Lonely societies: low trust societies? Further explanations for national variations in loneliness among older Europeans

Assessing Social Interaction and Loneliness and Their Association With Frailty Among Older Adults With Subjective Cognitive Decline or Mild Cognitive Impairment: Ecological Momentary Assessment Approach

BACKGROUND

Frail older adults are at greater risk of adverse health-related outcomes such as falls, disability, and mortality. Mild behavioral impairment (MBI), which is characterized by neurobehavioral symptoms in individuals without dementia, is a crucial factor in identifying at-risk groups and implementing early interventions for frail older adults. However, the specific role of social functioning, which encompasses social interaction and loneliness levels, in relation to frailty within this group remains unclear.

OBJECTIVE

This study investigated the association between frailty status, social interaction frequency, and loneliness levels among older adults with subjective cognitive decline (SCD) or mild cognitive impairment (MCI) while adjusting for MBI symptoms in 2 contexts: the presence and severity of MBI symptoms.

METHODS

Older adults with SCD or MCI were recruited from an outpatient clinic specializing in the early diagnosis and care management of dementia at a community health center, as well as from a community service center in Seoul, South Korea. Using an ecological momentary assessment approach, participants reported their daily social interaction frequency and loneliness level via a mobile app, 4 times daily for 2 weeks. Frailty status, the outcome variable, was assessed using the Korean version of the frailty phenotype questionnaire. Additionally, MBI symptoms were assessed using the 34-item MBI-Checklist covering 5 domains. Multinomial logistic regression analyses were performed to investigate the association between frailty status (robust, prefrail, and frail), and the independent variables, adjusting for the presence or severity of MBI symptoms.

RESULTS

Among the 101 participants analyzed, 29.7% (n=30) of participants were classified as prefrail, and 12.8% (n=13) of participants were classified as frail. Higher average daily social interaction scores were consistently associated with lower odds of a frail status compared to a robust status. This was evident in the models adjusted for both the global presence (relative risk ratio [RRR] 0.18, P=.02) and global severity (RRR 0.20, P=.02) of MBI symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

Frequent social interaction was inversely associated with frail status in older adults with SCD or MCI, even after adjusting for the presence and severity of MBI symptoms. These findings highlight the potential of social functioning as a modifiable factor for addressing frailty among older adults at risk of cognitive and functional decline. Future prospective studies using real-time measurements are needed to refine these findings and further investigate additional risk factors and functional outcomes in this group.

The unique and synergistic effects of social isolation and loneliness on 20-years mortality risks in older men and women

Introduction

This study investigates the individual and combined impacts of loneliness and social isolation on 20-year mortality risks among older men and women.

Methods

Utilizing data from the Norwegian Life Course, Ageing, and Generation study (NorLAG) carried out in 2002, 2007 and 2017, we assessed loneliness via direct and indirect questions, and social isolation through factors like partnership status and contact frequency with family and friends. Yearly information on mortality was derived from the national registries and was available until November 2022. Gender-stratified Cox regression models adjusted for age and other risk factors were employed.

Results

Of the 11,028 unique respondents, 9,952 participants were included in the study sample, 1,008 (19.8%) women and 1,295 (26.6%) men died. In the fully adjusted models including indirectly assessed loneliness, social isolation increased the 20-year mortality risk by 16% (HR = 1.16, 95% CI 1.09-1.24) for women and 15% (HR = 1.15, 95% CI 1.09-1.21) for men. This effect was primarily driven by the absence of a partner and little contact with children for both genders. Loneliness measured with indirect questions lost its significant association with mortality after adjusting for social isolation and other factors in both genders. However, for men, reporting loneliness via a direct question was associated with a higher mortality risk, even in the fully controlled models (HR = 1.20, 96% CI 1.06-1.36). Interactions between loneliness and social isolation were not, or only borderline significantly, associated with mortality risks in the fully controlled models.

