Nanomedicine as an emerging platform for metastatic lung cancer therapy

Overcoming drug resistance with specific nano scales to targeted therapy: Focused on metastatic cancers

Metastatic cancer, which accounts for the majority of cancer fatalities, is a difficult illness to treat. Currently used cancer treatments include radiation therapy, chemotherapy, surgery, and targeted treatment (immune, gene, and hormonal). The disadvantages of these treatments include a high risk of tumor recurrence and surgical complications that may result in permanent deformities. On the other hand, most chemotherapy drugs are small molecules, which usually have unfavorable side effects, low absorption, poor selectivity, and multi-drug resistance. Anticancer drugs can be delivered precisely to the cancer spot by encapsulating them to reduce side effects. Stimuli-responsive nanocarriers can be used for drug release at cancer sites and provide target-specific delivery. As previously stated, metastasis is the primary cause of cancer-related mortality. We have evaluated the usage of nano-medications in the treatment of some metastatic tumors.

Adjuvant Novel Nanocarrier-Based Targeted Therapy for Lung Cancer

Lung cancer has the lowest survival rate due to its late-stage diagnosis, poor prognosis, and intra-tumoral heterogeneity. These factors decrease the effectiveness of treatment. They release chemokines and cytokines from the tumor microenvironment (TME). To improve the effectiveness of treatment, researchers emphasize personalized adjuvant therapies along with conventional ones. Targeted chemotherapeutic drug delivery systems and specific pathway-blocking agents using nanocarriers are a few of them. This study explored the nanocarrier roles and strategies to improve the treatment profile's effectiveness by striving for TME. A biofunctionalized nanocarrier stimulates biosystem interaction, cellular uptake, immune system escape, and vascular changes for penetration into the TME. Inorganic metal compounds scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS) through their photothermal effect. Stroma, hypoxia, pH, and immunity-modulating agents conjugated or modified nanocarriers co-administered with pathway-blocking or condition-modulating agents can regulate extracellular matrix (ECM), Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAF),Tyro3, Axl, and Mertk receptors (TAM) regulation, regulatory T-cell (Treg) inhibition, and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC) inhibition. Again, biomimetic conjugation or the surface modification of nanocarriers using ligands can enhance active targeting efficacy by bypassing the TME. A carrier system with biofunctionalized inorganic metal compounds and organic compound complex-loaded drugs is convenient for NSCLC-targeted therapy.

Nanoplatform-Mediated Autophagy Regulation and Combined Anti-Tumor Therapy for Resistant Tumors

The overall cancer incidence and death toll have been increasing worldwide. However, the conventional therapies have some obvious limitations, such as non-specific targeting, systemic toxic effects, especially the multidrug resistance (MDR) of tumors, in which, autophagy plays a vital role. Therefore, there is an urgent need for new treatments to reduce adverse reactions, improve the treatment efficacy and expand their therapeutic indications more effectively and accurately. Combination therapy based on autophagy regulators is a very feasible and important method to overcome tumor resistance and sensitize anti-tumor drugs. However, the less improved efficacy, more systemic toxicity and other problems limit its clinical application. Nanotechnology provides a good way to overcome this limitation. Co-delivery of autophagy regulators combined with anti-tumor drugs through nanoplatforms provides a good therapeutic strategy for the treatment of tumors, especially drug-resistant tumors. Notably, the nanomaterials with autophagy regulatory properties have broad therapeutic prospects as carrier platforms, especially in adjuvant therapy. However, further research is still necessary to overcome the difficulties such as the safety, biocompatibility, and side effects of nanomedicine. In addition, clinical research is also indispensable to confirm its application in tumor treatment.

Lactone Stabilized by Crosslinked Cyclodextrin Metal-Organic Frameworks to Improve Local Bioavailability of Topotecan in Lung Cancer

The protection of unstable anticancer molecules and their delivery to lesions are challenging issues in cancer treatment. Topotecan (TPT), a classic cytotoxic drug, is widely used for treating refractory lung cancer. However, the therapeutic effects of TPT are jeopardized by its active lactone form that is intrinsically hydrolyzed in physiological fluids, resulting in low bioavailability. Herein, the TPT-loaded crosslinked cyclodextrin metal-organic framework (TPT@CL-MOF) was engineered to improve the local bioavailability of TPT for the treatment of lung cancer. CL-MOF exhibited the efficient loading (12.3 wt%) of TPT with sustained release characteristics. In particular the formulation offered excellent protection in vitro against hydrolysis and increased the half-life of TPT from approximately 0.93 h to 22.05 h, which can be attributed to the host-guest interaction between cyclodextrin and TPT, as confirmed by molecular docking. The TPT@CL-MOF could effectively kill the cancer cells and inhibit the migration and invasion of B16F10 cells in vitro. Moreover, TPT@CL-MOF was efficiently distributed in the lungs after intravenous administration. In an in vivo study using a B16F10 pulmonary metastatic tumor model, TPT@CL-MOF significantly reduced the number and size of metastatic lung nodules at a reduced low dose by five times, and no noticeable side effects were observed. Therefore, this study provides a possible alternative therapy for the treatment of lung cancer with the camptothecin family drugs or other unstable therapeutically significant molecules.

