Examining the Gendered Impacts of Technology-Facilitated Sexual Violence: A Mixed Methods Approach

From digital harm to recovery: a multidisciplinary framework for First Aid after Online Sexual Abuse

Online sexual abuse in adolescence encompasses various forms of digital exploitation, including grooming, sexting, sextortion, and image-based sexual abuse. Current research indicates that a significant proportion of minors are exposed to online sexual abuse. The psychological impact on victims includes severe mental health issues, such as depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress symptoms. Responses to online sexual abuse disclosures often require a multidisciplinary approach. In the Netherlands, Sexual Assault Centers (SACs) utilize the First Aid after Online Sexual Abuse protocol. This approach addresses immediate safety and (forensic) medical concerns, facilitates the removal of image-based content, and supports natural recovery while providing referrals for psychological treatment if needed. This paper highlights the urgent need for a comprehensive, multidisciplinary response to online sexual abuse, emphasizing the importance of integrating psychological, medical, and legal support to tackle the complex challenges posed by online abuse, ensuring effective, context-sensitive interventions, and supporting victims' recovery and well-being.

Situational Facilitators and Barriers of Bystander Intervention Intent in Image-Based Sexual Abuse Contexts

Image-based sexual abuse (IBSA) encompasses the taking, sharing, and/or making threats to share nude or sexual images of others without consent. Research shows that a large percentage of individuals have been a bystander to IBSA, but most do not intervene. Currently, there is little understanding of why this is the case. The research presented in this article begins to address this gap in the literature by identifying situational factors that facilitate or inhibit behavioral intentions to intervene through three experimental studies. In each study, situational factors were manipulated using vignettes that depicted the taking of images without consent (Study 1; n = 126), sharing images without consent (Study 2; n = 125), and threatening to share images (Study 3; n = 125). The dependent variable across studies was how likely they would be to intervene if they witnessed the scenario described. Study 1 investigated the effect of the presence of other bystanders (no other bystanders present, other bystanders present who were friends with each other, or other bystanders present who were strangers to each other), and no significant effect was found. Study 2 investigated the role of initial consent to take the image (self-taken or stealth-taken) and the bystander relationship with the victim (friend or stranger). Likelihood to intervene was less likely when the image was self-taken, and the victim was a stranger. Finally, Study 3 investigated the role of initial consent to take the image and bystander relationship with the perpetrator (friend or stranger). Perpetrator-focused intervention was more likely, but justice-focused intervention was less likely, when the perpetrator was a friend. These findings have implications for the development of educational materials, campaigns, and agendas aimed at encouraging bystander intervention.

The Hidden Problem: Verbal Sexual Abuse in Higher Education from a Linguistic Perspective

The present study aims to investigate the prevalence of various forms of verbal sexual abuse among students in higher education. Specifically, the study seeks to explore the linguistic features and types of utterances used in verbal sexual abuse and to examine how male and female students perceive such abuse. A mixed-methods design was employed, incorporating both qualitative and quantitative approaches. The qualitative component involved the use of discourse analysis to analyze texts, pictures, and symbols containing instances of verbal sexual abuse. Meanwhile, the quantitative component employed a survey approach to understand how students in higher education perceive such abuse. Data were collected from 30 students who had experienced verbal sexual abuse through both spoken words and social media. In addition, a survey was conducted among 317 students in Indonesia to collect data on their responses to different forms of verbal sexual abuse. The findings of the study suggest that verbal sexual abuse experienced by students can be classified into three forms: vulgar discussions, sexual gestures, and seductive whistles, with vulgar discussions being the most prevalent form of such abuse. The perpetrators of verbal sexual abuse were found to employ specific linguistic features and symbols. The study also revealed that perpetrators of verbal sexual abuse most frequently used assertive and expressive utterances. In addition, the study highlighted significant differences in the perceptions of male and female students concerning verbal sexual abuse. The study's findings have potential implications, particularly in the development of programs aimed at preventing verbal sexual abuse among students in higher education settings. A deeper understanding of the various forms of verbal sexual abuse can help raise students' awareness and concerns about avoiding such behavior.