Discussion

Social isolation, but not loneliness measured with indirect questions are associated with a 15-16% higher mortality risk in both men and women. However, loneliness assessed with a direct question is associated with increased mortality in men, even after controlling for social isolation and other relevant factors, which might suggest that men may deny loneliness, unless it is (very) severe. These findings emphasize the importance of methodological precision in the measurement of loneliness and social isolation.

Do middle-aged and older people underreport loneliness? experimental evidence from the Netherlands

Despite the growing acknowledgment of the importance of loneliness among older individuals, questionnaire length constraints may hinder the inclusion of common multi-item loneliness scales in surveys. Direct, single-item loneliness measures are a practical alternative, but scholars have expressed concerns that such measures may lead to underreporting. Our aim was to test whether such reservations are justified. We conducted a preregistered list experiment among 2,553 people aged 50 + who participated in the Dutch Longitudinal Internet studies for the Social Sciences (LISS) panel. The list experiment method has been developed to unobtrusively gather sensitive information. We compared the list experiment estimate of the prevalence of frequent loneliness with the corresponding direct question estimate to assess downward bias in the latter. Next to pooled models, we estimated models stratified by gender to assess whether loneliness underreporting differed between women and men. Relying on the direct question, we estimated that 5.9% of respondents frequently felt lonely. Our list experiment indicated that the prevalence of frequent loneliness was 13.1%. Although substantial in magnitude, the difference between both estimates was only marginally significant (Δb: 0.072, 95% CI: - 0.003;0.148, p = .06). No evidence of gender differences was found. Although we cannot be conclusive that loneliness estimates are biased downward when a direct question is used, our results call for caution with direct, single-item measures of loneliness if researchers want to avoid underreporting. Replications are needed to gain more precise insights into the extent to which direct, single-item loneliness measures are prone to downward reporting bias.

Can Social Policy Alleviate Loneliness Among Older Adults? A Comparative Analysis of OECD Countries

Loneliness in old age is a multifaceted issue influenced by personal, social, and environmental factors, necessitating a holistic approach. However, most research has predominantly focused on individual-level risk factors, with limited attention given to institutional factors such as social policy. This study investigated how social policies impact loneliness among older adults. Multi-level analysis was conducted using data from the 2017 wave of International Social Survey Programme, involving 6,337 older adults from 23 OECD countries. The analysis revealed that higher public spending on welfare and old-age pensions significantly reduces the likelihood of loneliness among older adults. These findings confirm the protective role of generous social policies in addressing old-age loneliness. They underscore the need for long-term changes in welfare systems to enhance the public response to the significant social risk posed by old-age loneliness.

Loneliness prevalence of community-dwelling older adults and the impact of the mode of measurement, data collection, and country: A systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis is to assess the prevalence of loneliness in many countries worldwide which have different ways of assessing it.

DESIGN

Systematic review and meta-analysis.

SETTING

We searched seven electronic databases for English peer-reviewed studies published between 1992 and 2021.

PARTICIPANTS

We selected English-language peer-reviewed articles, with data from non-clinical populations of community-dwelling older adults (>60 years), and with "loneliness" or "lonely" in the title.

MEASUREMENTS

A multilevel random-effects meta-analysis was used to estimate the prevalence of loneliness across studies and to pool prevalence rates for different measurement instruments, data collection methods, and countries.

RESULTS

Our initial search identified 2,021 studies of which 45 (k = 101 prevalence rates) were included in the final meta-analysis. The estimated pooled prevalence rate was 31.6% (n = 168,473). Measurement instrument was a statistically significant moderator of the overall prevalence of loneliness. Loneliness prevalence was lowest for single-item questions and highest for the 20-item University of California-Los Angeles Loneliness Scale. Also, differences between modes of data collection were significant: the loneliness prevalence was significantly the highest for face-to-face data collection and the lowest for telephone and CATI data collection. Our moderator analysis to look at the country effect indicated that four of the six dimensions of Hofstede also caused a significant increase (Power Distance Index, Uncertainty Avoidance Index, Indulgence) or decrease (Individualism) in loneliness prevalence.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests that there is high variability in loneliness prevalence rates among community-dwelling older adults, influenced by measurement instrument used, mode of data collection, and country.

