Metabolic programming: Role of nutrition in the immediate postnatal life

Metabolic imprinting in beef calves supplemented with creep feeding on performance, reproductive efficiency and metabolome profile

This experiment evaluated the influence of creep feeding supplementation on productive and reproductive performance and on serum metabolome profile in Nelore (Bos indicus) heifers. Female calves were assigned to treatments: Creep (n = 190), with ad libitum access to a nutritional supplement from 70 to 220 days after birth, or Control (n = 140), without supplementation. After weaning (Day 220), both groups followed the same pasture and nutritional management. Body weight (BW) and backfat thickness (BFAT) were measured over time. Blood samples were collected at 220 and 360 days for LC-MS/MS targeted metabolomics. On day 408, during the synchronization timed artificial insemination (TAI) protocol, reproductive status (RS: diameter of uterine horn and largest follicle, and presence of CL) was assessed. Creep feeding increased BW and BFAT at weaning, but no differences in BW, BFAT, or RS after weaning were observed. Nonetheless, the pregnancy per AI (P/AI) for 1st service was 28.9% higher in the Creep group. On day 220, 11 significant metabolites influenced five metabolic pathways: Glucose-alanine cycle, alanine, glutathione, phenylalanine and tyrosine metabolism, and urea cycle. On day 360, 14 significant metabolites influenced eight metabolic pathways: Malate-aspartate shuttle, arginine and proline metabolism, urea cycle, aspartate, beta-alanine, glutamate metabolism, ammonia recycling and citric acid cycle. In conclusion, creep feeding supplementation improved calf performance and induced metabolic changes at weaning and 360 days of age. Although heifers had similar productive performance and reproductive status, when submitted to TAI, those supplemented with creep feeding had greater P/AI.

Effects of paternal obesity on maternal-neonatal outcomes and long-term prognosis in adolescents

Objective

This study evaluated whether paternal body mass index (BMI) before pregnancy was a risk factor for maternal-neonatal outcomes and long-term prognosis in offspring.

Methods

This study included 29,518 participants from eight cities in Fujian, China using a stratified cluster random sampling method from May to September 2019. They were divided into four groups based on paternal BMI. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression were used to explore the relationship between paternal BMI groups, maternal-neonatal outcomes, and long-term prognosis in offspring. Further subgroup analysis was conducted to examine the stability of the risk.

Results

The incidences of hypertensive disorder complicating pregnancy (HDCP), cesarean delivery, gestational weight gain (GWG) over guideline, and macrosomia were significantly higher in the paternal overweight and obesity group. Importantly, this study demonstrated that the incidence of asthma, hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD), anemia, dental caries, and obesity of adolescents in paternal obesity increased. Furthermore, logistic regression and subgroup analysis confirm paternal obesity is a risk factor for HDCP, cesarean delivery, and macrosomia. It caused poor long-term prognosis in adolescents, including asthma, dental caries, and HFMD.

Conclusions

Paternal obesity is a risk factor for adverse maternal-neonatal outcomes and poor long-term prognosis in adolescents. In addition to focusing on maternal weight, expectant fathers should pay more attention to weight management since BMI is a modifiable risk factor. Preventing paternal obesity can lead to better maternal and child outcomes. It would provide new opportunities for chronic diseases.

lncRNA‑miRNA‑mRNA network in female offspring born from obese dams

Maternal obesity is associated with disturbance of lipid metabolism and obesity in offspring; however, the pathogenesis is still unclear. The present study elucidated the role of potential lipid metabolism-associated long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) and identified the pathways involved in mice born to obese dams. In the present study, maternal obesity was induced by feeding a high-fat diet for 10 weeks in female C57/BL6 mice, whereas control mice were fed a standard diet. All female mice mated with healthy male mice and were allowed to deliver spontaneously. The results demonstrated that female offspring from obese dams presented a tendency to become overweight in the first 8 weeks after birth; however, maternal obesity did not significantly alter the body weight of male offspring. RNA-sequencing analysis was performed on female offspring liver at 3 weeks old. Significantly dysregulated lncRNAs and downstream targets in female offspring liver were identified using bioinformatics analysis. lncRNA, microRNA (miRNA or miR) and mRNA expression levels in liver and AML12 cells were assessed using reverse transcription-quantitative PCR. A total of 8 upregulated and 17 downregulated lncRNAs were demonstrated in offspring from obese dams and lncRNA Lockd was indicated to be a key dysregulated lncRNA. Competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) models suggested that the lncRNA Lockd/miR-582-5p/Elovl5 pathway was key for lipid metabolism in the liver of offspring from obese dams. Finally, small interfering RNA and miRNA inhibitor transfection was used to evaluate the ceRNA models in AML12 cells. Taken together, the results of the present study indicated that lncRNA Lockd-miR-582-5p-Elovl5 network may be disrupted in lipid metabolism and lead to obesity in the offspring of obese dams. This research will provide new insights into the molecular mechanism of obesity and lipid metabolism disorder.

DNA methylation of pck1 might contribute to the programming effects of early high-carbohydrate diets feeding to the glucose metabolism across two generations in zebrafish (Danio rerio)

The purpose of this study is to assess the effects of early high-carbohydrate stimulus on glucose metabolism in zebrafish (Danio rerio) over two generations and explore the mechanisms that explain those nutritional programming effects via epigenetic modifications. The larvae were delivered a high-carbohydrate diet (53.66%) that was used as an early nutritional stimulus from the first feeding to the end of the yolk sac (FF) and 5 days after yolk-sac exhaustion (YE). The larvae (F0) and their offspring (F1) were then both fed the control diet (22.69%) until adulthood (15 weeks), and they were challenged with a high-carbohydrate diet (35.36%) at the 16th week. The results indicated that early stimulus immediately raised the mRNA levels of genes involved in glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. At the end of F0 challenge, both treatment groups decreased the plasma glucose levels, increased the expression levels of glucokinase (gck), and inhibited the mRNA during gluconeogenesis. When challenged in F1, the glucose levels were lower in FF (F1), and the mRNA levels of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase 1 (pck1) were decreased in FF (F1) and YE (F1). Besides, in both experimental groups (F0 and F1), the CpG island of pck1 maintained lower levels of hypermethylated expression from F0 adult, 24 h post-fertilization embryo, to F1 adult. In conclusion, these results indicated that an early high-carbohydrate stimulus could significantly reprogram glucose metabolism in adult zebrafish, that those modifications could be partially transmitted to the next generation, and that the DNA methylation of pck1 might work as a stable epigenetic marker to contribute to those processes.

The Impact of Phenylketonuria on Body Composition in Adults

INTRODUCTION

Patients with phenylketonuria (PKU) must follow a lifelong phenylalanine (Phe)-restricted diet with additional amino acid supplementations, and this may put them at risk for nutritional disturbances. However, the body composition and nutritional status of adult patients with PKU has only been partially explored. The current study aims to assess the body composition of adult patients with PKU using multifrequency bioimpedance analysis (MF-BIA) and to reveal potential correlations between therapy adherence and body composition. Additionally, we compared body composition of patients with healthy controls.

METHODS

Fifty adult patients with early-treated PKU (27 female and 23 male) and 40 healthy, age- and gender-matched controls were included in this single-center, cross-sectional study. MF-BIA was performed on all subjects. Additionally, we determined serum nutritional markers for all patients. In the PKU patient group, correlation analyses were performed between body composition parameters and therapy adherence. We compared body composition of patients with PKU and controls using BIA.