The Predictors, Motivations and Characteristics of Image-Based Sexual Abuse: A Scoping Review

Image-based sexual abuse (IBSA) is a form of sexual violence and abuse that is facilitated by the use of technology. The array of different technologies, ever-changing behaviors, and varied terminology have created challenges in terms of appropriate response, legislation, and the protection of victims as well as difficulties in establishing the extent and harms of this behavior on a wider scale and context. This scoping review examines and synthesizes the current literature which focuses on predictors, the motivation of perpetrators, and the characteristics of both victims and perpetrators in relation to IBSA. The databases Web of Science, ASSIA, ProQuest, and StarPlus were searched in December 2023. A supplementary search was conducted in Google Scholar and hand-searching of two key journals within the topic area. The search focused on five geographical locations that share some cultural background (United Kingdom/Ireland, United States, Canada, New Zealand, and Australia). A total of 60 studies and reviews were included which meet the inclusion criteria. The main findings were: (a) diverse populations and marginalized groups are not represented in the current literature; (b) there is a vast number of interchangeable terminologies used; (c) there are limited studies that examine the predictors of victimization of IBSA; (d) the United States and Australia are the dominant countries of study of IBSA.

Mixed-method longitudinal investigation of sexual and gender-based violence following COVID-19 in South Africa

Background

Throughout the COVID-19 pandemic, concerns were raised about unintended effects of measures taken to prevent its spread, on sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV). The United Nations called for understanding how national lockdowns put young people at risk of SGBV. This research is particularly needed in contexts such as South Africa, where pre-existing levels of SGBV are high and limited data has been released.

Methods

This mixed-method longitudinal study characterised trajectories of household-level and partner-level SGBV exposure over 6 months, approximately 1 year after the initial COVID-19 lockdown. Utilising group-based trajectory modelling, survey data from 535 male and female participants, ages 13-24 and qualitative insights from 20 in-depth interviews were analysed.

Results

Two trajectory groups emerged for both household-level and partner-level SGBV: (1) groups of participants with consistently low SGBV levels (household: 77.5%; partner: 89.4%) and (2) groups with high baseline levels of SGBV, followed by decreases to moderate levels (household: 22.5%; partner: 10.8%). Characteristics significantly associated with the latter groups included being female, not employed or in school, food insecurity and symptoms of probable common mental disorders. Qualitative data supported these findings and revealed the mitigating role of positive household communication skills, along with potentially unmeasured levels of technology-facilitated partner violence, occurring over phones and social media during lockdown.

Conclusions

Findings should inform the targeting of financial, food and mental health support to those at higher risk of ongoing violence during future times of crises. Further research on technology-facilitated violence should be conducted to better understand its prevalence.

Development and Validation of Technology-Facilitated Sexual Violence Perpetration and Victimization Scales Among Adults

Technology-facilitated sexual violence (TFSV) includes different forms of digital violence, such as online gender-based violence, online gender- and sexuality-based violence, digital sexual harassment, online sexual coercion, and nonconsensual pornography. The aim of this study was to design and validate a measure to assess the perpetration and victimization of each dimension of TFSV. The relationships between the different dimensions and differences by gender and sexual orientation were also analyzed. The participants were a sample of 2,486 adults (69% women) from Spain, aged between 16 and 79 (M = 25.95; DT = 9.809) years. The Technology-Facilitated Sexual Violence Scales were found to be valid and reliable instruments, supporting our recommendation for the use of these scales. Network analysis and solution-based exploratory factor analyses showed that the dimensions of online sexual coercion and nonconsensual pornography clustered together. All the perpetration variables were related to sexism. Finally, cis women and nonheterosexual people reported higher victimization scores overall compared to cis men and heterosexuals, respectively, while cis men reported higher perpetration scores overall than cis women.