The impact of eating alone on food intake and everyday eating routines: A cross-sectional study of community-living 70- to 75-year-olds in Sweden

BACKGROUND

Eating is fundamental not only to survival and health, but also to how humans organise their social lives. Eating together with others is often seen as the healthy ideal, while eating alone is highlighted as a risk factor for negative health outcomes, especially among older adults. This paper, therefore, investigates the relationship between the frequency and subjective experience of eating alone and food-related outcomes among 70- to 75-year-olds in Sweden.

METHODS

A survey was distributed to a nationally representative random sample of 1500 community-living in Sweden, aged 70-75 years. Two different constructs of eating alone (objective and subjective) were measured, along with the following food-related outcomes: a food index, intake of food groups, consumption of ready-made meals, number of main meals per day, and body mass index (BMI).

RESULTS

In total, 695 respondents were included in the final sample. A quarter of the respondents were categorised as eating alone, of which a small proportion reported that doing so bothered them. There were no associations between eating alone and food index scores, BMI, or intake frequencies of fruits and berries, or fish and shellfish. However, people eating alone were less likely to report eating three meals per day (OR: 0.53, CI: 0.37-0.76, p = 0.006), less likely to report higher intake frequencies of vegetables and snacks, sugary foods, and sweet drinks (adjusted OR: 0.68, CI: 0.48-0.95, p = 0.023 resp. OR: 0.59, CI: 0.43-0.81, p = 0.001), and more likely to report higher intake frequencies of ready-made meals (adjusted OR: 3.71, CI: 2.02-6.84, p < 0.001) compared to those eating together with others. The subjective experience of eating alone did not have an impact on food-related outcomes.

CONCLUSION

Eating alone or with others played a role in participants' food intake, and seemed to influence aspects of the organisation of everyday eating routines rather than overall dietary healthiness or weight status. Our findings add to the previous body of research on commensality, eating alone, and health among the older population, providing insights into the development of future health policies and research.

Psychosocial Well-Being Differences Between the Young Old, Old-Old, and Oldest Old: A Global Comparison

OBJECTIVES

We investigate global differences in psychosocial well-being between older adult age groups.

METHODS

Using multinomial logistic regression, we analyzed 2018 data (n = 93,663) from 9 countries/regions in the Health and Retirement Study international family of studies to compare age group differences in depression, loneliness, and happiness.

RESULTS

Compared to the young old, the old-old reported more depression in Southern Europe, while the oldest old had higher risk in India and Southern Europe but lower risk in the United States. The old-old reported less loneliness in the United States but more in Southern Europe, while the oldest old had greater risk in Southern Europe. The old-old reported less happiness in Korea, while the oldest old had lower reports in Korea but higher reports in the United States.

DISCUSSION

The psychosocial well-being of the oldest old is exceptionally good in the United States but exceptionally poor in Southern Europe.

Unraveling the dynamics of loneliness in the Baltic-Nordic region: a comparative analysis in the wake of COVID-19

Introduction

The primary aim of this study is to thoroughly investigate the prevalence and determinants of loneliness among older adults in the Baltic-Nordic region. Utilizing high-quality data sources and employing a methodologically rigorous approach, the study endeavors to enhance our understanding of how loneliness manifests and varies across different cultural and socio-economic contexts within these regions. By identifying key factors influencing loneliness, including demographic, social, and economic variables, the research seeks to contribute significantly to the existing body of knowledge on loneliness and inform targeted public health strategies and interventions tailored to the unique needs of older adults in the Baltic and Nordic countries.

Material and methods

This research, centered on older adults aged 67 and above within the Baltic-Nordic region, draws upon data from the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE), specifically its eighth wave conducted between June and August 2020. The demographic analysis of this study covers a diverse sample of 5,313 participants from the Baltic and Nordic regions. Specifically, the sample includes 2,377 participants from Nordic countries, namely Sweden, Denmark, and Finland, and 2,936 from the Baltic countries of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. The investigation extends to the financial well-being of households, involving an analysis of 3,925 individuals, with 1,748 from Nordic countries and 2,177 from Baltic countries. Although Iceland is categorized as a Nordic country, the analysis within this study is conducted separately due to the unavailability of SHARE data for this region. Instead, the HL20 study, focusing on the health and well-being of the older adult population in Iceland, contributes data for 1,033 respondents. This methodological distinction allows for a comprehensive understanding of regional differences, highlighting the importance of specialized approaches to examine the intricate dynamics of loneliness and well-being across the Baltic-Nordic region.

