ADAMTS3 activity is mandatory for embryonic lymphangiogenesis and regulates placental angiogenesis

Genetic background of hematological parameters in Holstein cattle based on genome-wide association and RNA sequencing analyses

Hematological parameters refer to the assessment of changes in the number and distribution of blood cells, including leukocytes (LES), erythrocytes (ERS), and platelets (PLS), which are essential for the early diagnosis of hematological system disorders and other systemic diseases in livestock. In this context, the primary objectives of this study were to investigate the genomic background of 19 hematological parameters in Holstein cattle, focusing on LES, ERS, and PLS blood components. Genetic and phenotypic (co)variances of hematological parameters were calculated based on the Average Information Restricted Maximum Likelihood (AIREML) method and 1,610 genotyped individuals and 5,499 hematological parameter records from 4,543 cows. Furthermore, we assessed the genetic relationship between these hematological parameters and other economically important traits in dairy cattle breeding programs. We also carried out genome-wide association studies and candidate gene analyses. Blood samples from 21 primiparous cows were used to identify candidate genes further through RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) analyses. Hematological parameters generally exhibited low-to-moderate heritabilities ranging from 0.01 to 0.29, with genetic correlations between them ranging from -0.88 ± 0.09 (between mononuclear cell ratio and lymphocyte cell ratio) to 0.99 ± 0.01 (between white blood cell count and granulocyte cell count). Furthermore, low to moderate approximate genetic correlations between hematological parameters with one longevity, 4 fertility, and 5 health traits were observed. One-hundred-and-99 significant single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) located primarily on the Bos taurus autosomes (BTA) BTA4, BTA6, and BTA8 were associated with 16 hematological parameters. Based on the RNA-seq analyses, 6,687 genes were significantly downregulated and 4,119 genes were upregulated when comparing 2 groups of cows with high and low phenotypic values. By integrating genome-wide association studies (GWAS), RNA-seq, and previously published results, the main candidate genes associated with hematological parameters in Holstein cattle were ACRBP, ADAMTS3, CANT1, CCM2L, CNN3, CPLANE1, GPAT3, GRIP2, PLAGL2, RTL6, SOX4, WDFY3, and ZNF614. Hematological parameters are heritable and moderately to highly genetically correlated among themselves. The large number of candidate genes identified based on GWAS and RNA-seq indicate the polygenic nature and complex genetic determinism of hematological parameters in Holstein cattle.

ADAMTS3 restricts cancer invasion in models of early breast cancer progression through enhanced fibronectin degradation

Proteases have long been associated with cancer progression, due to their ability to facilitate invasion upon matrix remodelling. However, proteases are not simply degraders of the matrix, but also play fundamental roles in modulating cellular behaviour through the proteolytic processing of specific substrates. Indeed, proteases can elicit both pro- and anti- tumorigenic effects depending on context. Using a heterocellular spheroid model of breast cancer progression, we demonstrate the repressive function of myoepithelial ADAMTS3, with its loss directing myoepithelial-led invasion of luminal cells through a physiologically relevant matrix. Degradomic analysis, using terminal amine isotopic labelling of substrates (TAILS), combined with functional assays, implicate ADAMTS3 as a mediator of fibronectin degradation. We show further that loss of ADAMTS3 enhances levels of fibronectin in the microenvironment, promoting invasion through canonical integrin α5β1 activation. Our data highlight a tumour suppressive role for ADAMTS3 in early stage breast cancer, and contribute to the growing evidence that proteases can restrain cancer progression.

In-silico assessment of high-risk non-synonymous SNPs in ADAMTS3 gene associated with Hennekam syndrome and their impact on protein stability and function

Hennekam Lymphangiectasia-Lymphedema Syndrome 3 (HKLLS3) is a rare genetical disorder caused by mutations in a few genes including ADAMTS3. It is characterized by lymphatic dysplasia, intestinal lymphangiectasia, severe lymphedema and distinctive facial appearance. Up till now, no extensive studies have been conducted to elucidate the mechanism of the disease caused by various mutations. As a preliminary investigation of HKLLS3, we sorted out the most deleterious nonsynonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms (nsSNPs) that might affect the structure and function of ADAMTS3 protein by using a variety of in silico tools. A total of 919 nsSNPs in the ADAMTS3 gene were identified. 50 nsSNPs were predicted to be deleterious by multiple computational tools. 5 nsSNPs (G298R, C567Y, A370T, C567R and G374S) were found to be the most dangerous and can be associated with the disease as predicted by different bioinformatics tools. Modelling of the protein shows it can be divided into segments 1, 2 and 3, which are connected by short loops. Segment 3 mainly consists of loops without substantial secondary structures. With prediction tools and molecular dynamics simulation, some SNPs were found to significantly destabilize the protein structure and disrupt the secondary structures, especially in segment 2. The deleterious effects of mutations in segment 1 are possibly not from destabilization but from other factors such as the change in phosphorylation as suggested by post-translational modification (PTM) studies. This is the first-ever study of ADAMTS3 gene polymorphism, and the predicted nsSNPs in ADAMST3, some of which have not been reported yet in patients, will serve for diagnostic purposes and further therapeutic implications in Hennekam syndrome, contributing to better diagnosis and treatment.

The role of infected epithelial cells in Chlamydia-associated fibrosis

Ocular, genital, and anogenital infection by the obligate intracellular pathogen Chlamydia trachomatis have been consistently associated with scar-forming sequelae. In cases of chronic or repeated infection of the female genital tract, infection-associated fibrosis of the fallopian tubes can result in ectopic pregnancy or infertility. In light of this urgent concern to public health, the underlying mechanism of C. trachomatis-associated scarring is a topic of ongoing study. Fibrosis is understood to be an outcome of persistent injury and/or dysregulated wound healing, in which an aberrantly activated myofibroblast population mediates hypertrophic remodeling of the basement membrane via deposition of collagens and other components of the extracellular matrix, as well as induction of epithelial cell proliferation via growth factor signaling. Initial study of infection-associated immune cell recruitment and pro-inflammatory signaling have suggested the cellular paradigm of chlamydial pathogenesis, wherein inflammation-associated tissue damage and fibrosis are the indirect result of an immune response to the pathogen initiated by host epithelial cells. However, recent work has revealed more direct routes by which C. trachomatis may induce scarring, such as infection-associated induction of growth factor signaling and pro-fibrotic remodeling of the extracellular matrix. Additionally, C. trachomatis infection has been shown to induce an epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in host epithelial cells, prompting transdifferentiation into a myofibroblast-like phenotype. In this review, we summarize the field's current understanding of Chlamydia-associated fibrosis, reviewing key new findings and identifying opportunities for further research.

From lymphatic endothelial cell migration to formation of tubular lymphatic vascular network

During development, lymphatic endothelial cell (LEC) progenitors differentiate from venous endothelial cells only in limited regions of the body. Thus, LEC migration and subsequent tube formation are essential processes for the development of tubular lymphatic vascular network throughout the body. In this review, we discuss chemotactic factors, LEC-extracellular matrix interactions and planar cell polarity regulating LEC migration and formation of tubular lymphatic vessels. Insights into molecular mechanisms underlying these processes will help in understanding not only physiological lymphatic vascular development but lymphangiogenesis associated with pathological conditions such as tumors and inflammation.

Downregulation of ADAMTS3 Suppresses Stemness and Tumorigenicity in Glioma Stem Cell

AIMS

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most aggressive type of human brain tumor, with a poor prognosis and a median overall survival of fewer than 15 months. Glioma stem cells (GSCs) have recently been identified as a key player in tumor initiation and therapeutic resistance in GBM. ADAMTS family of metalloproteinases is known to cleave a wide range of extracellular matrix substrates and has been linked to tissue remodeling events in tumor development. Here, we investigate that ADAMTS3 regulates GSC proliferation and self-renewal activities, and tumorigenesis in orthotopic xenograft models.