RESULTS

The proportion of overweight was 56% among all patients with PKU. Female patients with PKU had significantly higher body fat percentage compared with controls. In parallel with higher fat content, we observed lower muscle mass, protein, and mineral content among female patients with PKU compared to controls. Such findings were not observed in male patients. Female patients with PKU had decreased therapy adherence and had significantly lower prealbumin levels compared with males. There was no significant correlation observed between body composition parameters and therapy adherence over the last 10 years in the PKU patient group.

CONCLUSION

Although female patients had less optimal therapy adherence over the last 10 years compared with male patients, our results suggest that this does not influence body composition fundamentally. Our results suggest that obesity is an important comorbidity in young adult patients with PKU, especially in females. We advocate that nutritional assessments and weight management should be additional objectives of PKU management to provide optimal care.

Can breastfeeding affect the rest of our life?

The breastfeeding period is one of the most important critical windows in our development, since milk, our first food after birth, contains several compounds, such as macronutrients, micronutrients, antibodies, growth factors and hormones that benefit human health. Indeed, nutritional, and environmental alterations during lactation, change the composition of breast milk and induce alterations in the child's development, such as obesity, leading to the metabolic dysfunctions, cardiovascular diseases and neurobehavioral disorders. This review is based on experimental animal models, most of them in rodents, and summarizes the impact of an adequate breast milk supply in view of the developmental origins of health and disease (DOHaD) concept, which has been proposed by researchers in the areas of epidemiology and basic science from around the world. Here, experimental advances in understanding the programming during breastfeeding were compiled with the purpose of generating knowledge about the genesis of chronic noncommunicable diseases and to guide the development of public policies to deal with and prevent the problems arising from this phenomenon. This review article is part of the special issue on "Cross talk between periphery and brain".

Perinatal Nutritional and Metabolic Pathways: Early Origins of Chronic Lung Diseases

Lung development is not completed at birth, but expands beyond infancy, rendering the lung highly susceptible to injury. Exposure to various influences during a critical window of organ growth can interfere with the finely-tuned process of development and induce pathological processes with aberrant alveolarization and long-term structural and functional sequelae. This concept of developmental origins of chronic disease has been coined as perinatal programming. Some adverse perinatal factors, including prematurity along with respiratory support, are well-recognized to induce bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), a neonatal chronic lung disease that is characterized by arrest of alveolar and microvascular formation as well as lung matrix remodeling. While the pathogenesis of various experimental models focus on oxygen toxicity, mechanical ventilation and inflammation, the role of nutrition before and after birth remain poorly investigated. There is accumulating clinical and experimental evidence that intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) as a consequence of limited nutritive supply due to placental insufficiency or maternal malnutrition is a major risk factor for BPD and impaired lung function later in life. In contrast, a surplus of nutrition with perinatal maternal obesity, accelerated postnatal weight gain and early childhood obesity is associated with wheezing and adverse clinical course of chronic lung diseases, such as asthma. While the link between perinatal nutrition and lung health has been described, the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. There are initial data showing that inflammatory and nutrient sensing processes are involved in programming of alveolarization, pulmonary angiogenesis, and composition of extracellular matrix. Here, we provide a comprehensive overview of the current knowledge regarding the impact of perinatal metabolism and nutrition on the lung and beyond the cardiopulmonary system as well as possible mechanisms determining the individual susceptibility to CLD early in life. We aim to emphasize the importance of unraveling the mechanisms of perinatal metabolic programming to develop novel preventive and therapeutic avenues.

Early leucine programming on protein utilization and mTOR signaling by DNA methylation in zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Background

Early nutritional programming affects a series of metabolism, growth and development in mammals. Fish also exhibit the developmental plasticity by early nutritional programming. However, little is known about the effect of early amino acid programming on growth and metabolism.

Methods

In the present study, zebrafish (Danio rerio) was used as the experimental animal to study whether early leucine stimulation can programmatically affect the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway, growth and metabolism in the later life, and to undercover the mechanism of epigenetic regulation. Zebrafish larvas at 3 days post hatching (dph) were raised with 1.0% leucine from 3 to 13 dph during the critical developmental stage, then back to normal water for 70 days (83 dph).

Results

The growth performance and crude protein content of zebrafish in the early leucine programming group were increased, and consistent with the activation of the mTOR signaling pathway and the high expression of genes involved in the metabolism of amino acid and glycolipid. Furthermore, we compared the DNA methylation profiles between the control and leucine-stimulated zebrafish, and found that the methylation levels of CG-differentially methylated regions (DMGs) and CHH-DMGs of genes involved in mTOR signaling pathway were different between the two groups. With quantitative PCR analysis, the decreased methylation levels of CG type of Growth factor receptor-bound protein 10 (Grb10), eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E (eIF4E) and mTOR genes of mTOR signaling pathway in the leucine programming group, might contribute to the enhanced gene expression.

Conclusions

The early leucine programming could improve the protein synthesis and growth, which might be attributed to the methylation of genes in mTOR pathway and the expression of genes involved in protein synthesis and glycolipid metabolism in zebrafish. These results could be beneficial for better understanding of the epigenetic regulatory mechanism of early nutritional programming.

Extended colostrum feeding for 2 weeks improves growth performance and reduces the susceptibility to diarrhea and pneumonia in neonatal Holstein dairy calves

The objective of this study was to determine the effect of partial replacement of whole milk with colostrum on the growth performance and health status of Holstein dairy calves. Neonatal heifer calves (n = 144; 2 d of age; 39.3 ± 0.82 kg of body weight, BW; mean ± SE) were assigned randomly to 3 groups with partial replacement of pasteurized whole milk with pasteurized colostrum at 0 (C0; 0 kg/d of colostrum + 5 kg/d of whole milk), 350 g (C350; 0.350 kg/d of colostrum + 4.650 kg/d of whole milk), or 700 g (C700; 0.700 kg/d of colostrum + 4.300 kg/d of whole milk) for 14 d; there were no refusals of liquid feed. From d 15 onward, the calves were fed with 5 kg/d of pasteurized whole milk, weaned on d 61, and monitored until d 81 of life. Throughout the study, the calves had free access to fresh clean water and calf starter. Partial replacement of whole milk with colostrum increased liquid feed dry matter intake (DMI) but decreased milk DMI; however, intakes of starter DMI, total DMI, metabolizable energy, crude protein, and ether extract were not affected by treatments. Overall, the C700 calves recorded greater weaning weight, final BW, heart girth change, feed efficiency, and average daily gain (ADG). The calves fed milk had a higher chance of having rectal temperature ≥39.4°C and general appearance score ≥2 compared with those receiving colostrum in their milk. Diarrhea was more prevalent in C0 versus C700 calves. The occurrence of pneumonia tended to be higher in milk-fed calves compared with C350 and C700 animals. Colostrum feeding resulted in fewer days with a rectal temperature ≥39.4°C, general appearance ≥2, diarrhea, and pneumonia. We computed Cliff's delta (effect sizes) of the extended colostrum feeding (C350 vs. C0, C700 vs. C0, and C700 vs. C350) on starter and milk DMI, ADG, BW, and feed efficiency. In C350 calves, the effect sizes (Cliff's delta) for milk DMI, ADG, BW, and feed efficiency were positive and small, but negative in C700 calves. Compared with C350 treatment, C700 treatment resulted in greater final BW with moderate effect size. Positive and moderate effects of feeding colostrum (C700 vs. C0) were observed on postweaning ADG and final BW. The findings showed that the inclusion of 700 g of colostrum in 5 kg of milk may be beneficial to the growth and health of dairy calves.