Results

The study reveals significant regional variations in loneliness among older adults during the COVID-19 outbreak, with the Baltic countries (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) reporting a lower prevalence of loneliness compared to the Nordic countries (Sweden, Denmark, Finland). Iceland, while grouped with the Nordic countries, was analysed separately. Employment emerges as a key factor in reducing loneliness across all regions, suggesting the benefits of social interactions and structured routines. Gender and marital status significantly influence loneliness, with notable disparities in the Baltic region and smaller gaps in the Nordic countries, reflecting the impact of societal and cultural norms. Additionally, educational attainment and health status show varied associations with loneliness, highlighting the complex interplay of individual and societal factors in these regions.

A systematic review of reviews on the psychometric properties of measures of older persons' ability to build and maintain social relationships

BACKGROUND

Within the scope of the World Health Organisation's (WHO) world report on ageing and health and how healthy ageing was conceptualised, the WHO has been working with academia towards producing reviews of the psychometric properties of instruments that measure different domains of functional ability. This study aimed to conduct a review of reviews to examine existing and validated instruments measuring the ability of older persons to build and maintain social relationships and to evaluate the psychometric properties of these instruments.

METHODS

We searched for studies published in the English, Spanish and Portuguese languages. No restrictions were placed on the year of publication. The following databases were searched: PubMed, Embase, Psyinfo and Cumulated Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature. Titles and abstracts were screened and selected articles were screened and reviewed independently by two reviewers.

RESULTS

A total of 3,879 records were retrieved, of which 39 records were retrieved for full-text analysis. None of the reviews met the inclusion criteria, thus resulting in an empty review.

CONCLUSIONS

Considering the current definition of older persons' functional ability to build and maintain social relationships, this review did not identify instruments that can measure both constructs simultaneously. We suggest the development of an instrument that simultaneously assesses the ability of older persons to build and maintain relationships.

Risk factors for loneliness: A literature review

RATIONALE

Increasingly, loneliness is being recognised as a serious problem with detrimental effects on health, as well as on social cohesion and community trust. To effectively tackle this complex issue, a clear understanding of the phenomenon and its main drivers is needed. Over years of scientific research on loneliness, many potential risk factors have emerged and been tested empirically.

OBJECTIVE

This narrative review of 109 studies provides a concise summary of empirical evidence on the main potential risk factors for loneliness and presents an additional section dedicated to the COVID-19 pandemic.

METHOD

Given the very large number of existing studies, emphasis is placed on recent meta-analyses and systematic literature reviews as well as longitudinal studies. Similarly, given the large number of possible risk factors for loneliness, which may differ based on the geographical and cultural context, this review focuses on studies from Europe and North America.

RESULTS

The results show that demographic factors often correlate with loneliness, but in many cases the link becomes negligible when controlling for other factors. Often, physical and mental health problems are found to be associated with loneliness, and so are some psychological factors, such as neuroticism or extroversion. Loneliness also depends on the environment in which one lives, and possibly the broader socio-economic and socio-cultural contexts. Nevertheless, the review shows that ultimately everything comes down to the quantity and quality of social relationships. In particular, marital status, living arrangements and the characteristics of one's personal social network are quite consistently found to be among the strongest predictors of loneliness. These main findings about the risk factors for loneliness remained valid also during the COVID-19 pandemic.

POLICY IMPLICATIONS

The findings of this review have implications for policy, as understanding who the most vulnerable groups are is key for designing targeted policy solutions that tackle loneliness.

