Engineering, Institute of Ecology and Forestry, Sichuan Agricultural University, 211 Huimin Road, Wenjiang District, Chengdu, 611130, China
| | - Bo Tan
- Long-term Research Station of Alpine Forest Ecosystems, Provincial Key Laboratory of Ecological Forestry Engineering, Institute of Ecology and Forestry, Sichuan Agricultural University, 211 Huimin Road, Wenjiang District, Chengdu, 611130, China
| | - Lin Liu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, 211 Huimin Road, Wenjiang District, Chengdu, 611130, China
| | - Xiangyin Ni
- Long-term Research Station of Alpine Forest Ecosystems, Provincial Key Laboratory of Ecological Forestry Engineering, Institute of Ecology and Forestry, Sichuan Agricultural University, 211 Huimin Road, Wenjiang District, Chengdu, 611130, China
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8
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Drought and Carbon Cycling of Grassland Ecosystems under Global Change: A Review. WATER 2016. [DOI: 10.3390/w8100460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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9
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van der Waal C, de Kroon H, van Langevelde F, de Boer WF, Heitkönig IMA, Slotow R, Pretorius Y, Prins HHT. Scale-dependent bi-trophic interactions in a semi-arid savanna: how herbivores eliminate benefits of nutrient patchiness to plants. Oecologia 2016; 181:1173-85. [PMID: 27094543 PMCID: PMC4954840 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-016-3627-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2015] [Accepted: 04/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The scale of resource heterogeneity may influence how resources are locally partitioned between co-existing large and small organisms such as trees and grasses in savannas. Scale-related plant responses may, in turn, influence herbivore use of the vegetation. To examine these scale-dependent bi-trophic interactions, we varied fertilizer [(nitrogen (N)/phosphorus (P)/potassium (K)] applications to patches to create different scales of nutrient patchiness (patch size 2 × 2 m, 10 × 10 m, or whole-plot 50 × 50 m) in a large field experiment in intact African savanna. Within-patch fertilizer concentration and the total fertilizer load per plot were independently varied. We found that fertilization increased the leaf N and P concentrations of trees and grasses, resulting in elevated utilization by browsers and grazers. Herbivory off-take was particularly considerable at higher nutrient concentrations. Scale-dependent effects were weak. The net effect of fertilization and herbivory was that plants in fertilized areas tended to grow less and develop smaller rather than larger standing biomass compared to plants growing in areas that remained unfertilized. When all of these effects were considered together at the community (plot) level, herbivory completely eliminated the positive effects of fertilization on the plant community. While this was true for all scales of fertilization, grasses tended to profit more from coarse-grained fertilization and trees from fine-grained fertilization. We conclude that in herbivore-dominated communities, such as the African savanna, nutrient patchiness results in the herbivore community profiting rather more than the plant community, irrespective of the scale of patchiness. At the community level, the allometric scaling theory's prediction of plant-and probably also animal-production does not hold or may even be reversed as a result of complex bi-trophic interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cornelis van der Waal
- Resource Ecology Group, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 3A, 6708 PD, Wageningen, The Netherlands.,Agri-Ecological Services, PO Box 28, Omaruru, Namibia
| | - Hans de Kroon
- Department of Experimental Plant Ecology, Institute for Water and Wetland Research, Radboud University, PO Box 9010, 6500 GL, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
| | - Frank van Langevelde
- Resource Ecology Group, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 3A, 6708 PD, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Willem F de Boer
- Resource Ecology Group, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 3A, 6708 PD, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Ignas M A Heitkönig
- Resource Ecology Group, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 3A, 6708 PD, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Rob Slotow
- School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Private Bag X54001, Durban, 4000, South Africa
| | - Yolanda Pretorius
- Resource Ecology Group, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 3A, 6708 PD, Wageningen, The Netherlands.,Centre for Wildlife Management, University of Pretoria, Private bag X20, Hatfield, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Herbert H T Prins
- Resource Ecology Group, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 3A, 6708 PD, Wageningen, The Netherlands
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