Long-term impact of a 4-day feed restriction at the protozoea stage on metabolic gene expressions of whiteleg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei)

Based on the "nutritional programming" concept, we evaluated the long-term effects of an early four-day caloric restriction (40% reduction in feed allowance compared to a normal feeding level) at the protozoea stage in whiteleg shrimp. We analyzed long-term programming of shrimp by studying metabolism at the molecular level, through RT-qPCR of key biomarkers (involved in intermediary metabolism and digestion). The mRNA levels (extracted from the whole body) were analyzed after the stimulus and after the rearing period, at 20 and 35 days, respectively. At the end of the experimental period, shrimp growth performance was evaluated. There was no difference between normal feed allowance (CTL) and feed-restricted shrimp (RES) for performance parameters (survival, final body weight and the number of post-larvae g-1 or PL g-1). The stimulus directly affected the mRNA levels for only two genes, i.e., preamylase and lvglut 2 which were expressed at higher levels in feed-restricted shrimp. In the long-term, higher levels of mRNAs for enzymes coding for glycolysis and ATP synthesis were also detected. This suggests a possible long-term modification of the metabolism that is linked to the stimulus at the protozoea stage. Overall, further studies are needed to improve nutritional programming in shrimp.

The Effects of Early Life Stress, Postnatal Diet Modulation, and Long-Term Western-Style Diet on Later-Life Metabolic and Cognitive Outcomes

Early life stress (ES) increases the risk to develop metabolic and brain disorders in adulthood. Breastfeeding (exclusivity and duration) is associated with improved metabolic and neurocognitive health outcomes, and the physical properties of the dietary lipids may contribute to this. Here, we tested whether early life exposure to dietary lipids mimicking some physical characteristics of breastmilk (i.e., large, phospholipid-coated lipid droplets; Concept Nuturis® infant milk formula (N-IMF)), could protect against ES-induced metabolic and brain abnormalities under standard circumstances, and in response to prolonged Western-style diet (WSD) in adulthood. ES was induced by exposing mice to limited nesting material from postnatal day (P) 2 to P9. From P16 to P42, male offspring were fed a standard IMF (S-IMF) or N-IMF, followed by either standard rodent diet (SD) or WSD until P230. We then assessed body composition development, fat mass, metabolic hormones, hippocampus-dependent cognitive function, and neurogenesis (proliferation and survival). Prolonged WSD resulted in an obesogenic phenotype at P230, which was not modulated by previous ES or N-IMF exposure. Nevertheless, ES and N-IMF modulated the effect of WSD on neurogenesis at P230, without affecting cognitive function, highlighting programming effects of the early life environment on the hippocampal response to later life challenges at a structural level.

Epigenetics: Linking Early Postnatal Nutrition to Obesity Programming?

Despite constant research and public policy efforts, the obesity epidemic continues to be a major public health threat, and new approaches are urgently needed. It has been shown that nutrient imbalance in early life, from conception to infancy, influences later obesity risk, suggesting that obesity could result from “developmental programming”. In this review, we evaluate the possibility that early postnatal nutrition programs obesity risk via epigenetic mechanisms, especially DNA methylation, focusing on four main topics: (1) the dynamics of epigenetic processes in key metabolic organs during the early postnatal period; (2) the epigenetic effects of alterations in early postnatal nutrition in animal models or breastfeeding in humans; (3) current limitations and remaining outstanding questions in the field of epigenetic programming; (4) candidate pathways by which early postnatal nutrition could epigenetically program adult body weight set point. A particular focus will be given to the potential roles of breast milk fatty acids, neonatal metabolic and hormonal milieu, and gut microbiota. Understanding the mechanisms by which early postnatal nutrition can promote lifelong metabolic modifications is essential to design adequate recommendations and interventions to “de-program” the obesity epidemic.

Hypothyroid offspring replacement with euthyroid wet nurses during lactation improves thyroid programming without modifying metabolic programming

OBJECTIVE

Determine the milk quality effect during lactation on the metabolic and thyroid programming of hypothyroid offspring.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Ten-week-old female Wistar rats were divided into two groups: euthyroid and thyroidectomy-caused hypothyroidism. The rats were matted and, one day after birth, the pups were divided into three groups: euthyroid offspring (EO), hypothyroid offspring (HO) and hypothyroid with a euthyroid replacement wet nurse (HRO). During lactation, the milk quality and offspring body length were evaluated. The body weight and energy intake were determined on a weekly basis, as well as the metabolic profile at the prepubertal (P35-36) and postpubertal (P55-56) ages. At P56, the animals were sacrificed, the adipose tissues were weighed and the thyroid glands were dissected for histological processing.

RESULTS

The milk of the hypothyroid wet nurse decreases proteins (16-26%), lipids (22-29%) and lactate (22-37%) with respect to euthyroid. The HO has a lower body weight gain (23-33%), length (11-13%) and energy intake (15-21%). In addition, HO presents impaired fasting glucose and dyslipidemia, as well as a reduction in seric thyroid hormone (18-34%), adipose reserves (26-68%) and thyroid gland weight (25-34%). The HO present thyroid gland cytoarchitecture alteration. The HRO develop the same metabolic alterations as the HO. However, the thyroid gland dysfunction was partially prevented because the HRO improved under about 10% of the serum thyroid hormone concentration, the thyroid gland weight although histological glandular changes presented.

CONCLUSIONS

The replacement of hypothyroid offspring with a euthyroid wet nurse during lactation can improve the thyroid programming without modifying metabolic programming.

A milk formula containing maltodextrin, vs. lactose, as main carbohydrate source, improves cognitive performance of piglets in a spatial task

In recent years, lactose-free and low-lactose infant formulas have been increasingly used. The impact of using different carbohydrates than lactose on later cognition of formula-fed infants remains, however, unknown. We examined the effects of providing formulas containing either digestible maltodextrin or lactose as main carbohydrate source (28% of total nutrient composition) on cognitive performance of piglets. Piglets received the formulas from 1 to 9 weeks of age and, starting at 12 weeks, were individually tested in a spatial holeboard task (n = 8 pens/formula), in which they had to learn and memorize a configuration of baited buckets. After 28 acquisition trials, piglets were subjected to 16 reversal trials in which the location of the baited buckets was changed. Piglets fed the maltodextrin-based formula had higher reference memory (RM) scores than piglets fed the lactose-based formula towards the end of acquisition. During the switch of configuration, piglets offered the maltodextrin-based formula tended to have higher RM scores and make fewer RM errors than piglets offered the lactose-based formula. Working (short-term) memory was not affected by the formulas. Compared to lactose, the use of maltodextrin in milk formulas improved long-term spatial memory of piglets, even weeks after the end of the intervention.