The Psychological Network of Loneliness Symptoms Among Chinese Residents During the COVID-19 Outbreak

PURPOSE

Social distancing measures implemented during the COVID-19 pandemic have contributed to increased levels of loneliness, but the specific interactions between loneliness symptoms in the context of the pandemic remain unknown. This study characterized the psychological network of loneliness symptoms in residents during the initial wave of COVID-19 outbreak in China.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

The study recruited 8472 Chinese residents (61.5% women, aged 33.0±10.6 years) through online snowball sampling. The Six-item De Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale (DJGLS) was used to measure loneliness symptoms. Central symptoms of and bridge symptoms between emotional and social loneliness subscales were identified based on centrality and bridge centrality indices, respectively. Network stability was examined using the case-dropping procedures.

RESULTS

The nodes in the loneliness network were separated into two groups, corresponding to the social and emotional loneliness domains of the DJGLS. The strongest direction association was between "no reliable people" and "no trustworthy people" (edge weight=0.546). "No trustworthy people" has the highest node strength (1.047) in the loneliness network, followed by "emptiness sense" (0.767) and "no reliable people" (0.749). "Feeling of rejection" (1.672) and "no close people" (0.403) showed the first and second highest bridge strengths, respectively. Both the stability and accuracy tests supported robustness of the whole network.

CONCLUSION

Interventions targeting central symptoms "no trustworthy people" and "emptiness sense" and central bridge symptom "feeling of rejection" may be effective for alleviating the overall level of loneliness in pandemic-affected Chinese residents.

Neighbourhood effects on loneliness among adolescents

BACKGROUND

Loneliness is a growing public health concern, but little is known about how place affects loneliness, especially during adolescence. This is the first study to examine the influence of neighbourhoods on loneliness in early-to-mid adolescence.

METHODS

Baseline data from the #BeeWell cohort study in Greater Manchester (England), including 36 141 adolescents (aged 12-15 years) across 1590 neighbourhoods, were linked to neighbourhood characteristics using administrative data at the level of lower super output areas and analysed using multilevel regression.

RESULTS

Neighbourhood differences explained 1.18% of the variation in loneliness. Ethnic, gender and sexual orientation inequalities in loneliness varied across neighbourhoods. Several neighbourhood characteristics predicted loneliness at the individual level, including skills deprivation among children and young people, lower population density and perceptions of the local area (feeling safe; trust in local people; feeling supported by local people; seeing neighbours as helpful; the availability of good places to spend free time). Finally, a longer distance from home to school was associated with significantly higher loneliness.

CONCLUSIONS

Neighbourhoods account for a small but significant proportion of the variation in adolescent loneliness, with some neighbourhood characteristics predicting loneliness at the individual level, and loneliness disparities for some groups differing across neighbourhoods.

Patterns and correlates of old-age social exclusion in the Balkan states

Social exclusion (SE), or the separation of individuals and groups from mainstream society, is associated with poor health and wellbeing, yet a substantial number of older people are socially excluded. There is increasing agreement that SE is multidimensional, comprising among others social relations, material resources, and/or civic participation. However, measuring SE is still challenging as exclusion may occur in more than one dimension, whereas its sum does not reflect the content of SE. To account for these challenges, this study provides a typology of SE and describes how SE types differ from each other in terms of severity and risk factors. We concentrate on Balkan states, which are among the European countries with the highest prevalence of SE. Data come from the European Quality of Life Survey (N = 3030, age 50 +). Latent Class Analysis revealed four SE types: low SE risk (50%), material exclusion (23%), material and social exclusion (4%), and multidimensional exclusion (23%). A higher number of dimensions from which a person is excluded are associated with more severe outcomes. Multinomial regression further revealed that lower levels of education, lower subjective health, and lower social trust increase the risks of any SE type. Younger age, unemployment, and not having a partner are associated with specific SE types. This study is in line with the limited evidence that different types of SE exist. Policies designed to reduce SE should take account of the different SE types and specific associated risk factors in order to enhance the impact of interventions to reduce social exclusion.