METHODS

ADAMTS3 mRNA expression levels in normal human astrocyte (NHA), glioma, and GSCs cell lines were compared. After knockdown of ADAMTS3, alamarBlue assay, in vitro limiting dilution, and orthotopic xenograft assays were performed. To investigate the tumor-associated roles of ADAMTS3, several statistical assays were conducted using publicly available datasets.

RESULTS

ADAMTS3 level was remarkably higher in GSCs than in NHA, glioma cell lines, and their matched differentiated tumor cells. Interestingly, knockdown of ADAMTS3 disrupted GSC's proliferation, self-renewal activity, and tumor formation in vivo. Furthermore, ADAMTS3 could be used as an independent predictor of malignancy progression in GBM.

CONCLUSION

We identified ADAMTS3 as a potential therapeutic target for GBM.

Novel Homozygous ADAMTS2 Variants and Associated Disease Phenotypes in Dogs with Dermatosparactic Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome

Tissue fragility, skin hyperextensibility and joint hypermobility are defining characteristics of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (EDS). Human EDS is subclassified into fourteen types including dermatosparactic EDS, characterized by extreme skin fragility and caused by biallelic ADAMTS2 mutations. We report two novel, ADAMTS2 variants in DNA from EDS-affected dogs. Separate whole-genome sequences from a Pit Bull Terrier and an Alapaha Blue Blood Bulldog each contained a rare, homozygous variant (11:2280117delC, CanFam3.1), predicted to produce a frameshift in the transcript from the first coding ADAMTS2 exon (c.10delC) and a severely truncated protein product, p.(Pro4ArgfsTer175). The clinical features of these dogs and 4 others with the same homozygous deletion included multifocal wounds, atrophic scars, joint hypermobility, narrowed palpebral fissures, skin hyperextensibility, and joint-associated swellings. Due to severe skin fragility, the owners of all 6 dogs elected euthanasia before the dogs reached 13 weeks of age. Cross sections of collagen fibrils in post-mortem dermal tissues from 2 of these dogs showed hieroglyphic-like figures similar to those from cases of severe dermatosparaxis in other species. The whole-genome sequence from an adult Catahoula Leopard Dog contained a homozygous ADAMTS2 missense mutation, [11:2491238G>A; p.(Arg966His)]. This dog exhibited multifocal wounds, atrophic scars, and joint hypermobility, but has survived for at least 9 years. This report expands the spectrum of clinical features of the canine dermatosparactic subtype of EDS and illustrates the potential utility of subclassifying canine EDS by the identity of gene harboring the causal variant.

Role of ADAM and ADAMTS Disintegrin and Metalloproteinases in Normal Pregnancy and Preeclampsia

Normal pregnancy (NP) involves intricate processes starting with egg fertilization, proceeding to embryo implantation, placentation and gestation, and culminating in parturition. These pregnancy-related processes require marked uteroplacental and vascular remodeling by proteolytic enzymes and metalloproteinases. A disintegrin and metalloproteinase (ADAM) and ADAM with thrombospondin motifs (ADAMTS) are members of the zinc-dependent family of proteinases with highly conserved protein structure and sequence homology, which include a pro-domain, and a metalloproteinase, disintegrin and cysteine-rich domain. In NP, ADAMs and ADAMTS regulate sperm-egg fusion, embryo implantation, trophoblast invasion, placental angiogenesis and spiral arteries remodeling through their ectodomain proteolysis of cell surface cytokines, cadherins and growth factors as well as their adhesion with integrins and cell-cell junction proteins. Preeclampsia (PE) is a serious complication of pregnancy characterized by new-onset hypertension (HTN) in pregnancy (HTN-Preg) at or after 20 weeks of gestation, with or without proteinuria. Insufficient trophoblast invasion of the uterine wall, inadequate expansive remodeling of the spiral arteries, reduced uteroplacental perfusion pressure, and placental ischemia/hypoxia are major initiating events in the pathogenesis of PE. Placental ischemia/hypoxia increase the release of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which lead to aberrant expression/activity of certain ADAMs and ADAMTS. In PE, abnormal expression/activity of specific ADAMs and ADAMTS that function as proteolytic sheddases could alter proangiogenic and growth factors, and promote the release of antiangiogenic factors and inflammatory cytokines into the placenta and maternal circulation leading to generalized inflammation, endothelial cell injury and HTN-Preg, renal injury and proteinuria, and further decreases in uteroplacental blood flow, exaggeration of placental ischemia, and consequently fetal growth restriction. Identifying the role of ADAMs and ADAMTS in NP and PE has led to a better understanding of the underlying molecular and vascular pathways, and advanced the potential for novel biomarkers for prediction and early detection, and new approaches for the management of PE.

Fetal nuchal edema and developmental anomalies caused by gene mutations in mice

Fetal nuchal edema, a subcutaneous accumulation of extracellular fluid in the fetal neck, is detected as increased nuchal translucency (NT) by ultrasonography in the first trimester of pregnancy. It has been demonstrated that increased NT is associated with chromosomal anomalies and genetic syndromes accompanied with fetal malformations such as defective lymphatic vascular development, cardiac anomalies, anemia, and a wide range of other fetal anomalies. However, in many clinical cases of increased NT, causative genes, pathogenesis and prognosis have not been elucidated in humans. On the other hand, a large number of gene mutations have been reported to induce fetal nuchal edema in mouse models. Here, we review the relationship between the gene mutants causing fetal nuchal edema with defective lymphatic vascular development, cardiac anomalies, anemia and blood vascular endothelial barrier anomalies in mice. Moreover, we discuss how studies using gene mutant mouse models will be useful in developing diagnostic method and predicting prognosis.

ADAMTS18+ villus tip telocytes maintain a polarized VEGFA signaling domain and fenestrations in nutrient-absorbing intestinal blood vessels

The small intestinal villus tip is the first point of contact for lumen-derived substances including nutrients and microbial products. Electron microscopy studies from the early 1970s uncovered unusual spatial organization of small intestinal villus tip blood vessels: their exterior, epithelial-facing side is fenestrated, while the side facing the villus stroma is non-fenestrated, covered by pericytes and harbors endothelial nuclei. Such organization optimizes the absorption process, however the molecular mechanisms maintaining this highly specialized structure remain unclear. Here we report that perivascular LGR5⁺ villus tip telocytes (VTTs) are necessary for maintenance of villus tip endothelial cell polarization and fenestration by sequestering VEGFA signaling. Mechanistically, unique VTT expression of the protease ADAMTS18 is necessary for VEGFA signaling sequestration through limiting fibronectin accumulation. Therefore, we propose a model in which LGR5⁺ ADAMTS18⁺ telocytes are necessary to maintain a “just-right” level and location of VEGFA signaling in intestinal villus blood vasculature to ensure on one hand the presence of sufficient endothelial fenestrae, while avoiding excessive leakiness of the vessels and destabilization of villus tip epithelial structures.

The molecular mechanisms ensuring the specialized structure of small intestinal villus tip blood vessels are incompletely understood. Here the authors show that ADAMTS18⁺ telocytes maintain a “just-right” level and location of VEGFA signaling on intestinal villus blood vessels, thereby ensuring the presence of endothelial fenestrae for nutrient absorption, while avoiding excessive leakiness and destabilization of villus tip epithelial structures.