Effects of protein and fat concentration in coproduct-based growing calf diets on adipogenic and lipogenic gene expression, blood metabolites, and carcass composition

Crossbred calves ( = 30; age = 95 ± 1.7 d; BW = 179 ± 18 kg) were fed 1 of 5 growing diets: 1) corn-based control, 2) low-fat, low-protein coproduct blend, 3) high-fat, low-protein coproduct blend, 4) low-fat, high-protein coproduct blend, and 5) high-fat, high-protein coproduct blend for 112 d (growing phase) followed by a common corn-based finishing diet (additional 112 d; finishing phase). Calves were biopsied at 0, 112, and 224 d for transcriptional analysis via real-time quantitative PCR of 14 genes associated with adipogenesis and lipogenesis within the muscle. Serum was collected at d 0, 112, and 224 and analyzed for leptin, IGF-1, and GH concentration. Treatments were arranged in a 2 × 2 factorial. Data were analyzed using the MIXED procedures of SAS (SAS Inst. Inc., Cary, NC) to ascertain the effects of 2 protein levels, 2 fat levels, time, and any interactions. Increased protein and decreased fat in the growing diet resulted in a carryover effect that increased ( 0.01) gene expression of PPARγ, insulin-induced gene 1, thyroid hormone responsive SPOT14 protein, ATP citrate lyase, adiponectin, diacylglycerol O-acyltransferase homologue 2, fatty acid binding protein 4, fatty acid synthase, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase 1, and stearoyl-CoA desaturase as well as serum leptin concentrations between d 112 and 224. Expression of sterol regulatory element binding transcription factor 1 was increased ( 0.01) at d 112 in steers fed high-protein, high-fat diets compared to those fed high-protein, low-fat diets. A fat × day interaction ( 0.01) occurred for the expression of adiponectin receptor 2 and CCAAT/enhancer binding protein alpha, resulting in a carryover effect wherein low-fat diets fed during the growing phase increased expression of both genes at the end of the finishing phase (d 224). After slaughter, cattle fed the control during the growing phase tended ( 0.09) to have greater marbling scores, whereas other carcass parameters were not different ( ≥ 0.13). These data indicate that feeding differing levels of dietary fat and protein during the growing phase does affect i.m. adipogenesis at the transcriptional level, but differences in gene expression were not sufficient to affect carcass quality among cattle fed coproducts.

Maternal cinnamon extract intake during lactation leads to sex-specific endocrine modifications in rat offspring

BACKGROUND

Cinnamon supplementation has been associated with an improvement in glucose disposal and a reduction in fat mass in type 2 diabetes. Maternal nutrition during lactation impacts the health of the offspring throughout life. We hypothesize that cinnamon intake by lactating rats affects maternal physiology, leading to hormonal and metabolic changes in their offspring. To investigate this hypothesis, dams received aqueous cinnamon extract (400 mg cinnamon kg^-1  body mass day^-1 ) or water orally, during lactation.

RESULTS

Maternal cinnamon intake did not affect the body mass gain or food intake of dams or their offspring, although it decreased visceral white adipose tissue mass in dams and in their adult offspring of both sexes. Cinnamon-treated dams exhibited no differences in serum insulin, adiponectin, leptin or estradiol levels, although they presented higher serum progesterone. At weaning, cinnamon male pups exhibited lower insulinemia, whereas cinnamon female pups exhibited lower glycemia. Interestingly, in adulthood, only the female offspring exhibited an altered hormonal profile, with reduced serum leptin, adiponectin and insulin levels accompanied by lower glycemia.

CONCLUSION

The present study demonstrates that maternal cinnamon intake during lactation promotes mild changes in dams and can trigger sex-specific metabolic programming in pups that lasts into adulthood. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Does near-roadway air pollution contribute to childhood obesity?

Exposure to man-made combustion products, including secondhand tobacco smoke, maternal smoking during pregnancy, and near-roadway air pollution (NRAP), have been associated with increased body mass index and obesity in children and have been shown to result in excess weight gain in animal models. Potential mechanisms include pro-inflammatory central nervous system effects of airborne particles on appetite control, resulting in increased caloric intake, or changes in basal metabolism due to effects on mitochondria and brown adipose tissue. Combustion-derived polyaromatic hydrocarbons have also been linked to altered lipid metabolism, epigenetic effects on PPARγ expression, particle-induced estrogenic effects, and alterations in the distribution of visceral fat. Emerging evidence that a broad spectrum of environmental chemicals have “obesogenic” properties and alter the metabolic profile of adipose tissue challenges the prevailing model that the childhood obesity epidemic is explained solely by increased caloric density of food and decreased physical activity. Research on environmental obesogens could identify novel targets for intervention and yield public health benefits, since NRAP and SHS exposure are both common in populations most at-risk for development of obesity.

Effect of genetic strain and gender on age-related changes in body composition of the laboratory rat

Body fat serves as a storage compartment for lipophilic pollutants and affects the pharmacokinetics of many toxic chemicals. Understanding how body fat varies with gender, strain, and age may be essential for development of experimental models to study mechanisms of toxicity. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)-based analysis serves as a noninvasive means of assessing proportions of fat, lean, and fluid in rodents over their lifetime. The aim of this study was to track changes in body composition of male and female Long-Evans (LE), Sprague-Dawley (SD), Fischer (F334), and Brown Norway (BN) rats from postweaning over a >2-yr period. Percent fat of preweaned LE and SD rats was markedly higher compared to the other strains. LE and SD strains displayed marked increases in body fat from weaning to 8 mo of age. Postweaned F344 male and females showed relatively low levels of percent fat; however, at 2 yr of age percent fat of females was equal to that of SD and LE in females. BN rats showed the highest levels of lean tissue and lowest levels of fat. Percent fat of the BN strain rose at the slowest rate as they aged. Percent fluid was consistently higher in males for all strains. Females tended to have higher percent fat than males in LE, SD, and F344 strains. Assessing changes in body fat as well as lean and fluid of various strains of male and female rats over their lifetime may prove useful in many research endeavors, including pharmacokinetics of lipophilic toxicants, mechanisms underlying obesity, and metabolic disorders.

Role of the Small Intestine in Developmental Programming: Impact of Maternal Nutrition on the Dam and Offspring

Small-intestinal growth and function are critical for optimal animal growth and health and play a major role in nutrient digestion and absorption, energy and nutrient expenditure, and immunological competence. During fetal and perinatal development, the small intestine is affected by the maternal environment and nutrient intake. In ruminants, altered small-intestinal mass, villi morphology, hypertrophy, hyperplasia, vascularity, and gene expression have been observed as a result of poor gestational nutrition or intrauterine growth restriction. Although many of these data come from fetal stages, data have also demonstrated that nutrition during mid- and late gestation affects lamb small-intestinal growth, vascularity, digestive enzyme activity, and gene expression at 20 and 180 d of age as well. The small intestine is known to be a highly plastic tissue, changing with nutrient intake and physiological state even in adulthood, and the maternal small intestine adapts to pregnancy and advancing gestation. In ruminants, the growth, vascularity, and gene expression of the maternal small intestine also adapt to the nutritional plane and specific nutrient intake such as high selenium during pregnancy. These changes likely alter both pre- and postnatal nutrient delivery to offspring. More research is necessary to better understand the role of the offspring and maternal small intestines in whole-animal responses to developmental programming, but programming of this plastic tissue seems to play a dynamic role in gestational nutrition impacts on the whole animal.