Social Infrastructure and the Alleviation of Loneliness in Europe

In Europe, individualist societies, in which people more highly value independence, have fewer people who are lonely. Yet these societies also have more people who live alone, a strong determinant of loneliness. Evidence suggests that some unrecognized societal-level resources or characteristics can explain this. We uncover multiple pathways toward a lower degree of loneliness among European societies using an ideal method for this purpose, fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis. Using data from the 2014 wave of the European Social Survey and other sources, we analyzed loneliness outcomes among 26 European societies. Our findings suggest two necessary conditions for a low degree of loneliness: high internet access and high association participation. Further, three pathways are sufficient for achieving less loneliness at the societal level. Most societies that have less loneliness follow both the welfare support and cultural support pathways. The third path, commercial provision, is mutually exclusive with welfare support because the former requires a weak welfare state. The surest policy for building societies that have lower rates of loneliness includes the expansion of internet accessibility, the fostering of civil society through association participation and volunteering, and a welfare state that protects potentially vulnerable populations while funding opportunities for social interaction. This article further contributes methodologically by demonstrating "configurational robustness testing," a more comprehensive means to implement current best practices for fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis robustness testing.

Loneliness and trust issues reshape mental stress of expatriates during early COVID-19: a structural equation modelling approach

OBJECTIVES

To explore relationship among perceived stress regarding loneliness, interpersonal trust and institutional trust of expatriates during the early COVID-19 period (from 30^th March to 30^th May 2020).

METHODS

Data from  21,439 expatriates were extracted from COVIDiSTRESS global survey. The outcome variable was perceived stress. The explanatory variables were age, perceived loneliness, trust (interpersonal and institutional). Pairwise correlation, and structural equation modelling were used to determine relationship among outcome and explanatory variables.

RESULTS

The majority of the expatriates were female (73.85%), married (60.20%), had college degree (47.76%), and employed (48.72%). Over 63% of the total expatriates reported that the COVID-19 pandemic changed their lives. The average age of the respondents was 40.4 years (± 13.7), and the average score of perceived stress, loneliness, interpersonal and institutional trust were 25.5, 7.4, 14.2 and 40.4, respectively. We found a moderate correlation of perceived stress with age, perceived loneliness, interpersonal trust and institutional trust (p < 0.001). They were also found moderately related to each other. Structural equation modelling evaluated that a lack of trust can cause loneliness among expatriates, which later lead to perceived stress. Interpersonal trust was more likely to be associated with stress than institutional trust, whereas perceived loneliness mediated between both trusts and perceived stress.

CONCLUSION

Perceived stress can be reduced through trusting others and alleviating the loneliness. Making strong linkage among migrants as well as between migrants and local community is important to ensure proper mental wellbeing of expatriates.

The Prevalence of Social Frailty Among Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

OBJECTIVE

To report the overall prevalence of social frailty among older people and provide information for policymakers and authorities to use in developing policies and social care.

DESIGN

A systematic review and meta-analysis.

SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS

We searched 4 databases (PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, and Google Scholar) to find articles from inception to July 30, 2022. We included cross-sectional and cohort studies that provided the prevalence of social frailty among adults aged 60 years or older, in any setting.

METHODS

Three researchers independently reviewed the literature and retrieved the data. A risk of bias tool was used to assess each study's quality. A random-effect meta-analysis was performed to pool the data, followed by subgroup analysis, sensitivity analysis, and meta-regression.

RESULTS

From 761 records, we extracted 43 studies with 83,907 participants for meta-analysis. The pooled prevalence of social frailty in hospital settings was 47.3% (95% CI: 32.2%-62.4%); among studies in community settings, the pooled prevalence was 18.8% (95% CI: 14.9%-22.7%; P < .001). The prevalence of social frailty was higher when assessed using the Tilburg Frailty Indicator (32.3%; 95% CI: 23.1%-41.5%) than the Makizako Social Frailty Index (27.7%; 95% CI: 21.6%-33.8%) or Social Frailty Screening Index (13.4%; 95% CI: 8.4%-18.4%). Based on limited community studies in individual countries using various instruments, social frailty was lowest in China (4.9%; 95% CI: 4.2%-5.7%), followed by Spain (11.6%; 95% CI: 9.9%-13.3%), Japan (16.2%; 95% CI: 12.2%-20.3%), Korea (26.6%; 95% CI: 7.1%-46.1%), European urban centers (29.2%; 95% CI: 27.9%-30.5%), and the Netherlands (27.2%; 95% CI: 16.9%-37.5%). No other subgroup analyses showed any statistically significant prevalence difference between groups.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