Technology-facilitated sexual violence among Italian youths: validation of the technology-facilitated sexual violence victimization scale

Introduction

Technology-facilitated sexual violence (TFSV), i.e. the use of digital communication technologies for facilitating sexual violence and harassment, represents a concern due to its exponential growth, particularly among youths. Few studies investigated TFSV, mainly due to the lack of a validated assessment tool, such as the TFSV-Victimization scale (TFSV-VS). Our study aimed to investigate the TFSV phenomenon in a sample of Italian young adults (aged 18-24), through the validation of the Italian translated version of TFSV-VS.

Methods

The study consisted of two phases: 1) validation of the Italian version of TFSV-VS; b) evaluation of TFSV lifetime and during the last 12 months among Italian youths.

Results

In our sample, 78.6% and 56.1% of subjects reported a lifetime and 12-months TFSV victimization, respectively. Digital sexual (70.4% and 46.6%), gender and/or sexuality-based harassment (43% and 29.6%) are those most represented. A gendered and sexuality-based pattern in lifetime TFSV was observed, mainly observed among females (p=0.005) and sexual/gender minority (SGM)(p=0.001). Being female (p<0.001) and perceiving low social support (p = 0.030) were associated with higher subjective distress related to traumatic TFSV experiences. Being female (p<0.001), younger (p=0.006) and perceiving low social support (p=0.030) were associated with the highest psychological distress due to TFSV.

Conclusions

Italian TFSV-VS shows good psychometric properties. Our findings observed a gendered trend of TFSV, by suggesting TFSV as a phenomenon influenced by SGM belonging.

From Non-Traditional Sexual Behavior to Non-Legitimate Victims: Moral Virtue, Victim Blame, and Helping Intentions Toward a Woman Victim of Image-Based Sexual Abuse

Image-based sexual abuse represents an increasingly common form of gender-based violence, consisting of the act of non-consensually capturing, distributing, or threatening to distribute sexually explicit material depicting another person. The purpose of the present study was to investigate how women victims' noncompliance with traditional female sexuality influences bystanders' perceptions of the phenomenon. Specifically, we experimentally examined whether a woman's sexual agency (high vs. low) and the length (steady vs. transient) of the relationship with the perpetrator affected her moral evaluation, victim blaming, and participants' willingness to support her. A sample of 597 adults (65.7% women, Mage = 31.29 years) took part in the study. The findings indicated that while a transient (vs. steady) relationship with the perpetrator significantly lowered the woman's perceived moral virtue and increased the extent to which she was blamed for the incident, a high (vs. low) woman's sexual agency decreased participants' helping intentions towards her. Additionally, results showed that men were less likely than women to attribute moral virtue and help the victim. Lastly, through the mediation of moral virtue and victim blaming, the length of the relationship indirectly influenced participants' helping intentions.

Technology-Facilitated Abuse Among College Students: Prevalence and Consequences, and Examinations by Gender and Sexual Identity

The purpose of this investigation is to document the prevalence and consequences of technology-facilitated abuse (TFA) among college students and examine whether gender identity and sexual identity are associated with TFA exposure and related academic and mental health consequences. Data were analyzed from a campus climate survey distributed in Spring 2022. Data from 1,543 college students were collected for TFA experiences, academic consequences, and TFA-related depression, anxiety, and traumatic stress. Multiple linear regression analyses were conducted to test for unique contributions of sexual identity, gender identity, and number of TFA experiences to the outcomes of academic consequences, depression, anxiety, and traumatic stress. The number of TFA experiences was a significant predictor across all models. The contributions of sexual identity and gender identity differed for each outcome. The results of this study align with prior research which has found sexual identity and gender identity to affect outcomes associated with TFA. In addition, TFA was more prevalent among sexual and gender minority students, and the consequences of TFA were more severe within this population. These results suggest that programming takes a dual approach in addressing TFA through reducing TFA exposure and mitigating the impacts of TFA on mental health and other outcomes.