High or low dietary carbohydrate:protein ratios during first-feeding affect glucose metabolism and intestinal microbiota in juvenile rainbow trout

Based on the concept of nutritional programming in mammals, we tested whether an acute hyperglucidic-hypoproteic stimulus during first feeding could induce long-term changes in nutrient metabolism in rainbow trout. Trout alevins received during the five first days of exogenous feeding either a hyperglucidic (40% gelatinized starch + 20% glucose) and hypoproteic (20%) diet (VLP diet) or a high-protein (60%) glucose-free diet (HP diet, control). Following a common 105-day period on a commercial diet, both groups were then challenged (65 days) with a carbohydrate-rich diet (28%). Short- and long-term effects of the early stimuli were evaluated in terms of metabolic marker gene expressions and intestinal microbiota as initial gut colonisation is essential for regulating the development of the digestive system. In whole alevins (short term), diet VLP relative to HP rapidly increased gene expressions of glycolytic enzymes, while those involved in gluconeogenesis and amino acid catabolism decreased. However, none of these genes showed persistent molecular adaptation in the liver of challenged juveniles (long term). By contrast, muscle of challenged juveniles subjected previously to the VLP stimulus displayed downregulated expression of markers of glycolysis and glucose transport (not seen in the short term). These fish also had higher plasma glucose (9 h postprandial), suggesting impaired glucose homeostasis induced by the early stimulus. The early stimulus did not modify the expression of the analysed metabolism-related microRNAs, but had short- and long-term effects on intestinal fungi (not bacteria) profiles. In summary, our data show that a short hyperglucidic-hypoproteic stimulus during early life may have a long-term influence on muscle glucose metabolism and intestinal microbiota in trout.

Glucose metabolism and gene expression in juvenile zebrafish (Danio rerio) challenged with a high carbohydrate diet: effects of an acute glucose stimulus during late embryonic life

Knowledge on the role of early nutritional stimuli as triggers of metabolic pathways in fish is extremely scarce. The objective of the present study was to assess the long-term effects of glucose injection in the yolk (early stimulus) on carbohydrate metabolism and gene regulation in zebrafish juveniles challenged with a high-carbohydrate low-protein (HC) diet. Eggs were microinjected at 1 d post-fertilisation (dpf) with either glucose (2 M) or saline solutions. Up to 25 dpf, fish were fed a low-carbohydrate high-protein (LC) control diet, which was followed by a challenge with the HC diet. Survival and growth of 35 dpf juveniles were not affected by injection or the HC diet. Glucose stimulus induced some long-term metabolic changes in the juveniles, as shown by the altered expression of genes involved in glucose metabolism. On glycolysis, the expression levels of hexokinase 1 (HK1) and phosphofructokinase-6 (6PFK) were up-regulated in the visceral and muscle tissues, respectively, of juveniles exposed to the glucose stimulus, indicating a possible improvement in glucose oxidation. On gluconeogenesis, the inhibition of the expression levels of PEPCK in fish injected with glucose suggested lower production of hepatic glucose. Unexpectedly, fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase (FBP) expression was induced and 6PFK expression reduced by glucose stimulus, leaving the possibility of a specific regulation of the FBP-6PFK metabolic cycle. Glucose metabolism in juveniles was estimated using a [¹⁴C]glucose tracer; fish previously exposed to the stimulus showed lower retention of [¹⁴C]glucose in visceral tissue (but not in muscle tissue) and, accordingly, higher glucose catabolism, in comparison with the saline group. Globally, our data suggest that glucose stimulus at embryo stage has the potential to alter particular steps of glucose metabolism in zebrafish juveniles.

Glucose overload in yolk has little effect on the long-term modulation of carbohydrate metabolic genes in zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Some fish show a low metabolic ability to use dietary carbohydrates. The use of early nutritional stimuli to program metabolic pathways in fish is ill defined. Therefore, studies were undertaken with zebrafish to assess the effect of high glucose levels during the embryonic stage as a lifelong modulator of genes involved in carbohydrate metabolism. Genes related to carbohydrate metabolism were expressed at low levels at 0.2 and 1 day post-fertilization (dpf). However, from 4 dpf onwards there was a significant increase on expression of all genes, suggesting that all analysed pathways were active. By microinjection, we successfully enriched zebrafish egg yolk with glucose (a 43-fold increase of basal levels). Acute effects of glucose injection on gene expression were assessed in larvae up to 10 dpf, and the programming concept was evaluated in juveniles (41 dpf) challenged with a hyperglucidic diet. At 4 dpf, larvae from glucose-enriched eggs showed a downregulation of several genes related to glycolysis, glycogenolysis, lipogenesis and carbohydrate digestion in comparison with control (saline-injected) embryos. This inhibitory regulation was suppressed after 10 dpf. At the juvenile stage, and upon switching from a low to a high digestible carbohydrate diet, early glucose enrichment had no significant effect on most analysed genes. However, these same fish showed altered expression of the genes for cytosolic phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, sodium-dependent glucose cotransporter 1 and glycogen synthase, suggesting changes to the glucose storage capacity in muscle and glucose production and transport in viscera. Overall, supplementation of egg yolk with high glucose levels had little effect on the long-term modulation of carbohydrate metabolic genes in zebrafish.

Adult-onset obesity induced by early life overnutrition could be reversed by moderate caloric restriction

Overnutrition during the suckling period (small litter, SL) results in the development of adult-onset obesity. Our aim was to investigate whether two levels of caloric restriction (CR) in the early postweaning period can reverse obese phenotype in SL rats. The normal litter (NL) had 12 pups/dam and SL had 3 male pups/dam from the postnatal day 3 until day 21. After weaning, rats consumed lab chow as indicated: 1) NL and SL groups were on ad libitum regimen up to day 140, 2) another SL group was pair-fed (SL/PF) to NL(∼14% reduction), 3) SL/PF/AL group was pair-fed up to day 94 and then switched to ad libitum feeding, 4) SL/CR group received 24% reduction (moderate CR) in food intake compared with SL, and 5) SL/CR/AL group was on 24% CR up to day 94 and then switched to ad libitum feeding. Pair-feeding reduced body weight gains and serum insulin and leptin levels compared with SL rats, but these parameters were restored to SL levels in the SL/PF/AL rats after switching to ad libitum feeding. Interestingly, the moderate CR normalized these parameters in SL/CR and SL/CR/AL rats compared with NL. The expression of neuropeptide Y, proopiomelanocortin, and leptin receptor returned to control levels in hypothalami from SL/CR and SL/CR/AL rats. These results indicate that appropriate manipulation of energy intake during the early postweaning period could lead to longer-lasting effects on the regulation of body weight homeostasis via reversal of the early preweaning programming effects on the hypothalamic appetite regulation mechanism.