The prevalence of social frailty among older adults is high. Settings, country, and method for assessing social frailty affected the prevalence. More valid comparisons will await consensus on measurement tools and more research on geographically representative populations. Nevertheless, these results suggest that public health professionals and policymakers should seriously consider social frailty in research and program planning involving older adults.

Loneliness before and during the COVID-19 pandemic-are unpartnered and childless older adults at higher risk?

COVID-19 mitigation efforts had the potential to exacerbate loneliness among older adults, particularly for the unpartnered or childless, yet specific studies on loneliness among these groups during the COVID-19 pandemic are lacking. Using data from the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) collected before (October 2019-March 2020) and during the pandemic (June-August 2020), we examine two loneliness outcomes: (1) "have you felt lonely recently?" (both datasets) and (2) "have you felt lonelier than before the pandemic?" (2020), and examine differences by partnership and parenthood status. Before COVID-19, those who lacked one tie but had the other (unpartnered parents or partnered childless) were at highest loneliness risk. During COVID-19, unpartnered and childless-especially unpartnered-remain at higher risk for loneliness, entering loneliness, and not "exiting" loneliness. We discuss these findings in light of family norms and needs in pandemic and non-pandemic times and provide recommendations for future research.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10433-022-00718-x.

Loneliness and Emancipation: A Multilevel Analysis of the Connection between Gender Inequality, Loneliness, and Social Isolation in the ISSP 2017

The present article analyzes the connection between, on the one hand, gender equality and, on the other hand, loneliness and social isolation. It hypothesizes that modern relational institutions that support gender equality, such as no-fault divorce laws, reduce loneliness in close relationships. This hypothesis is put to the test through a multilevel analysis of the International Social Survey Program (ISSP) 2017. The analysis reveals that the data agree, to a large extent, with the theoretical arguments. The prevalence of loneliness is higher in countries with higher levels of gender inequality (as measured by the Gender Inequality Index (GII)). This can be attributed to a moderation effect; at lower levels of gender inequality, partnerships provide better protection from loneliness. These results are robust to controls for demographic composition, level of health, educational attainment, income poverty, and interview mode. Last, the analyses show that the threat of emotional isolation is more widespread in countries with low gender inequality. These findings, however, are only significant before controlling for demographic composition, level of health, educational attainment, income poverty, and interview mode, and they require further analysis. The concluding section relates these findings to the popular tendency to argue that modern society has created a "loneliness epidemic" and discusses policy implications.

Exclusion from Social Relations in Later Life: Micro- and Macro-Level Patterns and Correlations in a European Perspective

Older adults face particular risks of exclusion from social relationships (ESR) and are especially vulnerable to its consequences. However, research so far has been limited to specific dimensions, countries, and time points. In this paper, we examine the prevalence and micro- and macro-level predictors of ESR among older adults (60+) using two waves of data obtained four years apart across 14 European countries in the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE). We consider four ESR indicators (household composition, social networks, social opportunities, and loneliness) and link them to micro-level (age, gender, socioeconomic factors, health, and family responsibilities) and national macro-level factors (social expenditures, unmet health needs, individualism, social trust, and institutional trust). Findings reveal a northwest to southeast gradient, with the lowest rates of ESR in the stronger welfare states of Northwest Europe. The high rates of ESR in the southeast are especially pronounced among women. Predictably, higher age and fewer personal resources (socioeconomic factors and health) increase the risk of all ESR dimensions for both genders. Macro-level factors show significant associations with ESR beyond the effect of micro-level factors, suggesting that national policies and cultural and structural characteristics may play a role in fostering sociability and connectivity and, thus, reduce the risk of ESR in later life.