The Mechanism and Role of ADAMTS Protein Family in Osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a principal cause of aches and disability worldwide. It is characterized by the inflammation of the bone leading to degeneration and loss of cartilage function. Factors, including diet, age, and obesity, impact and/or lead to osteoarthritis. In the past few years, OA has received considerable scholarly attention owing to its increasing prevalence, resulting in a cumbersome burden. At present, most of the interventions only relieve short-term symptoms, and some treatments and drugs can aggravate the disease in the long run. There is a pressing need to address the safety problems due to osteoarthritis. A disintegrin-like and metalloprotease domain with thrombospondin type 1 repeats (ADAMTS) metalloproteinase is a kind of secretory zinc endopeptidase, comprising 19 kinds of zinc endopeptidases. ADAMTS has been implicated in several human diseases, including OA. For example, aggrecanases, ADAMTS-4 and ADAMTS-5, participate in the cleavage of aggrecan in the extracellular matrix (ECM); ADAMTS-7 and ADAMTS-12 participate in the fission of Cartilage Oligomeric Matrix Protein (COMP) into COMP lyase, and ADAMTS-2, ADAMTS-3, and ADAMTS-14 promote the formation of collagen fibers. In this article, we principally review the role of ADAMTS metalloproteinases in osteoarthritis. From three different dimensions, we explain how ADAMTS participates in all the following aspects of osteoarthritis: ECM, cartilage degeneration, and synovial inflammation. Thus, ADAMTS may be a potential therapeutic target in osteoarthritis, and this article may render a theoretical basis for the study of new therapeutic methods for osteoarthritis.

Proper migration of lymphatic endothelial cells requires survival and guidance cues from arterial mural cells

The migration of lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs) is key for the development of the complex and vast lymphatic vascular network that pervades most tissues in an organism. In zebrafish, arterial intersegmental vessels together with chemokines have been shown to promote lymphatic cell migration from the horizontal myoseptum (HM). We observed that emergence of mural cells around the intersegmental arteries coincides with lymphatic departure from HM which raised the possibility that arterial mural cells promote LEC migration. Our live imaging and cell ablation experiments revealed that LECs migrate slower and fail to establish the lymphatic vascular network in the absence of arterial mural cells. We determined that mural cells are a source for the C-X-C motif chemokine 12 (Cxcl12a and Cxcl12b), vascular endothelial growth factor C (Vegfc) and collagen and calcium-binding EGF domain-containing protein 1 (Ccbe1). We showed that chemokine and growth factor signalling function cooperatively to induce robust LEC migration. Specifically, Vegfc-Vegfr3 signalling, but not chemokines, induces extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) activation in LECs, and has an additional pro-survival role in LECs during the migration. Together, the identification of mural cells as a source for signals that guide LEC migration and survival will be important in the future design for rebuilding lymphatic vessels in disease contexts.

ADAMTS2 and ADAMTS14 substitute ADAMTS3 in adults for proVEGFC activation and lymphatic homeostasis

The capacity of ADAMTS3 to cleave pro-VEGFC into active VEGFC able to bind its receptors and to stimulate lymphangiogenesis has been clearly established during embryonic life. However, this function of ADAMTS3 is unlikely to persist in adulthood because of its restricted expression pattern after birth. Because ADAMTS2 and ADAMTS14 are closely related to ADAMTS3 and are mainly expressed in connective tissues where the lymphatic network extends, we hypothesized that they could substitute for ADAMTS3 during adulthood in mammals allowing proteolytic activation of pro-VEGFC. Here, we demonstrated that ADAMTS2 and ADAMTS14 are able to process pro-VEGFC into active VEGFC as efficiently as ADAMTS3. In vivo, adult mice lacking Adamts2 developed skin lymphedema due to a reduction of the density and diameter of lymphatic vessels, leading to a decrease of lymphatic functionality, while genetic ablation of Adamts14 had no impact. In a model of thermal cauterization of cornea, lymphangiogenesis was significantly reduced in Adamts2- and Adamts14-KO mice and further repressed in Adamts2/Adamts14 double-KO mice. In summary, we have demonstrated that ADAMTS2 and ADAMTS14 are as efficient as ADAMTS3 in activation of pro-VEGFC and are involved in the homeostasis of the lymphatic vasculature in adulthood, both in physiological and pathological processes.

ADAM and ADAMTS disintegrin and metalloproteinases as major factors and molecular targets in vascular malfunction and disease

A Disintegrin and Metalloproteinase (ADAM) and A Disintegrin and Metalloproteinase with Thrombospondin Motifs (ADAMTS) are two closely related families of proteolytic enzymes. ADAMs are largely membrane-bound enzymes that act as molecular scissors or sheddases of membrane-bound proteins, growth factors, cytokines, receptors and ligands, whereas ADAMTS are mainly secreted enzymes. ADAMs have a pro-domain, and a metalloproteinase, disintegrin, cysteine-rich and transmembrane domain. Similarly, ADAMTS family members have a pro-domain, and a metalloproteinase, disintegrin, and cysteine-rich domain, but instead of a transmembrane domain they have thrombospondin motifs. Most ADAMs and ADAMTS are activated by pro-protein convertases, and can be regulated by G-protein coupled receptor agonists, Ca²⁺ ionophores and protein kinase C. Activated ADAMs and ADAMTS participate in numerous vascular processes including angiogenesis, vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation and migration, vascular cell apoptosis, cell survival, tissue repair, and wound healing. ADAMs and ADAMTS also play a role in vascular malfunction and cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension, atherosclerosis, coronary artery disease, myocardial infarction, heart failure, peripheral artery disease, and vascular aneurysm. Decreased ADAMTS13 is involved in thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura and microangiopathies. The activity of ADAMs and ADAMTS can be regulated by endogenous tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases and other synthetic small molecule inhibitors. ADAMs and ADAMTS can be used as diagnostic biomarkers and molecular targets in cardiovascular disease, and modulators of ADAMs and ADAMTS activity may provide potential new approaches for the management of cardiovascular disorders.

ADAMTS Proteins and Vascular Remodeling in Aortic Aneurysms

Extracellular matrix (ECM) in the vascular wall is a highly dynamic structure composed of a set of different molecules such as elastins, collagens, fibronectin (Fn), laminins, proteoglycans, and polysaccharides. ECM undergoes remodeling processes to regulate vascular smooth muscle and endothelial cells' proliferation, differentiation, and adhesion. Abnormalities affecting the ECM can lead to alteration in cellular behavior and from this, this can conduce to the development of pathologies. Metalloproteases play a key role in maintaining the homeostasis of ECM by mediating the cleavage of different ECM components. There are different types of metalloproteases: matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), disintegrin and metalloproteinases (ADAMs), and ADAMs with thrombospondin motifs (ADAMTSs). ADAMTSs have been found to participate in cardiovascular physiology and diseases and specifically in aortic aneurysms. This review aims to decipher the potential role of ADAMTS proteins in the physiopathologic development of Thoracic Aortic Aneurysms (TAA) and Abdominal Aortic Aneurysms (AAA). This review will focus on what is known on the ADAMTS family involved in human aneurysms from human tissues to mouse models. The recent findings on THSD4 (encoding ADAMTSL6) mutations in TAA give a new insight on the involvement of the ADAMTS family in TAA.

KLK3 in the Regulation of Angiogenesis-Tumorigenic or Not?

In this focused review, we address the role of the kallikrein-related peptidase 3 (KLK3), also known as prostate-specific antigen (PSA), in the regulation of angiogenesis. Early studies suggest that KLK3 is able to inhibit angiogenic processes, which is most likely dependent on its proteolytic activity. However, more recent evidence suggests that KLK3 may also have an opposite role, mediated by the ability of KLK3 to activate the (lymph)angiogenic vascular endothelial growth factors VEGF-C and VEGF-D, further discussed in the review.