Swipe Left on Sexual Harassment: Understanding and Addressing Technology-Facilitated Sexual Violence on Dating Apps

Dating violence is a pervasive issue that has become increasingly complex to address as technologies mediating interpersonal connections become more widely utilized. The incidence and ways in which violence manifests through digital media are not fully understood. This study aimed to better understand the relationship between geolocational dating apps like Tinder, Bumble, and Grindr and technology-facilitated sexual violence (TFSV) among university students. An anonymous survey was electronically administered to a convenience sample of 1,000 undergraduates at a large private university in the southeastern United States. Participants indicated their dating app usage and the frequency of specific TFSV experiences they had encountered. Chi-square tests were conducted to identify relationships between demographic characteristics and experiences of TFSV. Multivariate logistic regression was conducted to predict TFSV based on respondent characteristics. A total of 910 respondents completed the survey, with more than half (54%) of respondents reporting some type of TFSV while using dating apps. Women and non-heterosexual students experience significantly more TFSV than male and heterosexual students. While participants' academic year (first-year through senior) and participation in extracurricular activities were not associated with TFSV, dating app selection was a significant predictor of the likelihood to report TFSV, with Grindr users being significantly more likely to report. Major Implications Due to the near-ubiquitous use of dating apps in this population, interventions to address campus social norms, comprehensive sexuality education, and consent education, and improved regulation of TFSV by technology companies should be implemented- especially for cisgender, heterosexual women, and gender and sexual minorities.

Sexting in Young Adults: A Normative Sexual Behavior

With the advancement of technology, sexting has become more prominent in high school and university samples. The current study examined the rates and characteristics of sexting among an online sample of 2,828 young adults aged 18-30, primarily from the U.S. and Canada. We found that most participants sext (81%), sext often (most report ≥ 11 sexts), and start young (most by 16-17 years of age). Common reasons for sexting echoed reasons for participating in other normative sexual behaviors, including that it was sexually arousing, they were asked and wanted to reciprocate, or they wanted to flirt. Sexual coercion was a gendered phenomenon, with 1 in 10 cisgender women and 1 in 50 cisgender men reporting having sent a sext due to being threatened. The body parts captured in cisgender men's sexts were more diverse, whereas cisgender women focused on their chest, underwear/genitalia, and stomach. Sexual orientation was also found to be a relevant factor, with different patterns in sexting experiences emerging across identities. The current study adds to the mounting evidence that sexting is a normative sexual behavior. Sexual education programs should provide youth with information on consent and safe sexting practices rather than follow an abstinence approach.

Sexual and Dating Violence Prevention Programs for Male Youth: A Systematic Review of Program Characteristics, Intended Psychosexual Outcomes, and Effectiveness

Sexual and dating violence (SDV) by male youth (≤ 25 years)-including sexual harassment, emotional partner violence, and rape-is a worldwide problem. The goal of this preregistered (PROSPERO, ID: CRD42022281220) systematic review was to map existing SDV prevention programs aimed at male youth, including their characteristics (e.g., content, intensity), intended psychosexual outcomes, and empirically demonstrated effectiveness, guided by the principles of the theory of planned behavior (TPB). We conducted searches in six online databases for published, peer-reviewed quantitative effectiveness studies on multi-session, group focused, and interaction based SDV prevention programs for male youth ending March 2022. After screening of 21,156 hits using PRISMA guidelines, 15 studies on 13 different programs, from four continents were included. Narrative analysis showed, first, broad ranges in program intensity (2-48 h total), and few program curricula included explicit discussion of relevant aspects of the TPB. Second, programs' main intended psychosexual outcomes were to change SDV experiences, or related attitudes, or norms. Third, significant effects were found mostly on longer term behaviors and short-term attitudes. Other theoretical proxies of SDV experiences, such as social norms and perceived behavioral control, were sparsely investigated; thus, program effectiveness on these outcomes remains largely unknown. Assessed with the Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool, moderate to serious risk of bias arose in all studies. We present concrete suggestions for program content, such as explicit attention to victimization and masculinity and discuss best practices for evaluation research, including assessments of program integrity, and examining relevant theoretical proxies of SDV.