A scientometrics study of the nanomedicines assisted in respiratory diseases

Nanomedicine has been extensively studied for its versatility and broad-spectrum applications of theranostics in the research of respiratory disease. However, to the best of our knowledge, a scientometrics study based on the scientific knowledge assay of the overall situation on nanomedicine applied in the research of respiratory disease has not been reported so far, which would be of major importance to relevant researchers. To explore and exhibit the research status and developing trend of nanomedicines deployed in basic or clinical research in respiratory disease, the research ecosystem and exciting subareas were profiled based on the massive data mining and visualization from the relevant works reported from 2006 to 2021. Data were collected from the Web of Science database. Data statistics software and bibliometric analysis software were employed to visualize the research trend and the relationship between respiratory diseases and nanomedicines in each representative direction. The cluster analysis and burst detections indicated that the improvement of drug delivery and vaccine developments are the up-to-date key directions in nanomedicines for respiratory disease research and treatments. Furthermore, we emphatically studied four branch areas in this field including COVID-19, nanotube, respiratory syncytial virus, and mRNA vaccine those are selected for in-depth mining and bibliometric coupling analysis. Research trends signify the future focuses will center on preventing respiratory diseases with mRNA vaccines using nanoparticle-based approaches. We anticipate our study will enable researchers to have the panorama and deep insights in this area, thus inspiriting further exploitations especially the nanobiomaterial-based systems for theranostic applications in respiratory disease treatment.

A spotlight on alkaloid nanoformulations for the treatment of lung cancer

Numerous naturally available phytochemicals have potential anti-cancer activities due to their vast structural diversity. Alkaloids have been extensively used in cancer treatment, especially lung cancers, among the plant-based compounds. However, their utilization is limited by their poor solubility, low bioavailability, and inadequacies such as lack of specificity to cancer cells and indiscriminate distribution in the tissues. Incorporating the alkaloids into nanoformulations can overcome the said limitations paving the way for effective delivery of the alkaloids to the site of action in sufficient concentrations, which is crucial in tumor targeting. Our review attempts to assess whether alkaloid nanoformulation can be an effective tool in lung cancer therapy. The mechanism of action of each alkaloid having potential is explored in great detail in the review. In general, Alkaloids suppress oncogenesis by modulating several signaling pathways involved in multiplication, cell cycle, and metastasis, making them significant component of many clinical anti-cancerous agents. The review also explores the future prospects of alkaloid nanoformulation in lung cancer. So, in conclusion, alkaloid based nanoformulation will emerge as a potential gamechanger in treating lung cancer in the near future.

Efficacy and Safety of Nanoadministration in the Treatment of Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer Is Good to Some Extent: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Purpose. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the efficacy and safety of a nanodrug delivery regimen compared with conventional drug administration for the treatment of lung cancer. Materials and Methods. Studies were retrieved through PubMed, Web of Science, and ScienceDirect. Primary and secondary outcome measures, including overall response rate (ORR), progression-free survival (PFS), overall survival (OS), and adverse events, were extracted from the retrieved literature and systematically evaluated. Results. Six trials, including 4806 advanced non-small-cell lung cancer patients, were included in this study. Compared with conventional drug administration in the treatment of lung cancer, the nanodrug delivery regimen improved the ORR (risk ratio = 1.43, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.25–1.63, $p\le 0.001$ ), prolonged PFS (hazard ratio (HR) = 0.83, 95% CI = 0.76–0.92, $p\le 0.001$ ), and obtained superior OS (HR = 0.91, 95% CI = 0.83–0.99, $p\le 0.001$ ). Regarding safety, the incidence of neutropenia, alopecia, sensory neuropathy, myalgia, and arthralgia was lower in the nanoadministration group, but the risk of thrombocytopenia, anaemia, and nausea was increased. Conclusion. Nanodrug administration is safe and effective in patients with non-small-cell lung cancer to some extent.

Application of Nanoparticles in the Treatment of Lung Cancer With Emphasis on Receptors

Lung cancer is one of the malignant tumors that has seen the most rapid growth in terms of morbidity and mortality in recent years, posing the biggest threat to people’s health and lives. In recent years, the nano-drug loading system has made significant progress in the detection, diagnosis, and treatment of lung cancer. Nanomaterials are used to specifically target tumor tissue to minimize therapeutic adverse effects and increase bioavailability. It is achieved primarily through two mechanisms: passive targeting, which entails the use of enhanced penetration and retention (EPR) effect, and active targeting, which entails the loading recognition ligands for tumor marker molecules onto nanomaterials. However, it has been demonstrated that the EPR effect is effective in rodents but not in humans. Taking this into consideration, researchers paid significant attention to the active targeting nano-drug loading system. Additionally, it has been demonstrated to have a higher affinity and specificity for tumor cells. In this review, it describes the development of research into active targeted nano-drug delivery systems for lung cancer treatment from the receptors’ or targets’ perspective. We anticipate that this study will help biomedical researchers use nanoparticles (NPs) to treat lung cancer by providing more and novel drug delivery strategies or solid ligands.