Lymphatic endothelial cell fate specification in the mammalian embryo: An historical perspective

Development of the mammalian lymphatic vasculature is a stepwise process requiring the specification of lymphatic endothelial cell progenitors in the embryonic veins, and their subsequent budding to give rise to most of the mature lymphatic vasculature. In mice, formation of the lymphatic vascular network starts inside the cardinal vein at around E9.5 when a subpopulation of venous endothelial cells gets committed into the lymphatic lineage by their acquisition of Prox1 expression. Identification of critical genes regulating lymphatic development facilitated the detailed cellular and molecular characterization of some of the cellular and molecular mechanisms regulating the early steps leading to the formation of the mammalian lymphatic vasculature. A better understanding of basic aspects of early lymphatic development, and the availability of novel tools and animal models has been instrumental in the identification of important novel functional roles of this vasculature network.

The Role of Lymphangiogenesis in Coronary Atherosclerosis

Lymphatic circulation, a one-way channel system independent of blood circulation, collects interstitial fluid in a blind-end way. Existing widely in various organs and tissues, lymphatic vessels play important roles in maintaining tissue fluid homeostasis, regulating immune function, and promoting lipid transport. Recent studies have shown clear evidence that lymphangiogenesis has a strong mutual effect on coronary atherosclerosis (AS). In this study, we focus on this topic, especially in the aspects of relevant ligand/receptor, inflammation, and adipose metabolism. For the moment, however, the role of lymphangiogenesis and remodeling in coronary AS still remains controversial. The studies of our group and accumulating published evidence show that the pathological remodeling of lymphatic vessels in coronary AS may have a negative effect, but normal functional lymphangiogenesis is probably beneficial to the regression of coronary AS. Thus, the conclusion of this review is that lymphatic vessel function rather than its quantity determines its influence in AS, which needs more evidence to support.

Development and physiological functions of the lymphatic system: insights from human genetic studies of primary lymphedema

Primary lymphedema is a long-term (chronic) condition characterized by tissue lymph retention and swelling that can affect any part of the body, although it usually develops in the arms or legs. Due to the relevant contribution of the lymphatic system to human physiology, while this review mainly focuses on the clinical and physiological aspects related to the regulation of fluid homeostasis and edema, clinicians need to know that the impact of lymphatic dysfunction with a genetic origin can be wide ranging. Lymphatic dysfunction can affect immune function so leading to infection; it can influence cancer development and spread, and it can determine fat transport so impacting on nutrition and obesity. Genetic studies and the development of imaging techniques for the assessment of lymphatic function have enabled the recognition of primary lymphedema as a heterogenic condition in terms of genetic causes and disease mechanisms. In this review, the known biological functions of several genes crucial to the development and function of the lymphatic system are used as a basis for understanding normal lymphatic biology. The disease conditions originating from mutations in these genes are discussed together with a detailed clinical description of the phenotype and the up-to-date knowledge in terms of disease mechanisms acquired from in vitro and in vivo research models.

Molecular Mechanisms of Neuroimmune Crosstalk in the Pathogenesis of Stroke

Stroke disrupts the homeostatic balance within the brain and is associated with a significant accumulation of necrotic cellular debris, fluid, and peripheral immune cells in the central nervous system (CNS). Additionally, cells, antigens, and other factors exit the brain into the periphery via damaged blood–brain barrier cells, glymphatic transport mechanisms, and lymphatic vessels, which dramatically influence the systemic immune response and lead to complex neuroimmune communication. As a result, the immunological response after stroke is a highly dynamic event that involves communication between multiple organ systems and cell types, with significant consequences on not only the initial stroke tissue injury but long-term recovery in the CNS. In this review, we discuss the complex immunological and physiological interactions that occur after stroke with a focus on how the peripheral immune system and CNS communicate to regulate post-stroke brain homeostasis. First, we discuss the post-stroke immune cascade across different contexts as well as homeostatic regulation within the brain. Then, we focus on the lymphatic vessels surrounding the brain and their ability to coordinate both immune response and fluid homeostasis within the brain after stroke. Finally, we discuss how therapeutic manipulation of peripheral systems may provide new mechanisms to treat stroke injury.

Biochemical and mechanical signals in the lymphatic vasculature

Lymphatic vasculature is an integral part of the cardiovascular system where it maintains interstitial fluid balance. Additionally, lymphatic vasculature regulates lipid assimilation and inflammatory response. Lymphatic vasculature is composed of lymphatic capillaries, collecting lymphatic vessels and valves that function in synergy to absorb and transport fluid against gravitational and pressure gradients. Defects in lymphatic vessels or valves leads to fluid accumulation in tissues (lymphedema), chylous ascites, chylothorax, metabolic disorders and inflammation. The past three decades of research has identified numerous molecules that are necessary for the stepwise development of lymphatic vasculature. However, approaches to treat lymphatic disorders are still limited to massages and compression bandages. Hence, better understanding of the mechanisms that regulate lymphatic vascular development and function is urgently needed to develop efficient therapies. Recent research has linked mechanical signals such as shear stress and matrix stiffness with biochemical pathways that regulate lymphatic vessel growth, patterning and maturation and valve formation. The goal of this review article is to highlight these innovative developments and speculate on unanswered questions.

Regulation of VEGFR Signalling in Lymphatic Vascular Development and Disease: An Update

The importance of lymphatic vessels in a myriad of human diseases is rapidly gaining recognition; lymphatic vessel dysfunction is a feature of disorders including congenital lymphatic anomalies, primary lymphoedema and obesity, while improved lymphatic vessel function increases the efficacy of immunotherapy for cancer and neurological disease and promotes cardiac repair following myocardial infarction. Understanding how the growth and function of lymphatic vessels is precisely regulated therefore stands to inform the development of novel therapeutics applicable to a wide range of human diseases. Lymphatic vascular development is initiated during embryogenesis following establishment of the major blood vessels and the onset of blood flow. Lymphatic endothelial progenitor cells arise from a combination of venous and non-venous sources to generate the initial lymphatic vascular structures in the vertebrate embryo, which are then further ramified and remodelled to elaborate an extensive lymphatic vascular network. Signalling mediated via vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) family members and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR) tyrosine kinases is crucial for development of both the blood and lymphatic vascular networks, though distinct components are utilised to different degrees in each vascular compartment. Although much is known about the regulation of VEGFA/VEGFR2 signalling in the blood vasculature, less is understood regarding the mechanisms by which VEGFC/VEGFD/VEGFR3 signalling is regulated during lymphatic vascular development. This review will focus on recent advances in our understanding of the cellular and molecular mechanisms regulating VEGFA-, VEGFC- and VEGFD-mediated signalling via VEGFRs which are important for driving the construction of lymphatic vessels during development and disease.

Lymphatic Malformations: Genetics, Mechanisms and Therapeutic Strategies

Lymphatic vessels maintain tissue fluid homeostasis by returning to blood circulation interstitial fluid that has extravasated from the blood capillaries. They provide a trafficking route for cells of the immune system, thus critically contributing to immune surveillance. Developmental or functional defects in the lymphatic vessels, their obstruction or damage, lead to accumulation of fluid in tissues, resulting in lymphedema. Here we discuss developmental lymphatic anomalies called lymphatic malformations and complex lymphatic anomalies that manifest as localized or multifocal lesions of the lymphatic vasculature, respectively. They are rare diseases that are caused mostly by somatic mutations and can present with variable symptoms based upon the size and location of the lesions composed of fluid-filled cisterns or channels. Substantial progress has been made recently in understanding the molecular basis of their pathogenesis through the identification of their genetic causes, combined with the elucidation of the underlying mechanisms in animal disease models and patient-derived lymphatic endothelial cells. Most of the solitary somatic mutations that cause lymphatic malformations and complex lymphatic anomalies occur in genes that encode components of oncogenic growth factor signal transduction pathways. This has led to successful repurposing of some targeted cancer therapeutics to the treatment of lymphatic malformations and complex lymphatic anomalies. Apart from the mutations that act as lymphatic endothelial cell-autonomous drivers of these anomalies, current evidence points to superimposed paracrine mechanisms that critically contribute to disease pathogenesis and thus provide additional targets for therapeutic intervention. Here, we review these advances and discuss new treatment strategies that are based on the recently identified molecular pathways.