Assessing early growth and adiposity: report from an EarlyNutrition Academy workshop

This report provides a summary of a workshop organised by the European Commission-funded EarlyNutrition Project and the EarlyNutrition Academy. Accurate and reliable methods to assess body composition are needed in research on prenatal and early post-natal influences of nutrition on later health because common surrogate measures of maternal and offspring adiposity (body fat content), such as body mass index (BMI), have relatively poor predictive power for the risk of later disease. The key goals of the workshop were to discuss approaches to assess growth and body composition from pregnancy to adolescence, to summarise conclusions and to prepare a framework for research in the EarlyNutrition Project. The participants concluded that there is a pressing need to harmonise the methodologies for assessing body composition, recognising that each has advantages and limitations. Essential core measurements across studies assessing early growth and body composition were identified, including weight, length, BMI, waist and mid-upper arm circumference, subscapular and triceps skinfold thicknesses, and bioelectrical impedance analysis. In research settings with access to more sophisticated technologies, additional methods could include dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, peripheral quantitative computed tomography, ultrasound assessment of regional body fat, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), air displacement plethysmography (ADP), and deuterium dilution. These provide richer data to answer research questions in greater depth but also increase costs. Where overall whole-body composition is the primary outcome measure, ADP or tracer dilution should be used whenever possible. Where regional distribution of body fat is of greater interest, an imaging technique such as MRI is preferred.

Early leptin blockade predisposes fat-fed rats to overweight and modifies hypothalamic microRNAs

Perinatal leptin impairment has long-term consequences on energy homeostasis leading to body weight gain. The underlying mechanisms are still not clearly established. We aimed to analyze the long-term effects of early leptin blockade. In this study, newborn rats received daily injection of a pegylated rat leptin antagonist (pRLA) or saline from day 2 (d2) to d13 and then body weight gain, insulin/leptin sensitivity, and expression profile of microRNAs (miRNAs) at the hypothalamic level were determined at d28, d90, or d153 (following 1 month of high-fat diet (HFD) challenge). We show that pRLA treatment predisposes rats to overweight and promotes leptin/insulin resistance in both hypothalamus and liver at adulthood. pRLA treatment also modifies the hypothalamic miRNA expression profile at d28 leading to the upregulation of 34 miRNAs and the downregulation of four miRNAs. For quantitative RT-PCR confirmation, we show the upregulation of rno-miR-10a at d28 and rno-miR-200a, rno-miR-409-5p, and rno-miR-125a-3p following HFD challenge. Finally, pRLA treatment modifies the expression of genes involved in energy homeostasis control such as UCPs and AdipoRs. In pRLA rat muscle, Ucp2/3 and Adipor1/r2 are upregulated at d90. In liver, pRLA treatment upregulates Adipor1/r2 following HFD challenge. These genes are known to be involved in insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. In conclusion, we demonstrate that the impairment of leptin action in early life promotes insulin/leptin resistance and modifies the hypothalamic miRNA expression pattern in adulthood, and finally, this study highlights the potential link between hypothalamic miRNA expression pattern and insulin/leptin responsiveness.

The effect of artificial rearing on gut microbiota in a mouse pup-in-a-cup model

In this paper, the mouse pup-in-a-cup model was improved for younger mouse pups, and the effect of artificial rearing on gut microbiota development was evaluated. Intragastric cannulas were placed through the esophagus into 3-day-old C57BL/6J mice (n=48), and the mice were artificially reared (AR) with mouse milk substitute (MMS). Littermate pups (n=20) were maternally reared (MR) as controls. The feces of 3-day-old pups were analyzed by combining the PCR-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) fingerprinting technique and sequencing of 16s rRNA gene fragments. After 11 days of artificial rearing, 37 of 48 pups were still alive. There were no significant changes in the number of DGGE bands or the Shannon index between the two groups. However, several bands in the AR group were obviously different from those in the MR group in the DGGE profile. These results demonstrate that it is possible to implant intragastric cannulas into 3-day-old C57BL/6J mice pups. However, the variation in the gut microbiota composition is non-negligible, even though the AR pups grow well.

Preweaning over- and underfeeding alters onset of puberty in the rat without affecting kisspeptin

The perinatal nutritional environment can permanently influence body weight, potentially leading to changes in puberty onset and reproductive function. We hypothesized that perinatal under- or overfeeding would alter puberty onset and influence concentrations of a neuropeptide crucial for successful puberty, kisspeptin. We manipulated Wistar rat litter sizes to derive small (SL), control (CL), and large (LL) litters containing 4, 12, and 20 rat pups respectively. This manipulation results in an overweight phenotype in SL rats and a lean phenotype in LL that persists throughout life. To investigate whether successful puberty onset is affected by neonatal under- or overfeeding, we examined indices of growth and development, including the onset of puberty, as well as the central expression of Kiss1 mRNA in these pups. Male LL rats reached puberty later than those from CL. These males also had reduced plasma testosterone and elevated 17beta-estradiol concentrations at puberty. The age at puberty onset was not affected in SL males despite accelerated growth. In females, puberty onset was not significantly delayed by having a lean phenotype, and steroid hormones were not affected. The age at onset was, however, younger in the SL females. Kiss1 mRNA in the hypothalamus was not affected by neonatal nutrition either at puberty or 7 days later. Our findings show early life underfeeding in males and overfeeding in females significantly affects puberty onset, altering steroid hormone concentrations in males, but this is not related to changes in hypothalamic kisspeptin.

Postnatal overfeeding leads to obesity and exacerbated febrile responses to lipopolysaccharide throughout life

The perinatal environment can be crucial for programming long-term physiology, including the mechanisms regulating body weight, and postnatal overfeeding can lead to obesity throughout life. Inflammation-related complications are of particular concern in the obese. However, little is known about how postnatal overfeeding contributes to changes in the ability to respond to inflammation. In the present study, we investigate changes in the febrile and neurochemical response to immune challenge with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), in juvenile and adult, male and female Wistar rats made obese by overfeeding during the postnatal period. We demonstrate that febrile responses to LPS are exacerbated in these rats, with peak core temperatures being up to 0.5 °C higher compared to those in controls, and this is associated with an enhanced pro-inflammatory cytokine profile and enhanced hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activation. Plasma pro-inflammatory cytokines concentrations were approximately three-fold greater in neonatally overfed rats after LPS and there were approximately twice as many neurones activated in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus as in controls, with a prolonged corticosterone response. We also observed elevated expression of toll-like receptors (TLR) 2 and 4 in adipose tissue and greater inhibitory factor κB phosphorylation in these obese animals. Despite similar changes in expression of adipose TLR3, there was no corresponding alteration in the response to a viral mimetic that acts at this receptor. We suggest that an elevated febrile response to LPS therefore occurs in cases of obesity and this is associated with altered HPA axis function and enhanced TLR2/4 expression in adipose tissue and an up-regulated downstream pro-inflammatory cascade.

Effect of breastfeeding compared with formula feeding on infant body composition: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Early-life nutrition may influence later body composition. The effect of breastfeeding and formula feeding on infant body composition is uncertain.

OBJECTIVE

We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies that examined body composition in healthy, term infants in relation to breastfeeding or formula feeding.

DESIGN

PubMed was searched for human studies that reported the outcomes fat-free mass, fat mass, or the percentage of fat mass in breastfed and formula-fed infants. Bibliographies were hand searched, and authors were contacted for additional data. The quality of studies was assessed. Differences in outcomes between feeding groups were compared at prespecified ages by using fixed-effects analyses except when heterogeneity indicated the use of random-effects analyses.