Multifunctional Lipid-Based Nanoparticles for Codelivery of Anticancer Drugs and siRNA for Treatment of Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer with Different Level of Resistance and EGFR Mutations

Resistance to chemotherapy, enhanced proliferation, invasion, angiogenesis, and metastasis (RPIAM) represent major obstacles that limit the efficacy of cancer treatment especially in advanced stages of cancer. Overcoming or suppressing RPIAM can dramatically improve the treatment outcome. Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is frequently diagnosed in an advanced stage and often possesses intrinsic resistance to chemotherapy accompanied by the fast development of acquired resistance during the treatment. Oncogenic receptor tyrosine kinases (TKs), specifically epidermal growth factor (EGF) TKs, play an important role in the activation of MAPK/PI3K/Akt/STAT pathways, finally leading to the development of RPIAM. However, the suppression of EGF-TK by different drugs is limited by various defensive mechanisms and mutations. In order to effectively prevent the development of RPIAM in NSCLC, we formulated and tested a multicomponent and multifunctional cancer targeted delivery system containing Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLCs) as vehicles, luteinizing hormone release hormone (LHRH) as a cancer targeting moiety, EFG-TK inhibitor gefitinib and/or paclitaxel as anticancer drug(s), siRNA targeted to EGF receptor (EGFR) mRNA as a suppressor of EGF receptors, and an imaging agent (rhodamine) for the visualization of cancer cells. Experimental data obtained show that this complex delivery system possesses significantly enhanced anticancer activity that cannot be achieved by individual components applied separately.

Co-delivery of doxorubicin and paclitaxel by reduction/pH dual responsive nanocarriers for osteosarcoma therapy

Nanoparticle-based drug delivery system offers a promising platform for combination cancer therapy. However, the inefficient drug release in cells reduces the therapeutic efficacy of cancer nanomedicines. Herein, a PEGylated poly(α-lipoic acid) copolymer (mPEG-PαLA) was prepared and used as a reduction/pH dual responsive nanocarrier to simultaneously deliver paclitaxel (PTX) and doxorubicin (DOX) for osteosarcoma therapy. The amphiphilic mPEG-PαLA could efficiently encapsulate both PTX and DOX during its self-assembly into micelles in aqueous solution to generate PTX and DOX co-loaded nanoparticles (NP-PTX-DOX). The as-prepared NP-PTX-DOX showed enhanced PTX and DOX release in response to reductive and acidic stimuli. Moreover, the dual-drug loaded nanoparticles were efficiently internalized by K7 osteosarcoma cells and released drugs intracellularly, as confirmed by flow cytometry analysis and confocal laser scanning microscopy. Consequently, NP-PTX-DOX exhibited synergistic therapeutic effects and induced enhanced cell apoptosis in K7 cells. Furthermore, NP-PTX-DOX presented improved biodistribution and higher tumor growth inhibition efficacy compared to the control groups in a murine osteosarcoma model. Altogether, the results of this work indicate that the proposed strategy is promising for osteosarcoma therapy using mPEG-PαLA copolymer as a dual-responsive nanocarrier to co-deliver anticancer drugs.

Escaping the endosome: assessing cellular trafficking mechanisms of non-viral vehicles

Non-viral vehicles hold therapeutic promise in advancing the delivery of a variety of cargos in vitro and in vivo, including small molecule drugs, biologics, and especially nucleic acids. However, their efficacy at the cellular level is limited by several delivery barriers, with endolysosomal degradation being most significant. The entrapment of vehicles and their cargo in the acidified endosome prevents access to the cytosol, nucleus, and other subcellular compartments. Understanding the factors that contribute to uptake and intracellular trafficking, especially endosomal entrapment and release, is key to overcoming delivery obstacles within cells. In this review, we summarize and compare experimental techniques for assessing the extent of endosomal escape of a variety of non-viral vehicles and describe proposed escape mechanisms for different classes of lipid-, polymer-, and peptide-based delivery agents. Based on this evaluation, we present forward-looking strategies utilizing information gained from mechanistic studies to inform the rational design of efficient delivery vehicles.

Recent Advances in Nanotechnology with Nano-Phytochemicals: Molecular Mechanisms and Clinical Implications in Cancer Progression

Biocompatible nanoparticles (NPs) containing polymers, lipids (liposomes and micelles), dendrimers, ferritin, carbon nanotubes, quantum dots, ceramic, magnetic materials, and gold/silver have contributed to imaging diagnosis and targeted cancer therapy. However, only some NP drugs, including Doxil^® (liposome-encapsulated doxorubicin), Abraxane^® (albumin-bound paclitaxel), and Oncaspar^® (PEG-Asparaginase), have emerged on the pharmaceutical market to date. By contrast, several phytochemicals that were found to be effective in cultured cancer cells and animal studies have not shown significant efficacy in humans due to poor bioavailability and absorption, rapid clearance, resistance, and toxicity. Research to overcome these drawbacks by using phytochemical NPs remains in the early stages of clinical translation. Thus, in the current review, we discuss the progress in nanotechnology, research milestones, the molecular mechanisms of phytochemicals encapsulated in NPs, and clinical implications. Several challenges that must be overcome and future research perspectives are also described.