VEGF-C protects the integrity of the bone marrow perivascular niche in mice

Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) reside in the bone marrow (BM) stem cell niche, which provides a vital source of HSC regulatory signals. Radiation and chemotherapy disrupt the HSC niche, including its sinusoidal vessels and perivascular cells, contributing to delayed hematopoietic recovery. Thus, identification of factors that can protect the HSC niche during an injury could offer a significant therapeutic opportunity to improve hematopoietic regeneration. In this study, we identified a critical function for vascular endothelial growth factor-C (VEGF-C), that of maintaining the integrity of the BM perivascular niche and improving BM niche recovery after irradiation-induced injury. Both global and conditional deletion of Vegfc in endothelial or leptin receptor-positive (LepR+) cells led to a disruption of the BM perivascular niche. Furthermore, deletion of Vegfc from the microenvironment delayed hematopoietic recovery after transplantation by decreasing endothelial proliferation and LepR+ cell regeneration. Exogenous administration of VEGF-C via an adenoassociated viral vector improved hematopoietic recovery after irradiation by accelerating endothelial and LepR+ cell regeneration and by increasing the expression of hematopoietic regenerative factors. Our results suggest that preservation of the integrity of the perivascular niche via VEGF-C signaling could be exploited therapeutically to enhance hematopoietic regeneration.

When form meets function: the cells and signals that shape the lymphatic vasculature during development

The lymphatic vasculature is an integral component of the cardiovascular system. It is essential to maintain tissue fluid homeostasis, direct immune cell trafficking and absorb dietary lipids from the digestive tract. Major advances in our understanding of the genetic and cellular events important for constructing the lymphatic vasculature during development have recently been made. These include the identification of novel sources of lymphatic endothelial progenitor cells, the recognition of lymphatic endothelial cell specialisation and heterogeneity, and discovery of novel genes and signalling pathways underpinning developmental lymphangiogenesis. Here, we review these advances and discuss how they inform our understanding of lymphatic network formation, function and dysfunction.

Mechanisms and cell lineages in lymphatic vascular development

Lymphatic vessels have critical roles in both health and disease and their study is a rapidly evolving area of vascular biology. The consensus on how the first lymphatic vessels arise in the developing embryo has recently shifted. Originally, they were thought to solely derive by sprouting from veins. Since then, several studies have uncovered novel cellular mechanisms and a diversity of contributing cell lineages in the formation of organ lymphatic vasculature. Here, we review the key mechanisms and cell lineages contributing to lymphatic development, discuss the advantages and limitations of experimental techniques used for their study and highlight remaining knowledge gaps that require urgent attention. Emerging technologies should accelerate our understanding of how lymphatic vessels develop normally and how they contribute to disease.

Hydrocephalus in mouse B3glct mutants is likely caused by defects in multiple B3GLCT substrates in ependymal cells and subcommissural organ

Peters plus syndrome, characterized by defects in eye and skeletal development with isolated cases of ventriculomegaly/hydrocephalus, is caused by mutations in the β3-glucosyltransferase (B3GLCT) gene. In the endoplasmic reticulum, B3GLCT adds glucose to O-linked fucose on properly folded Thrombospondin Type 1 Repeats (TSRs). The resulting glucose-fucose disaccharide is proposed to stabilize the TSR fold and promote secretion of B3GLCT substrates, with some substrates more sensitive than others to loss of glucose. Mouse B3glct mutants develop hydrocephalus at high frequency. In this study, we demonstrated that B3glct mutant ependymal cells had fewer cilia basal bodies and altered translational polarity compared to controls. Localization of mRNA encoding A Disintegrin and Metalloproteinase with ThromboSpondin type 1 repeat 20 (ADAMTS20) and ADAMTS9, suggested that reduced function of these B3GLCT substrates contributed to ependymal cell abnormalities. In addition, we showed that multiple B3GLCT substrates (Adamts3, Adamts9, and Adamts20) are expressed by the subcommissural organ, that subcommissural organ-spondin (SSPO) TSRs were modified with O-linked glucose-fucose, and that loss of B3GLCT reduced secretion of SSPO in cultured cells. In the B3glct mutant subcommissural organ intracellular SSPO levels were reduced and BiP levels increased, suggesting a folding defect. Secreted SSPO colocalized with BiP, raising the possibility that abnormal extracellular assembly of SSPO into Reissner's fiber also contributed to impaired CSF flow in mutants. Combined, these studies underscore the complexity of the B3glct mutant hydrocephalus phenotype and demonstrate that impaired cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) flow likely stems from the collective effects of the mutation on multiple processes.

Cells with Many Talents: Lymphatic Endothelial Cells in the Brain Meninges

The lymphatic system serves key functions in maintaining fluid homeostasis, the uptake of dietary fats in the small intestine, and the trafficking of immune cells. Almost all vascularized peripheral tissues and organs contain lymphatic vessels. The brain parenchyma, however, is considered immune privileged and devoid of lymphatic structures. This contrasts with the notion that the brain is metabolically extremely active, produces large amounts of waste and metabolites that need to be cleared, and is especially sensitive to edema formation. Recently, meningeal lymphatic vessels in mammals and zebrafish have been (re-)discovered, but how they contribute to fluid drainage is still not fully understood. Here, we discuss these meningeal vessel systems as well as a newly described cell population in the zebrafish and mouse meninges. These cells, termed brain lymphatic endothelial cells/Fluorescent Granular Perithelial cells/meningeal mural lymphatic endothelial cells in fish, and Leptomeningeal Lymphatic Endothelial Cells in mice, exhibit remarkable features. They have a typical lymphatic endothelial gene expression signature but do not form vessels and rather constitute a meshwork of single cells, covering the brain surface.

In vivo N-Terminomics Highlights Novel Functions of ADAMTS2 and ADAMTS14 in Skin Collagen Matrix Building

A disintegrin and metalloproteinase with thrombospondin type I motif (ADAMTS)2 and ADAMTS14 were originally known for their ability to cleave the aminopropeptides of fibrillar collagens. Previous work using N-terminomic approach (N-TAILS) in vitro led to the identification of new substrates, including some molecules involved in TGF-β signaling. Here, N-TAILS was used to investigate the substrates of these two enzymes in vivo, by comparing the N-terminomes of the skin of wild type mice, mice deficient in ADAMTS2, in ADAMTS14 and in both ADAMTS2 and ADAMTS14. This study identified 68 potential extracellular and cell surface proteins, with the majority of them being cleaved by both enzymes. These analyses comfort their role in collagen matrix organization and suggest their implication in inflammatory processes. Regarding fibrillar collagen, this study demonstrates that both ADAMTS2 and ADAMTS14 are involved in the processing of the aminopropeptide of alpha1 and alpha2 type V collagen. It also revealed the existence of several cleavage sites in the Col1 domain and in the C-propeptide of type I collagens. In addition to collagens and other extracellular proteins, two major components of the cell cytoskeleton, actin and vimentin, were also identified as potential substrates. The latter data were confirmed in vitro using purified enzymes and could potentially indicate other functions for ADAMTS2 and 14. This original investigation of mouse skin degradomes by N-terminomic highlights the essential role of ADAMTS2 and ADAMTS14 in collagen matrix synthesis and turnover, and gives clues to better understand their functions in skin pathophysiology. Data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD022179.