RESULTS

We identified 15 studies for inclusion in the systematic review and 11 studies for inclusion in the meta-analysis. In formula-fed infants, fat-free mass was higher at 3-4 mo [mean difference (95% CI): 0.13 kg (0.03, 0.23 kg)], 8-9 mo [0.29 kg (0.09, 0.49 kg)], and 12 mo [0.30 kg (0.13, 0.48 kg)], and fat mass was lower at 3-4 mo [-0.09 kg (-0.18, -0.01 kg)] and 6 mo [-0.18 kg (-0.34, -0.01 kg)] than in breastfed infants. Conversely, at 12 mo, fat mass was higher in formula-fed infants [0.29 kg (-0.03, 0.61 kg)] than in breastfed infants.

CONCLUSION

Compared with breastfeeding, formula feeding is associated with altered body composition in infancy.

Turner syndrome and metabolic derangements: another example of fetal programming

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Turner syndrome (TS) patients have an increased risk of weight gain and metabolic syndrome. To date, it is unknown what factors are involved in this metabolic process, even though it is recognized that TS patients are frequently born small-for-gestational age. The aim of this study was to evaluate the correlation between lipid and glucose profiles with being overweight and birth weight and length in TS patients.

STUDY DESIGN

This was a cross-sectional study.

SUBJECTS AND OUTCOME MEASURES

Serum glucose, insulin (HOMA-IR), total cholesterol, and triglycerides were measured in 64 patients with TS. Data regarding birth weight and length and current body mass index (BMI) were also evaluated.

RESULTS

Total cholesterol showed a significant negative correlation with birth weight and a positive correlation with BMI; triglycerides showed significant negative correlation with birth weight and length and a positive correlation with BMI; and HOMA-IR showed a significant negative correlation with birth weight and length. Low birth weight and a high BMI were predictive for 28% of total cholesterol and triglycerides; and low birth weight for 22% of HOMA-IR.

CONCLUSIONS

Lipid profile was correlated with a high current BMI and low birth weight and length in TS patients and glucose profile only with low birth weight. Thus far, growth retardation may play a role in metabolic derangements in this group of patients, being considered another example of fetal programming.

High beverage sugar as well as high animal protein intake at infancy may increase overweight risk at 8 years: a prospective longitudinal pilot study

Background

Combined effects of early exposure to beverage sugar and animal protein and later life overweight risk have not been studied.

Methods

A prospective longitudinal study was initiated in 2001 with 226 infants between 4 and 13 months of age. Dietary intake was assessed with a 2 day food record. Also information on infant body weight and socio-economic status was obtained at baseline. At 8 year follow-up in 2009, children were surveyed again. Main outcome measure was overweight at 8 years as defined by BMIsds > = +1.0. Also maternal BMI, present dietary intake and physical activity, were obtained by questionnaire and 2-day food record.

Results

At the 8 year follow up, 120 children (53%) were surveyed again. Of those, questionnaires and food records were completed for 63 children, for the other 57 children only weight and height at 8 years was available; 20 out of 120 children (17%) were self-reported overweight at 8 years of age. Unadjusted odds ratios (ORs; 95% CI) for overweight at 8 years were 1.10 (1.02, 1.18) for beverage sugar intake per one percent of energy intake and 4.06 (1.50, 11.00) for the highest tertile of animal protein intake at infancy compared to the lowest two tertiles. After adjustment for sex, age, infant weight, breastfed at intake assessment, and socio-economic status, odds ratios were 1.13 (1.03, 1.24) for beverage sugar, and 9.67 (2.56, 36.53) for highest tertile of animal protein intake. In the subgroup with completed questionnaire (n = 63) ORs were also adjusted for current maternal overweight, more than 2 months full breastfeeding, physical activity, and energy intake, but ORs remained significantly associated with overweight at 8 years.

Conclusions

A high intake of sugar containing beverages as well as animal protein in the first year of life may increase the risk of overweight at 8 years. The results of this pilot investigation should be confirmed in a larger cohort.

Metabolic programming in the immediate postnatal life

The metabolic programming effects of nutritional modifications in the immediate postnatal life are increasingly recognized to independently contribute to the development of metabolic syndrome in later life. Adjustment of litter size in rodents has been used to induce either under- or overnourishment in the immediate postnatal life of the offspring. While undernourishment led to growth retardation in the offspring, overnourishment produced increased body weight gains, hyperinsulinemia and hyperleptinemia. Overnourishment during the suckling period induced several adaptations in the energy circuitry in the hypothalamus of the offspring predisposing them for the onset of obesity later in life. Another approach for a nutritional modification in the immediate postnatal period is the artificial rearing of newborn rat pups on a high-carbohydrate (HC) milk formula without changes in the total calorie availability. Hyperinsulinemia, immediately evident in the HC pups, persisted in the post-weaning period even after withdrawal of the HC milk. Significant alterations in pancreatic islets supported chronic hyperinsulinemia in the HC rats. Alterations in the gene expression of hypothalamic neuropeptides predisposing to hyperphagia were evident during the period of the HC dietary modification. The persistence of these hypothalamic adaptations supported the obese phenotype in adult HC rats. A transgenerational effect gave rise to the development of chronic hyperinsulinemia and adult-onset obesity in the offspring of the HC female rats. Other studies have shown that lactation by a diabetic, obese or malnourished mother resulted in predisposition for the onset of metabolic disorders in the offspring. These observations from animal studies on the metabolic programming effects due to altered nutritional experiences in the immediate postnatal life strongly suggest that altered feeding practices for infants (formula feeding and early introduction of infant foods) could contribute to the rising incidence of overweight/obesity in children and adults.

Developmental overfeeding alters hypothalamic neuropeptide mRNA levels and response to a high-fat diet in adult mice

It has been suggested that nutritional manipulations during the first weeks of life can alter the development of the hypothalamic circuits involved in energy homeostasis. We studied the expression of a large number of the hypothalamic neuropeptide mRNAs that control body weight in mice that were overfed during breastfeeding (mice grown in a small litter, SL) and/or during adolescence (adolescent mice fed a high-fat diet, AHF). We also investigated possible alterations in mRNA levels after 50 days of a high-fat diet (high-fat challenge, CHF) at 19 weeks of age. Both SL and AHF conditions caused overweight during the period of developmental overfeeding. During adulthood, all of the mouse groups fed a CHF significantly gained weight in comparison with mice fed a low-fat diet, but the mice that had undergone both breast and adolescent overfeeding (SL-AHF-CHF mice) gained significantly more weight than the control CHF mice. Of the ten neuropeptide mRNAs studied, only neuropeptide Y (NPY) expression was decreased in all of the groups of developmentally overfed adult mice, but CHF during adulthood by itself induced a decrease in NPY, agouti-related protein (AgRP) and orexin (Orx) mRNA levels. Moreover, in the developmentally overfed CHF mice NPY, AgRP, galanin (GAL) and galanin-like peptide (GalP) mRNA levels significantly decreased in comparison with the control CHF mice. These results show that, during adulthood, hypothalamic neuropeptide systems are altered (NPY) and/or abnormally respond to a high-fat diet (NPY, AgRP, GAL and GalP) in mice overfed during critical developmental periods.