Recent applications and strategies in nanotechnology for lung diseases

Lung diseases, including COVID-19 and lung cancers, is a huge threat to human health. However, for the treatment and diagnosis of various lung diseases, such as pneumonia, asthma, cancer, and pulmonary tuberculosis, are becoming increasingly challenging. Currently, several types of treatments and/or diagnostic methods are used to treat lung diseases; however, the occurrence of adverse reactions to chemotherapy, drug-resistant bacteria, side effects that can be significantly toxic, and poor drug delivery necessitates the development of more promising treatments. Nanotechnology, as an emerging technology, has been extensively studied in medicine. Several studies have shown that nano-delivery systems can significantly enhance the targeting of drug delivery. When compared to traditional delivery methods, several nanoparticle delivery strategies are used to improve the detection methods and drug treatment efficacy. Transporting nanoparticles to the lungs, loading appropriate therapeutic drugs, and the incorporation of intelligent functions to overcome various lung barriers have broad prospects as they can aid in locating target tissues and can enhance the therapeutic effect while minimizing systemic side effects. In addition, as a new and highly contagious respiratory infection disease, COVID-19 is spreading worldwide. However, there is no specific drug for COVID-19. Clinical trials are being conducted in several countries to develop antiviral drugs or vaccines. In recent years, nanotechnology has provided a feasible platform for improving the diagnosis and treatment of diseases, nanotechnology-based strategies may have broad prospects in the diagnosis and treatment of COVID-19. This article reviews the latest developments in nanotechnology drug delivery strategies in the lungs in recent years and studies the clinical application value of nanomedicine in the drug delivery strategy pertaining to the lung.

Enhancing Chemotherapy by RNA Interference

Abstract Small interfering RNA (siRNA) has shown tremendous potential for treating human diseases in the past decades. siRNA can selectively silence a pathological pathway through the targeting and degradation of a specific mRNA, significantly reducing the off-target side effects of anticancer drugs. However, the poor pharmacokinetics of RNA significantly restricted the clinical use of RNAi technology. In this review, we examine in-depth the siRNA therapeutics currently in preclinical and clinical trials, multiple challenges faced in siRNA therapy, feasibility of siRNA treatment with anticancer drugs in combined with siRNA in nanoparticles or modified to be parental drugs, sequential therapy of siRNA treatment prior to drug treatment with siRNA and drugs loaded in nanoparticles. We focused on the combinatorial activation of apoptosis by different pathways, namely Bcl-2, survivin, and Pgp protein. Taken together, this review would serve to establish the pathway of effective and efficient combination therapy of siRNA and drugs as a new strategy.

Engineering Tumor-Targeting Nanoparticles as Vehicles for Precision Nanomedicine

As a nascent and emerging field that holds great potential for precision oncology, nanotechnology has been envisioned to improve drug delivery and imaging capabilities through precise and efficient tumor targeting, safely sparing healthy normal tissue. In the clinic, nanoparticle formulations such as the first-generation Abraxane® in breast cancer, Doxil® for sarcoma, and Onivyde® for metastatic pancreatic cancer, have shown advancement in drug delivery while improving safety profiles. However, effective accumulation of nanoparticles at the tumor site is sub-optimal due to biological barriers that must be overcome. Nanoparticle delivery and retention can be altered through systematic design considerations in order to enhance passive accumulation or active targeting to the tumor site. In tumor niches where passive targeting is possible, modifications in the size and charge of nanoparticles play a role in their tissue accumulation. For niches in which active targeting is required, precision oncology research has identified targetable biomarkers, with which nanoparticle design can be altered through bioconjugation using antibodies, peptides, or small molecule agonists and antagonists. This review is structured to provide a better understanding of nanoparticle engineering design principles with emphasis on overcoming tumor-specific biological barriers.

CD44-Targeted Multifunctional Nanomedicines Based on a Single-Component Hyaluronic Acid Conjugate with All-Natural Precursors: Construction and Treatment of Metastatic Breast Tumors in Vivo

Metastasis is responsible for >90% of the deaths of breast cancer patients in the clinic. Here, we report on cross-linked multifunctional hyaluronic acid nanoparticles carrying docetaxel (DTX-CMHN) for enhanced suppression of highly metastatic 4T1 breast tumors in vivo. DTX-CMHN was formed from a single and all-natural hyaluronic acid-g-polytyrosine-lipoic acid conjugate (HA-g-PTyr-LA; HA, 20 kDa; PTyr, 2.2 kDa), and the size of DTX-CMHN increased from 69 to 78 to 96 nm as the increasing degree of substitution (DS) of PTyr increased from 4 to 11 to 15, respectively. Robust encapsulation of DTX was obtained when DS ≥ 11. DTX-CMHN while steady in a nonreducing environment was destabilized under 10 mM glutathione releasing ∼90% of the DTX within 24 h. It is noteworthy that DTX-CMHN exhibited better antitumor, antimigration, and anti-invasion activity in CD44-overexpressed 4T1-Luc breast cancer cells than free DTX. Interestingly, DTX-CMHN displayed a long elimination half-life of 5.75 h, in contrast to half-lives of 2.11 and 0.75 h for its non-cross-linked counterpart (DTX-MHN) and free DTX, respectively. In vivo therapeutic studies showed significantly better inhibition of primary 4T1-Luc tumor growth and lung metastasis and lower toxicity of DTX-CMHN compared with that of free DTX. These multifunctional nanoformulations based on a single and all-natural hyaluronic acid conjugate emerge as a potential nanoplatform for targeted treatment of CD44-positive metastatic tumors.