Proteolytic Cleavages in the VEGF Family: Generating Diversity among Angiogenic VEGFs, Essential for the Activation of Lymphangiogenic VEGFs

Simple Summary

Vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGFs) regulate the growth of blood and lymphatic vessels. Some of them induce the growth of blood vessels, and others the growth of lymphatic vessels. Blocking VEGF-A is used today to treat several types of cancer (“antiangiogenic therapy”). However, in other diseases, we would like to increase the activity of VEGFs. For example, VEGF-A could generate new blood vessels to protect from heart disease, and VEGF-C could generate new lymphatics to counteract lymphedema. Clinical trials are testing the latter concept at the moment. Because VEGF-C and VEGF-D are produced as inactive precursors, we propose that novel drugs could also target the enzymatic activation of VEGF-C and VEGF-D. However, because of the delicate balance between too much and too little vascular growth, a detailed understanding of the activation of the VEGFs is needed before such concepts can be converted into safe and efficacious therapies.

Abstract

Specific proteolytic cleavages turn on, modify, or turn off the activity of vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGFs). Proteolysis is most prominent among the lymph­angiogenic VEGF-C and VEGF-D, which are synthesized as precursors that need to undergo enzymatic removal of their C- and N-terminal propeptides before they can activate their receptors. At least five different proteases mediate the activating cleavage of VEGF-C: plasmin, ADAMTS3, prostate-specific antigen, cathepsin D, and thrombin. All of these proteases except for ADAMTS3 can also activate VEGF-D. Processing by different proteases results in distinct forms of the “mature” growth factors, which differ in affinity and receptor activation potential. The “default” VEGF-C-activating enzyme ADAMTS3 does not activate VEGF-D, and therefore, VEGF-C and VEGF-D do function in different contexts. VEGF-C itself is also regulated in different contexts by distinct proteases. During embryonic development, ADAMTS3 activates VEGF-C. The other activating proteases are likely important for non-developmental lymphangiogenesis during, e.g., tissue regeneration, inflammation, immune response, and pathological tumor-associated lymphangiogenesis. The better we understand these events at the molecular level, the greater our chances of developing successful therapies targeting VEGF-C and VEGF-D for diseases involving the lymphatics such as lymphedema or cancer.

Development and aging of the lymphatic vascular system

The lymphatic vasculature has a pivotal role in regulating body fluid homeostasis, immune surveillance and dietary fat absorption. The increasing number of in vitro and in vivo studies in the last decades has shed light on the processes of lymphatic vascular development and function. Here, we will discuss the current progress in lymphatic vascular biology such as the mechanisms of lymphangiogenesis, lymphatic vascular maturation and maintenance and the emerging mechanisms of lymphatic vascular aging.

Network patterning, morphogenesis and growth in lymphatic vascular development

The lymphatic vasculature is a vital component of the vertebrate vascular system that mediates tissue fluid homeostasis, lipid uptake and immune surveillance. The development of the lymphatic vasculature starts in the early vertebrate embryo, when a subset of blood vascular endothelial cells of the cardinal veins acquires lymphatic endothelial cell fate. These cells sprout from the veins, migrate, proliferate and organize to give rise to a highly structured and unique vascular network. Cellular cross-talk, cell-cell communication and the interpretation of signals from surrounding tissues are all essential for coordinating these processes. In this chapter, we highlight new findings and review research progress with a particular focus on LEC migration and guidance, expansion of the LEC lineage, network remodeling and morphogenesis of the lymphatic vasculature.

The quest for substrates and binding partners: A critical barrier for understanding the role of ADAMTS proteases in musculoskeletal development and disease

Secreted ADAMTS metalloproteases are involved in the sculpting, remodeling, and erosion of connective tissues throughout the body, including in the musculoskeletal system. ADAMTS proteases contribute to musculoskeletal development, pathological tissue destruction, and are mutated in congenital musculoskeletal disorders. Examples include versican cleavage by ADAMTS9 which is required for interdigital web regression during limb development, ADAMTS5-mediated aggrecan degradation in osteoarthritis resulting in joint erosion, and mutations in ADAMTS10 or ADAMTS17 that cause Weill-Marchesani syndrome, a short stature syndrome with bone, joint, muscle, cardiac, and eye involvement. Since the function of ADAMTS proteases and proteases in general is primarily defined by the molecular consequences of proteolysis of their respective substrates, it is paramount to identify all physiological substrates for each individual ADAMTS protease. Here, we review the current knowledge of ADAMTS proteases and their involvement in musculoskeletal development and disease, focusing on some of their known physiological substrates and the consequences of substrate cleavage. We further emphasize the critical need for the identification and validation of novel ADAMTS substrates and binding partners by describing the principles of mass spectrometry-based approaches and by emphasizing strategies that need to be considered for validating the physiological relevance for ADAMTS-mediated proteolysis of novel putative substrates.

Lymphatic Valves and Lymph Flow in Cancer-Related Lymphedema

Lymphedema is a complex disease caused by the accumulation of fluid in the tissues resulting from a dysfunctional or damaged lymphatic vasculature. In developed countries, lymphedema most commonly occurs as a result of cancer treatment. Initially, impaired lymph flow causes edema, but over time this results in inflammation, fibrotic and fatty tissue deposition, limited mobility, and bacterial infections that can lead to sepsis. While chronically impaired lymph flow is generally believed to be the instigating factor, little is known about what pathophysiological changes occur in the lymphatic vessels to inhibit lymph flow. Lymphatic vessels not only regulate lymph flow through a variety of physiologic mechanisms, but also respond to lymph flow itself. One of the fascinating ways that lymphatic vessels respond to flow is by growing bicuspid valves that close to prevent the backward movement of lymph. However, lymphatic valves have not been investigated in cancer-related lymphedema patients, even though the mutations that cause congenital lymphedema regulate genes involved in valve development. Here, we review current knowledge of the regulation of lymphatic function and development by lymph flow, including newly identified genetic regulators of lymphatic valves, and provide evidence for lymphatic valve involvement in cancer-related lymphedema.

Specific fibroblast subpopulations and neuronal structures provide local sources of Vegfc-processing components during zebrafish lymphangiogenesis

Proteolytical processing of the growth factor VEGFC through the concerted activity of CCBE1 and ADAMTS3 is required for lymphatic development to occur. How these factors act together in time and space, and which cell types produce these factors is not understood. Here we assess the function of Adamts3 and the related protease Adamts14 during zebrafish lymphangiogenesis and show both proteins to be able to process Vegfc. Only the simultaneous loss of both protein functions results in lymphatic defects identical to vegfc loss-of-function situations. Cell transplantation experiments demonstrate neuronal structures and/or fibroblasts to constitute cellular sources not only for both proteases but also for Ccbe1 and Vegfc. We further show that this locally restricted Vegfc maturation is needed to trigger normal lymphatic sprouting and directional migration. Our data provide a single-cell resolution model for establishing secretion and processing hubs for Vegfc during developmental lymphangiogenesis.

Challenges and Solutions for Purification of ADAMTS Proteases: An Overview

ADAMTS are secreted metalloproteinases implicated in many key biological processes. The 19 different members of this family share an identical domain composition at the level of their amino-terminal portion, whereas the identity and number of the domains forming their carboxy-terminal half are divergent and define distinct ADAMTS subfamilies. Due to their large size, extensive glycosylation, the presence of specific domains, their tendency to form aggregates, their relatively low abundance in tissues and the presence of many disulfide bonds, ADAMTS are very hard to isolate, express, and purify, as either native or recombinant active enzymes. This chapter provides an overview of critical steps to take into account when obtaining these proteases for biochemical and functional investigation.