Maternal stress affects postnatal growth and the pituitary expression of prolactin in mouse offspring

Maternal stress exerts long-lasting psychiatric and somatic on offspring, which persist into adulthood. However, the effect of maternal stress on the postnatal growth of pups has not been widely reported. In this study, we found that maternal immobilization stress (IS) during lactation resulted in low body weight of male mouse offspring, which persisted after weaning. Despite free access to chow, IS induced maternal malnutrition and decreased the serum insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) levels in the mothers and in the pups. mRNA expression analysis of anterior pituitary hormones in the pups revealed that growth hormone (GH) and prolactin (PRL), but no other hormones, were decreased by IS. Expression of the pituitary transcription factor PIT1 and isoforms of PITX2, which are essential for the development and function of GH-producing somatotropes and PRL-producing lactotropes, was decreased, whereas that of PROP1, which is critical for the earlier stages of pituitary development, was unchanged. Immunohistochemistry also showed a decrease in pituitary PRL protein expression. These results suggest that stress in a postpartum mother has persistent effects on the body weight of the offspring. Reduced PRL expression in the offspring's pituitary gland may play a role in these effects.

Nutrition in phenylketonuria

The same basic principles are used to deliver dietary treatment in PKU that was developed sixty years ago. Dietary treatment is undoubtedly very successful, but it has gradually evolved and been guided commonly by individual experience and expert opinion only. There is little international consensus about dietary practice with improvements in specialist dietary products concentrating on taste and presentation rather than nutritional composition. Many areas of dietary treatment have not been rigorously examined. In particular, the amino acid and micronutrient profile of Phenylalanine-free (phe-free) amino acids requires further study. In different formulations of phe-free amino acids, there are variations in the amino acid patterns as well the amount of essential and non essential amino acids per 100g/amino acids. The amount of added tyrosine and branch chain amino varies substantially, and in PKU specifically, there is little data about their relative absorption rates and bioavailability. In phe-free amino acids, there is evidence suggesting that some of the added micronutrients may be excessive and so the source and amount of each micronutrient should be scrutinized, with a need for the development of international nutritional composition standards exclusively for these products. There is a dearth of data about the life-long phenylalanine tolerance of patients or the nutritional state of adult patients treated with diet. There is a growing need to measure body composition routinely in children with PKU and with the rise in childhood obesity, it is important to measure body fatness and identify those who are at greatest risk of 'co-morbidities' of obesity. There is necessity for international collaboration to ensure robust data is collected on many basic aspects of nutritional care to guarantee that diet therapy is delivered to the highest standard.

Timing and Duration of Drug Exposure Affects Outcomes of a Drug-Nutrient Interaction During Ontogeny

Significant drug-nutrient interactions are possible when drugs and nutrients share the same absorption and disposition mechanisms. During postnatal development, the outcomes of drug-nutrient interactions may change with postnatal age since these processes undergo ontogenesis through the postnatal period. Our study investigated the dependence of a significant drug-nutrient interaction (cefepime-carnitine) on the timing and duration of drug exposure relative to postnatal age. Rat pups were administered cefepime (5 mg/kg) twice daily subcutaneously according to different dosing schedules (postnatal day 1-4, 1-8, 8-11, 8-20, or 1-20). Cefepime significantly reduced serum and heart L-carnitine levels in postnatal day 1-4, 1-8 and 8-11 groups and caused severe degenerative changes in ventricular myocardium in these groups. Cefepime also altered the ontogeny of several key L-carnitine homeostasis pathways. The qualitative and quantitative changes in levels of hepatic γ-butyrobetaine hydroxylase mRNA and activity, hepatic trimethyllysine hydroxlase mRNA, intestinal organic cation/carnitine transporter (Octn) mRNA, and renal Octn2 mRNA depended on when during postnatal development the cefepime exposure occurred and duration of exposure. Despite lower levels of heart L-carnitine in earlier postnatal groups, levels of carnitine palmitoyltransferase mRNA and activity, heart Octn2 mRNA and ATP levels in all treatment groups remained unchanged with cefepime exposure. However, changes in other high energy phosphate substrates were noted and reductions in the phosphocreatine/ATP ratio were found in rat pups with normal serum L-carnitine levels. In summary, our data suggest a significant drug-nutrient transport interaction in developing neonates, the nature of which depends on the timing and duration of exposure relative to postnatal age.

Metabolic programming due to alterations in nutrition in the immediate postnatal period

Altered nutritional experiences such as undernutrition, overnutrition, and modified milk formula in the immediate postnatal life via the phenomenon of metabolic programming have been identified as one of the components in the etiology of metabolic syndrome. We have developed a rat model in which an altered dietary experience in the form of a high-carbohydrate (HC) milk formula in the immediate postnatal life of rat pups results in chronic hyperinsulinemia and adult-onset obesity in these rats. The HC dietary modification causes functional alterations in pancreatic islets and the hypothalamus during the period of the dietary modification. These early adaptations in islets (supporting hyperinsulinemia) and the hypothalamus (supporting hyperphagia and increased body weight gain) persist in the postweaning period despite withdrawal of the HC milk formula at the time of weaning. In female rat pups receiving the HC milk formula, metabolic programming effects translate into an adverse (hyperinsulinemic, hyperleptinemic, and obese) intrauterine environment during pregnancy, causing spontaneous transfer of the maternal phenotype to the progeny (generational effect). Our results suggest that alterations in feeding practices for babies (early introduction of cereals, fruits, etc.) and babies born to obese/hyperinsulinemic mothers may be contributing factors for the obesity epidemic prevalent in developed and developing countries.

The obesity epidemic

Obesity has reached epidemic proportions in the United States, with 35.1% of adults being classified as obese. Obesity affects every segment of the US population and continues to increase steadily, especially in children. Obesity increases the risk for many other chronic diseases, including diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease, and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, and decreases overall quality of life. The current US generation may have a shorter life expectancy than their parents if the obesity epidemic is not controlled, and there is no indication that the prevalence of obesity is decreasing. Because of the complexity of obesity, it is likely to be one of the most difficult public health issues our society has faced.

Critical determinants of hypothalamic appetitive neuropeptide development and expression: species considerations

Over the last decade there has been a striking increase in the early onset of metabolic disease, including obesity and diabetes. The regulation of energy homeostasis is complex and involves the intricate integration of peripheral and central systems, including the hypothalamus. This review provides an overview of the development of brain circuitry involved in the regulation of energy homeostasis as well as recent findings related to the impact of both prenatal and postnatal maternal environment on the development of these circuits. There is surprising evidence that both overnutrition and undernutrition impact the development of these circuits in a similar manner as well as having similar consequences of increased obesity and diabetes later in life. There is also a special focus on relevant species differences in the development of hypothalamic circuits. A deeper understanding of the mechanisms involved in the development of brain circuitry is needed to fully understand how the nutritional and/or maternal environments impact the functional circuitry as well as the behavior and physiological outcomes.

Early life influences on obesity risk: maternal overnutrition and programming of obesity

While adult lifestyle factors undoubtedly contribute to the incidence of obesity and its attendant disorders, mounting evidence suggests that programming of obesity may occur following over-nutrition during development. As hypothalamic control of appetite and energy expenditure is set early in life and can be perturbed by certain exposures, such as undernutrition and altered metabolic and hormonal signals, in utero exposure to maternal obesity-related changes may contribute to programming of obesity in offspring. Data from animal studies indicate both intrauterine and postnatal environments are critical determinants of the development of pathways regulating energy homeostasis. This review summarizes recent evidence of the impact of maternal obesity on subsequent obesity risk, paying particular attention to the hypothalamic regulation of appetite and markers of metabolic control. The extraordinary rise in the rates of maternal obesity underlines an urgent need to investigate the mechanisms contributing to its transgenerational effects.