Nanotechnology based therapeutics for lung disease

Nanomedicine is a multidisciplinary research field with an integration of traditional sciences such as chemistry, physics, biology and materials science. The application of nanomedicine for lung diseases as a relatively new area of interdisciplinary science has grown rapidly over the last 10 years. Promising research outcomes suggest that nanomedicine will revolutionise the practice of medicine, through the development of new approaches in therapeutic agent delivery, vaccine development and nanotechnology-based medical detections. Nano-based approaches in the diagnosis and treatment of lung diseases will, in the not too distant future, change the way we practise medicine. This review will focus on the current trends and developments in the clinical translation of nanomedicine for lung diseases, such as in the areas of lung cancer, cystic fibrosis, asthma, bacterial infections and COPD.

Development of β-elemene and Cisplatin Co-Loaded Liposomes for Effective Lung Cancer Therapy and Evaluation in Patient-Derived Tumor Xenografts

PURPOSE

β-elemene and cisplatin combined chemotherapy currently is one of the most important settings available for lung cancer therapy in China. However, the clinical outcome is limited by their pharmacokinetic drawbacks. On the other hand, most of nanomedicines have failed in clinical development due to the huge differences between heterogeneous clinical tumor tissues and homogenous cell-derived xenografts. In this work, we fabricated a β-elemene and cisplatin co-loaded liposomal system to effectively treat lung cancer.

METHOD

In vitro cytotoxicity of co-loaded liposomes was studied by MTT, trypan and Hoechst/PI staining, and western blot in A549, A549/DDP, and LCC cells. In vivo antitumor efficacy was evaluated in cell-derived and clinically relevant patient-derived xenografts.

RESULTS

Co-loaded liposomes were more cytotoxic to cancer cells, especially than the combination of single-loaded liposomes, benefiting from their simultaneous drug internalization and release. As a result, they exhibited desirable therapeutic outcome in both cell-derived and patient-derived xenografts.

CONCLUSION

β-elemene and cisplatin co-loaded liposomes are a clinically promising candidate for effective lung cancer therapy.

Developing Body-Components-Based Theranostic Nanoparticles for Targeting Ovarian Cancer

Ovarian cancer mortality is the highest among gynecologic malignancies. Hence, the major challenges are early diagnosis and efficient targeted therapy. Herein, we devised model theranostic nanoparticles (NPs) for combined diagnostics and delivery of chemotherapeutics, targeted to ovarian cancer cells. These NPs were made of natural biocompatible and biodegradable body components: hyaluronic acid (HA) and serum albumin (SA). The hydrophilic HA served as the targeting ligand for cancer cells overexpressing CD44, the HA receptor. SA, the natural carrier of various ligands through the blood, served as the hydrophobic block of the self-assembling block copolymeric Maillard-conjugates. We show the successful construction of fluorescently-labeled SA-HA conjugate-based theranostic NPs, their loading with paclitaxel (PTX) (association constant (8.6 ± 0.8) × 103 M-1, maximal loading capacity of 4:1 PTX:BSA, and 96% encapsulation efficiency), selective internalization and cytotoxicity to CD44-overexpressing ovarian cancer cells (IC50: 26.4 ± 2.3 nM, compared to 115.0 ± 17.4 of free PTX, and to 58.6 ± 19.7 nM for CD44-lacking cognate ovarian cancer cells). Fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) was used for in vitro imaging, whereas long wavelength fluorophores or other suitable tracers would be used for future in vivo diagnostic imaging. Collectively, our findings demonstrate that fluorescent HA-SA NPs harboring a cytotoxic drug cargo can specifically target, label CD44-expressing ovarian cancer cells and efficiently eradicate them.

One-step mechanochemical preparation and prominent antitumor activity of SN-38 self-micelle solid dispersion

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to overcome the clinical defects of 7-ethyl-10-hydroxycamptothecin (SN-38) and explore its characteristics and antitumor effects.

Materials and methods

An amorphous solid dispersion of SN-38 with disodium glycyrrhizin (Na₂GA) was prepared by mechanical ball milling (Na₂GA/SN-38-BM). Moreover, an untreated mixture of Na₂GA and SN-38 (Na₂GA/SN-38-UM), a pure drug SN-38, was prepared for comparison with Na₂GA/SN-38-BM. The samples were characterized by powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), dynamic light scattering, and transmission electron microscopy. Then, further in vitro and in vivo studies were performed including cell uptake, cytotoxicity, antitumor efficacy, tissue distribution, and histopathological evaluation (H&E staining).

Results

SN-38 loaded in Na₂GA was self-formed as nano-micelles in water. The particle size of nano-micelle was 69.41 nm and ζ-potential was -42.01 mV. XRD and SEM analyses showed that the ball milling transformed SN-38 crystals into amorphous form and that solubility increased by 189 times. Compared with SN-38 and Na₂GA/SN-38-UM, Na₂GA/SN-38-BM has a stronger cytotoxicity to tumor cells and exhibited a significant inhibition of tumor growth. Then, pharmacokinetic studies showed that the bioavailability of Na₂GA/SN-38-BM was about four times that of SN-38 suspension.