Hemostasis stimulates lymphangiogenesis through release and activation of VEGFC

Hemostasis associated with tissue injury is followed by wound healing, a complex process by which damaged cellular material is removed and tissue repaired. Angiogenic responses are a central aspect of wound healing, including the growth of new lymphatic vessels by which immune cells, protein, and fluid are transported out of the wound area. The concept that hemostatic responses might be linked to wound healing responses is an old one, but demonstrating such a link in vivo and defining specific molecular mechanisms by which the 2 processes are connected has been difficult. In the present study, we demonstrate that the lymphangiogenic factors vascular endothelial growth factor C (VEGFC) and VEGFD are cleaved by thrombin and plasmin, serine proteases generated during hemostasis and wound healing. Using a new tail-wounding assay to test the relationship between clot formation and lymphangiogenesis in mice, we find that platelets accelerate lymphatic growth after injury in vivo. Genetic studies reveal that platelet enhancement of lymphatic growth after wounding is dependent on the release of VEGFC, but not VEGFD, a finding consistent with high expression of VEGFC in both platelets and avian thrombocytes. Analysis of lymphangiogenesis after full-thickness skin excision, a wound model that is not associated with significant clot formation, also revealed an essential role for VEGFC, but not VEGFD. These studies define a concrete molecular and cellular link between hemostasis and lymphangiogenesis during wound healing and reveal that VEGFC, the dominant lymphangiogenic factor during embryonic development, continues to play a dominant role in lymphatic growth in mature animals.

Identification of small and large genomic candidate variants in bovine pulmonary hypoplasia and anasarca syndrome

The pulmonary hypoplasia and anasarca syndrome (PHA) is a congenital lethal disorder, which until now has been reported in cattle and sheep. PHA is characterized by extensive subcutaneous fetal edema combined with hypoplasia or aplasia of the lungs and dysplasia of the lymphatic system. PHA is assumed to be of genetic etiology. This study presents the occurrence of PHA in two different cattle breeds and their genetic causation. Two PHA cases from one sire were observed in Slovenian Cika cattle. Under the assumption of monogenic inheritance, genome-wide homozygosity mapping scaled down the critical regions to 3% of the bovine genome including a 43.6 Mb-sized segment on chromosome 6. Whole-genome sequencing of one case, variant filtering against controls and genotyping of a larger cohort of Cika cattle led to the detection of a likely pathogenic protein-changing variant perfectly associated with the disease: a missense variant on chromosome 6 in ADAMTS3 (NM_001192797.1: c.1222C>T), which affects an evolutionary conserved residue (NP_001179726.1: p.(His408Tyr)). A single PHA case was found in Danish Holstein cattle and was whole-genome sequenced along with its parents. However, as there was no plausible private protein-changing variant, mining for structural variation revealed a likely pathogenic trisomy of the entire chromosome 20. The identified ADAMTS3 associated missense variant and the trisomy 20 are two different genetic causes, which shows a compelling genetic heterogeneity for bovine PHA.

Assay for Reelin-Cleaving Activity of ADAMTS and Detection of Reelin and Its Fragments in the Brain

Proteolytic cleavage of the secreted signaling protein Reelin has been suggested to play causative roles in many neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders. Therefore, characterization of the proteolytic activity against Reelin is important not only for understanding how the brain works but also for the development of novel therapy for these disorders. Notably, ADAMTS family proteases are the primary suspects of Reelin-cleaving proteases under many, though not all, circumstances. Here we describe how to measure the Reelin-cleaving activity of ADAMTS (or of any other protease that may cleave Reelin), how to purify the Reelin-cleaving protease ADAMTS-3 from the culture supernatant of cortical neurons, and how to detect endogenous Reelin protein and its fragments in the brain.

Purification of Native or Recombinant ADAMTS2, and Procollagen I Cleavage Assay

ADAMTS constitute a family of 19 secreted metalloproteinases involved in diverse physiopathological conditions. Most of their roles first emerged from analysis of spontaneous human and animal mutations or genetically engineered animals. However, the involved mechanisms and the full repertoire of their functions are still largely unrecognized, in part because they are difficult to produce and purify as recombinant active enzymes. Here we describe protocols, tips, and tricks specifically regarding ADAMTS2, 3, and 14 but still relevant for other ADAMTS.

Lymphatic Function and Dysfunction in the Context of Sex Differences

Endothelial cells are the building blocks of the blood vascular system and exhibit well-characterized sexually dimorphic phenotypes with regard to chromosomal and hormonal sex, imparting innate genetic and physiological differences between male and female vascular systems and cardiovascular disease. However, even though females are predominantly affected by disorders of lymphatic vascular function, we lack a comprehensive understanding of the effects of sex and sex hormones on lymphatic growth, function, and dysfunction. Here, we attempt to comprehensively evaluate the current understanding of sex as a biological variable influencing lymphatic biology. We first focus on elucidating innate and fundamental differences between the sexes in lymphatic function and development. Next, we delve into lymphatic disease and explore the potential underpinnings toward bias prevalence in the female population. Lastly, we incorporate more broadly the role of the lymphatic system in sex-biased diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, reproductive disorders, and autoimmune diseases to explore whether and how sex differences may influence lymphatic function in the context of these pathologies.

An ADAMTS3 missense variant is associated with Norwich Terrier upper airway syndrome

In flat-faced dog breeds, air resistance caused by skull conformation is believed to be a major determinant of Brachycephalic Obstructive Airway Syndrome (BOAS). The clinical presentation of BOAS is heterogeneous, suggesting determinants independent of skull conformation contribute to airway disease. Norwich Terriers, a mesocephalic breed, are predisposed to Upper Airway Syndrome (UAS), a disease whose pathological features overlap with BOAS. Our health screening clinic examined and scored the airways of 401 Norwich terriers by laryngoscopy. Genome-wide association analyses of UAS-related pathologies revealed a genetic association on canine chromosome 13 (rs9043975, p = 7.79x10^-16). Whole genome resequencing was used to identify causal variant(s) within a 414 kb critical interval. This approach highlighted an error in the CanFam3.1 dog assembly, which when resolved, led to the discovery of a c.2786G>A missense variant in exon 20 of the positional candidate gene, ADAM metallopeptidase with thrombospondin type 1 motif 3 (ADAMTS3). In addition to segregating with UAS amongst Norwich Terriers, the ADAMTS3 c.2786G>A risk allele frequency was enriched among the BOAS-susceptible French and (English) Bulldogs. Previous studies indicate that ADAMTS3 loss of function results in lymphoedema. Our results suggest a new paradigm in the understanding of canine upper airway disease aetiology: airway oedema caused by disruption of ADAMTS3 predisposes dogs to respiratory obstruction. These findings will enhance breeding practices and could refine the prognostics of surgical interventions that are often used to treat airway obstruction.

Respiratory diseases are prevalent across dog breeds, particularly in brachycephalic breeds such as the Bulldog and French bulldog. The flat facial conformation of these breeds has long been assumed to be the major predisposing factor, however, the underlying genetics of their respiratory condition has never been elucidated. We became interested in the Norwich Terrier, a breed presenting with many of the same respiratory disease symptoms as the Bulldog. A distinction, however, is that the Norwich terrier is not considered to be a brachycephalic breed and so presented an opportunity to dissociate respiratory disease from head conformation. We performed a genome-wide association analysis for respiratory disease severity in the Norwich Terrier and resolved an association on chromosome 13 to a missense mutation in ADAMTS3. Variants in this gene were previously shown to cause an oedematous phenotype–a disease characteristic in the airways of affected Norwich Terriers and brachycephalic dogs alike. We screened over 100 breeds for the ADAMTS3 variant and found that it is enriched in the Norwich Terrier, Bulldog and French Bulldog. This discovery changes how we view respiratory disease predisposition in the dog, offers potential genetic screens and highlights a new biological function for ADAMTS3.