Nonconsensual Dissemination of Sexual Images Among Adolescents: Associations With Depression and Self-Esteem

The nonconsensual dissemination of sexual images is a form of image-based sexual abuse that is relatively common among adolescents. However, literature on this issue with adolescent samples is relatively scarce. Therefore, this study is aimed at investigating how this phenomenon varies based on gender and sexual orientation, along with its association with depression and self-esteem. Participants were 728 secondary school students in Sweden (50.4% girls and 46.4% boys; 14.4% lesbian, gay, bisexual [LGB+]) aged from 12 to 19 years (M = 14.35, SD = 1.29). A survey was administered during school hours, including a measure assessing the nonconsensual dissemination of sexual images, the short version of the Moods and Feelings Questionnaire, and the Rosenberg's Self-Esteem Scale. Results showed that LGB+ participants were more likely to indicate that they were victimized compared to their heterosexual peers, while no differences were observed for gender. Being the target of nonconsensual dissemination of sexual images was positively associated with depression, whereas no significant associations were yielded for self-esteem. Based on the findings from this study, we suggest raising adolescent awareness in relation to the nonconsensual dissemination of sexual images as a form of sexual abuse that can have detrimental effects on those who are targeted. Such educational programs should be inclusive of sexual minority adolescents, as they are at a particular risk of being the target of nonconsensual dissemination of sexual images. Psychological support should be provided to the targets of this form of abuse, through both school and online counseling. Future research should adopt longitudinal designs while recruiting diverse samples.

Short-Term and Long-Term Impacts of Financial Sextortion on Victim's Mental Well-Being

Sextortion occurs when an individual threatens to distribute a victim's intimate images, videos, or information unless they comply with the perpetrator's demands. In financially motivated sextortion, these demands include payment of a ransom. Despite global increases in financially motivated sextortion victimization, there is limited research on the psychological impacts of this type of victimization. Leveraging 332 threads (3,276 posts) from a popular sextortion support forum, the purpose of this research was to use inductive qualitative methods to understand how financially motivated sextortion impacts victims' mental well-being, their online engagement, and how they process and deal with these impacts. The results illustrate four main concepts: short-term impacts, long-term impacts, coping strategies, and getting better over time. Short-term impacts included worry, stress, anxiety, self-blame, and somatic symptoms of stress. Long-term impacts included enduring episodes of anxiety. Some sources of coping reported by forum users were to confide in a trusted friend, stay offline, or seek professional mental health care. Despite these impacts, many forum members expressed a sense that their anxiety and distress "get better overtime," a concept that was assisted through active coping strategies.

Image-Based Sexual Abuse Associated Factors: A Systematic Review

Purpose

Image-Based Sexual Abuse (IBSA) is a recently studied form of violence and abuse perpetrated using technology. This systematic review aims to examine and systematize studies exploring factors associated with IBSA (e.g., victimization, perpetration, and propensity to perpetrate).

Method

Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) statement, 17 articles were included.

Results

The results of this study highlighted conceptual and methodological limitations in the literature on IBSA. Aside from these limitations, this systematic review identified factors associated with IBSA, focusing on four macro-areas: victimization, perpetration, propensity to perpetrate IBSA, and IBSA implications. The results demonstrated the role of psychological, relational, and social variables, although the effect sizes observed in the quantitative studies were small or in few cases moderate.

Conclusions

These results suggest further research should be carried out to explore the multidimensionality of IBSA and its associated factors, which may assist in guiding interventions to promote preventive and rehabilitative methods to lower the prevalence of this crime and its consequences.