Conclusion

Na₂GA/SN-38-BM (69 nm, -42 mV) nanoparticles which had excellent phar-macokinetic and distribution properties can dramatically enhance the anticancer efficacy of SN-38 in vitro and in vivo, suggesting a promising formulation for efficient anticancer therapy.

Engineering lymphocytes with RNAi

Lymphocytes are the gatekeepers of the body's immune system and are involved in pathogenesis if their surveillance is stalled by inhibitory molecules or when they act as mediators for viral entry. Engineering lymphocytes in order to restore their functions is an unmet need in immunological disorders, cancer and in lymphotropic viral infections. Recently, the FDA approved several therapeutic antibodies for blocking inhibitory signals on T cells. This has revolutionized the field of solid tumor care, together with chimeric antigen receptor T cell (CAR-T) therapy that did the same for hematological malignancies. RNA interference (RNAi) is a promising approach where gene function can be inhibited in almost all types of cells. However, manipulation of genes in lymphocyte subsets are difficult due to their hard-to-transfect nature and in vivo targeting remains challenging as they are dispersed throughout the body. The ability of RNAi molecules to gain entry into cells is almost impossible without delivery strategy. Nanotechnology approaches are rapidly growing and their impact in the field of drug and gene delivery applications to transport payloads inside cells have been extensively studied. Here we discuss various technologies available for RNAi delivery to lymphocytes. We shed light on the importance of targeting molecules in order to target lymphocytes in vivo. In addition, we discuss recent developments of RNAi delivery to lymphocyte subsets, and detail the potential implication for the future of molecular medicine in leukocytes implicated diseases.

Saporin-loaded CD44 and EGFR dual-targeted nanogels for potent inhibition of metastatic breast cancer in vivo

Metastasis poses a long-standing treatment challenge for many cancers including breast cancer. Once spreading out, cell-selective delivery of drug appears especially critical. Here, we report on epidermal growth factor receptor and CD44 dual-targeted hyaluronic acid nanogels (EGFR/CD44-NGs) that afford enhanced targetability and protein therapy for metastatic 4T1 breast cancer in vivo. Flow cytometry in CD44 and EGFR-positive 4T1 metastatic breast cancer cells showed over 6-fold higher cellular uptake of EGFR/CD44-NGs than mono-targeting CD44-NGs. MTT and scratch assays displayed that saporin-loaded EGFR/CD44-NGs (Sap-EGFR/CD44-NGs) was highly potent in inhibiting growth as well as migration of 4T1 cells in vitro, with an IC₅₀ of 5.36 nM, which was 1.7-fold lower than that for Sap-CD44-NGs. In 4T1-luc metastatic breast cancer model in mice, Sap-EGFR/CD44-NGs exhibited significant inhibition of tumor metastasis to lung at a small dose of 3.33 nmol Sap equiv./kg. Increasing the dosage to 13.3 nmol Sap equiv./kg resulted in further reduced lung metastasis without causing notable adverse effects. These dual-targeted nanogels with improved cancer cell selectivity provide a novel platform for combating breast cancer metastasis.

The inevitability of change

Change is an absolute so long as time does not stand still. We should expect it, embrace it, and try to predict its direction. Dermatology, as a specialty practice, has been changing rapidly over the past 30 years concurrent with the changes in medicine. What are these changes, how did they come about, and what may be the consequences? The goal of this review is to follow the march of time, as we move from one era to the other in step with what is happening in the world as a whole and the United States in particular. The growth of our specialty, Dermatology, is divided into 3 eras which are quite different in generational cultures. The first era spanning the 1980s and 1990s is dubbed as "old school." The second era begins with the new century, 2000 until today. This era will forever be remembered as the business era, the rise of elite cultures, and the losses and threats to academia. The third era begins now; it is that of technology which is fast progressing into the future. One can theoretically project what may occur during this technologic revolution and the directions in medicine as a whole. Dermatology can be at the forefront of this era or it could be lost as a whole if we do nothing to keep up. These eras are based on my personal experience as a dermatologist in a large academic institution in the United States and may not apply to other communities or societies elsewhere. The United States serves as a good example of a western technologically oriented society that is often emulated by others.

Anti-Invasive and Anti-Proliferative Effects of shRNA-Loaded Poly(Lactide-Co-Glycolide) Nanoparticles Following RAN Silencing in MDA-MB231 Breast Cancer Cells

Background

Overexpression of the RAN GTP (RAN) gene has been shown to be linked to metastatic activity of MDA-MB231 human breast cancer cells by increasing Ras/MEK/ERK and PI3K/Akt/mTORC1 signalling. The aim of this study was to investigate the potential of polymeric nanoparticles to deliver two novel shRNA sequences, targeted against the RAN gene, to MDA-MB231 cells grown in culture and to assess their effects in a range of biological assays.

Methods

Biodegradable PLGA nanoparticles, loaded with shRNA-1 and shRNA-4, were fabricated using a double emulsion solvent evaporation technique and characterised for size, zeta potential and polydispersity index before testing on the MDA-MB231 cell line in a range of assays including cell viability, migration, invasion and gene knock down.

Results

shRNA-loaded nanoparticles were successfully fabricated and delivered to MDA-MB231 cells in culture, where they effectively released their payload, causing a decrease in both cell invasion and cell migration by knocking down RAN gene expression.