Role of proteases in dysfunctional placental vascular remodelling in preeclampsia

Preeclampsia is a syndrome characterised by vascular dysfunction, impaired angiogenesis, and hypertension during pregnancy. Even when the precise pathophysiology of preeclampsia remains elusive, impaired vascular remodelling and placental angiogenesis in the placental villi and defective trophoblast invasion of the uterus are proposed as crucial mechanisms in this syndrome. Reduced trophoblast invasion leads to reduced uteroplacental blood flow and oxygen availability and increased oxidative stress. These phenomena trigger the release of soluble factors into the maternal and foetoplacental circulation that are responsible of the clinical features of preeclampsia. New blood vessels generation as well as vascular remodelling are mechanisms that require expression and activity of different proteases, including matrix metalloproteases, a-disintegrin and metalloproteases, and a-disintegrin and metalloprotease with thrombospondin motifs. These proteases exert proteolysis of the extracellular matrix. Additionally, cathepsins, a family of proteolytic enzymes, are primarily located in lysosomes but are also released by cells to the extracellular space. This review focuses on the role that these proteases play in the regulation of the uterine trophoblast invasion and the placental vascular remodelling associated with preeclampsia.

A Disintegrin and Metalloproteinase (ADAM) and ADAM with thrombospondin motifs (ADAMTS) family in vascular biology and disease

A Disintegrin and Metalloproteinase (ADAM) is a family of proteolytic enzymes that possess sheddase function and regulate shedding of membrane-bound proteins, growth factors, cytokines, ligands and receptors. Typically, ADAMs have a pro-domain, and a metalloproteinase, disintegrin, cysteine-rich and a characteristic transmembrane domain. Most ADAMs are activated by proprotein convertases, but can also be regulated by G-protein coupled receptor agonists, Ca²⁺ ionophores and protein kinase C activators. A Disintegrin and Metalloproteinase with Thrombospondin Motifs (ADAMTS) is a family of secreted enzymes closely related to ADAMs. Like ADAMs, ADAMTS members have a pro-domain, and a metalloproteinase, disintegrin, and cysteine-rich domain, but they lack a transmembrane domain and instead have characteristic thrombospondin motifs. Activated ADAMs perform several functions and participate in multiple cardiovascular processes including vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation and migration, angiogenesis, vascular cell apoptosis, cell survival, tissue repair, and wound healing. ADAMs may also be involved in pathological conditions and cardiovascular diseases such as atherosclerosis, hypertension, aneurysm, coronary artery disease, myocardial infarction and heart failure. Like ADAMs, ADAMTS have a wide-spectrum role in vascular biology and cardiovascular pathophysiology. ADAMs and ADAMTS activity is naturally controlled by endogenous inhibitors such as tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs), and their activity can also be suppressed by synthetic small molecule inhibitors. ADAMs and ADAMTS can serve as important diagnostic biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets for cardiovascular disorders. Natural and synthetic inhibitors of ADAMs and ADAMTS could be potential therapeutic tools for the management of cardiovascular diseases.

Assessing genetic architecture and signatures of selection of dual purpose Gir cattle populations using genomic information

Gir is one of the main cattle breeds raised in tropical South American countries. Strong artificial selection through its domestication resulted in increased genetic differentiation among the countries in recent years. Over the years, genomic studies in Gir have become more common. However, studies of population structure and signatures of selection in divergent Gir populations are scarce and need more attention to better understand genetic differentiation, gene flow, and genetic distance. Genotypes of 173 animals selected for growth traits and 273 animals selected for milk production were used in this study. Clear genetic differentiation between beef and dairy populations was observed. Different criteria led to genetic divergence and genetic differences in allele frequencies between the two populations. Gene segregation in each population was forced by artificial selection, promoting isolation, and increasing genetic variation between them. Results showed evidence of selective forces in different regions of the genome. A total of 282 genes were detected under selection in the test population based on the fixation index (Fst), integrated haplotype score (iHS), and cross-population extend haplotype homozygosity (XP-EHH) approaches. The QTL mapping identified 35 genes associated with reproduction, milk composition, growth, meat and carcass, health, or body conformation traits. The investigation of genes and pathways showed that quantitative traits associated to fertility, milk production, beef quality, and growth were involved in the process of differentiation of these populations. These results would support further investigations of population structure and differentiation in the Gir breed.

A Novel Splice-Site Mutation in VEGFC Is Associated with Congenital Primary Lymphoedema of Gordon

Lymphedema is characterized by chronic swelling of any body part caused by malfunctioning or obstruction in the lymphatic system. Primary lymphedema is often considered genetic in origin. VEGFC, which is a gene encoding the ligand for the vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 3 (VEGFR3/FLT4) and important for lymph vessel development during lymphangiogenesis, has been associated with a specific subtype of primary lymphedema. Through Sanger sequencing of a proband with bilateral congenital pedal edema resembling Milroy disease, we identified a novel mutation (NM_005429.2; c.361+5G>A) in VEGFC. The mutation induced skipping of exon 2 of VEGFC resulting in a frameshift and the introduction of a premature stop codon (p.Ala50ValfsTer18). The mutation leads to a loss of the entire VEGF-homology domain and the C-terminus. Expression of this Vegfc variant in the zebrafish floorplate showed that the splice-site variant significantly reduces the biological activity of the protein. Our findings confirm that the splice-site variant, c.361+5G>A, causes the primary lymphedema phenotype in the proband. We examine the mutations and clinical phenotypes of the previously reported cases to review the current knowledge in this area.

SP1-mediated downregulation of ADAMTS3 gene expression in osteosarcoma models

ADAMTS3 is a member of procollagen N-proteinase subfamily of ADAMTS (a disintegrin and metalloproteinase with thrombospondin motifs) gene family. It has an important function in the procollagen maturation process. The removal of N-peptidases is required for the accurate processing of fibrillar collagens. Otherwise, several disorders can occur that is related with the collagenous tissues. ADAMTS3 mainly maturates type II collagen molecule which is the main component of the bone and cartilage. There are several expression studies about ADAMTS3 gene however its transcriptional regulation has not been lightened up, yet. Here we first time cloned and functionally analyzed the promoter region of ADAMTS3 gene, approximately 1380 bp upstream of the transcription start site. Transient transfection experiments showed that all truncated promoter constructs are active and 171 bp fragment is sufficient to activate gene expression in both Saos-2 and MG63 cells. In silico analysis showed that ADAMTS3 has a TATA-less promoter and contains several SP1/GC box binding motifs and a CpG island. Therefore we mainly investigated the SP1 dependent regulation of ADAMTS3 promoter. SP1 downregulated ADAMTS3 transcriptional activity. As consistent with the transcriptional activity, mRNA, and protein expression levels were also decreased by SP1. On the other hand, functional binding of the SP1 on multiple regions of ADAMTS3 promoter was confirmed by EMSA studies. As ADAMTS3 is responsible for the collagen maturation and biosynthesis, further we investigated the effect of SP1 on type I-II and III collagen gene expressions. We point out that SP1 increased type II and III collagen expression and in contrast decreased type I collagen expression levels in Saos-2 cells. mRNA expression level was decreased for all collagen types in MG63 model. Decrease in the type II collagen expression was also demonstrated at the protein level by SP1. Collectively these results provide first findings for the SP1-related transcriptional regulation of ADAMTS3 and collagen genes in osteosarcoma cell lines.