Conclusion

Results indicate the anti-RAN shRNA-loaded nanoparticles deliver and release biological payload to MDA-MB231 cells in culture. This works paves the way for further investigations into the possible use of anti-RAN shRNA-loaded NP formulations for the treatment of breast cancer in vivo.

A multifunctional drug nanocarrier for efficient anticancer therapy

So far, the success of anticancer nanomedicines has been moderate due to their lack of adequate targeting properties and/or to their difficulties for penetrating tumors. Here we report a multifunctional drug nanocarrier consisting of hyaluronic acid nanocapsules conjugated with the tumor homing peptide tLyp1, which exhibits both, dual targeting properties (to the tumor and to the lymphatics), and enhanced tumor penetration. Data from a 3D co-culture in vitro model showed the capacity of these nanocapsules to interact with the NRP1 receptors over-expressed in cancer cells. The targeting capacity of the nanocapsules was evidenced in orthotopic lung cancer-bearing mice, using docetaxel as a standard drug. The results showed a dramatic accumulation of docetaxel in the tumor (37-fold the one achieved with Taxotere®). This biodistribution profile correlated with the high efficacy shown in terms of tumor growth regression and drastic reduction of metastasis in the lymphatics. When efficacy was validated in a pancreatic patient-derived tumor, the nanocapsule's activity was comparable to that of a dose ten times higher of Abraxane®. Multi-functionality was found to be the key to the success of this new therapy.

Self-Assembled Nanomedicines for Anticancer and Antibacterial Applications

Self-assembly strategies have been widely applied in the nanomedicine field, which provide a convenient approach for building various structures for delivery carriers. When cooperating with biomolecules, self-assembly systems have significant influence on the cell activity and life process and could be used for regulating nanodrug activity. In this review, self-assembled nanomedicines are introduced, including materials, encapsulation, and releasing strategies, where self-assembly strategies are involved. Furthermore, as a promising and emerging area for nanomedicine, in situ self-assembly of anticancer drugs and supramolecular antibiotic switches is also discussed about how to regulate drug activity. Selective pericellular assembly can block mass transformation of cancer cells inducing cell apoptosis, and the intracellular assembly can either cause cell death or effectively avoid drug elimination from cytosol of cancer cells because of the assembly-induced retention (AIR) effect. Host-guest interactions of drug and competitive molecules offer reversible regulations of antibiotic activity, which can reduce drug-resistance and inhibit the generation of drug-resistant bacteria. Finally, the challenges and development trend in the field are discussed.

pH-sensitive tangeretin-ZnO quantum dots exert apoptotic and anti-metastatic effects in metastatic lung cancer cell line

Most cancer patients die as a consequence of distant metastases, which are frequently unresponsive to cancer therapy. This study focuses on the anti-tumorigenic and anti-metastatic properties of tangeretin-zinc oxide quantum dots (Tan-ZnO QDs) against the NCI-H358 cell line. Tan-ZnO QDs are pH-sensitive and capitalize on the acidic pH maintained in the tumor microenvironment; therefore, targeted drug delivery is directed specifically to cancer cells, leaving the normal cells less affected. Tan was loaded into synthesized ZnO QDs, and drug loading was analyzed using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectrometry. Crystalline phase and particle size were measured using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). Drug release was evaluated in buffered solutions with differing pH for up to 15 h. The results confirmed stable drug release (80%) in an acidic pH. Tan-ZnO QDs induced significant cytotoxicity in NCI-H358 metastatic cells, while not markedly affecting HK-2 human normal cells. Morphology of treated H358 cells analyzed via atomic force microscopy (AFM) showed an increased surface roughness and pores. Further, the number of terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL)-positive cells increased after treatment with Tan-ZnO QDs. DNA fragmentation was also induced after treatment with increasing concentrations of Tan-ZnO QDs in H358 cells. We also confirmed regulation of apoptosis via expression levels of Bax and Bcl-2 proteins; G2/M phase cell cycle arrest was observed. Additionally, cell proliferation and migration drastically decreased, and cell invasion and migration, hallmarks of metastasis, were significantly inhibited in H358 cells. Matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)2 and MMP9, markers of metastasis, as well as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), a marker of angiogenesis, were significantly downregulated upon treatment with Tan-ZnO QDs. In conclusion, our novel formulation destabilized H358 cells by using its acidic tumor microenvironment, thereby regulating cell apoptosis, proliferation, and metastatic properties.

RGD peptide-modified, paclitaxel prodrug-based, dual-drugs loaded, and redox-sensitive lipid-polymer nanoparticles for the enhanced lung cancer therapy

One approach to improve the targeted therapeutic efficiency of lung cancer is to deliver drugs using nano-scaled systems. In this study, RGD peptide-modified, paclitaxel (PTX) prodrug-based, dual-drugs loaded, and redox-sensitive lipid-polymer nanoparticles were developed and the in vitro and in vivo antitumor efficiency was evaluated in lung cancer cells and tumor bearing animal models. RGD-modified PTX and cisplatin (CDDP) loaded LPNs (RGD-ss-PTX/CDDP LPNs) have sizes around 190 nm, and zeta potentials of -35 mV. The half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) values were 26.7 and 75.3 μg/mL for drugs loaded LPNs and free drugs combination, which indicates significantly higher antitumor activity of LPNs than free drugs. RGD-ss-PTX/CDDP LPNs also exhibited the best antitumor efficiency in vivo, which inhibited the tumor size of mice from 1486 mm³ to 263 mm³. The results illustrated that the system could successfully load drugs and achieve synergistic combination lung cancer treatment efficiency with lower systemic toxicity compared with free drugs counterparts. The resulting system could be facilitated as a promising targeted nanomedicine for the treatment of lung cancer.

Cell-penetrating peptide-based nanovehicles potentiate lymph metastasis targeting and deep penetration for anti-metastasis therapy

Lymph metastasis is a vital pathway of cancer cell dissemination, and insidious lymph node metastasis increases the risk of distant cancer metastasis. Current therapies for lymph metastasis are largely restricted by limited targeting and penetration capacity. Herein, we report that an r9 cell-penetrating peptide-based cabazitaxel nanovehicle (r9-CN) displays prominent lymph metastasis targeting and deep penetration ability after intravenous injection for effective anti-metastasis therapy. Methods: The r9-CN and CN nanovehicles were prepared by thin film dispersion, using DSPE-PEG2000 as the nano-carrier material and cabazitaxel as the model drug to fabricate r9-modified nano-micelles by self-assembly. The morphology, size, and stability in physiological solutions of r9-CN and CN were characterized. The targeting, biodistribution, deep penetration, and therapeutic efficacy of r9-CN and CN were systematically explored in vitro and in vivo. Results: The r9-CN nanovehicle consists of homogeneous particles with a mean diameter of 13 nm and zeta potential of +0.75 mV. Compared with the nanovehicle lacking the r9 peptide (CN), r9-CN exhibits long retention and deep penetration in the tumor mass, and considerably enhances accumulation and flexible permeation in metastatic lymph nodes, thereby notably suppressing primary tumor growth, lymph node metastasis, and distant lung metastasis. Conclusion: The cumulative findings reveal that r9-CN offers a promising delivery platform, enabling efficient lymph metastasis targeting and deep penetration for effective anti-metastasis therapy.

Mutual Destruction of Deep Lung Tumor Tissues by Nanodrug-Conjugated Stealth Mesenchymal Stem Cells

Lung cancer is a highly malignant tumor, and targeted delivery of anti-cancer drugs to deep lung tumor tissue remains a challenge in drug design. Here, it is demonstrated that bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells armed with nanodrugs are highly targeted and mutually destructive with malignant lung cancer cells and successfully eradicate lung tumors tissues. Using this approach, the current clinical dose of anti-cancer drugs for the treatment of malignant lung tumors can be decreased by more than 100-fold without triggering immunotoxicity.

Current and future technological advances in transdermal gene delivery

Transdermal gene delivery holds significant advantages as it is able to minimize the problems of systemic administration such as enzymatic degradation, systemic toxicity, and poor delivery to target tissues. This technology has the potential to transform the treatment and prevention of a range of diseases. However, the skin poses a great barrier for gene delivery because of the "bricks-and-mortar" structure of the stratum corneum and the tight junctions between keratinocytes in the epidermis. This review systematically summarizes the typical physical and chemical approaches to overcome these barriers and facilitate gene delivery via skin for applications in vaccination, wound healing, skin cancers and skin diseases. Next, the advantages and disadvantages of different approaches are discussed and the insights for future development are provided.

Nanotechnology Strategies To Advance Outcomes in Clinical Cancer Care

Ongoing research into the application of nanotechnology for cancer treatment and diagnosis has demonstrated its advantages within contemporary oncology as well as its intrinsic limitations. The National Cancer Institute publishes the Cancer Nanotechnology Plan every 5 years since 2005. The most recent iteration helped codify the ongoing basic and translational efforts of the field and displayed its breadth with several evolving areas. From merely a technological perspective, this field has seen tremendous growth and success. However, an incomplete understanding of human cancer biology persists relative to the application of nanoscale materials within contemporary oncology. As such, this review presents several evolving areas in cancer nanotechnology in order to identify key clinical and biological challenges that need to be addressed to improve patient outcomes. From this clinical perspective, a sampling of the nano-enabled solutions attempting to overcome barriers faced by traditional therapeutics and diagnostics in the clinical setting are discussed. Finally, a strategic outlook of the future is discussed to highlight the need for next-generation cancer nanotechnology tools designed to address critical gaps in clinical cancer care.

Poly-isoprenylated ifosfamide analogs: Preactivated antitumor agents as free formulation or nanoassemblies

Oxazaphosphorines including cyclophosphamide, trofosfamide and ifosfamide (IFO) belong to the alkylating agent class and are indicated in the treatment of numerous cancers. However, IFO is subject to limiting side-effects in high-dose protocols. To circumvent IFO drawbacks in clinical practices, preactivated IFO analogs were designed to by-pass the toxic metabolic pathway. Among these IFO analogs, some of them showed the ability to self-assemble due to the use of a poly-isoprenyloxy chain as preactivating moiety. We present here, the in vitro activity of the nanoassembly formulations of preactivated IFO derivatives with a C-4 geranyloxy, farnesyloxy and squalenoxy substituent on a large panel of tumor cell lines. The chemical and colloidal stabilities of the geranyloxy-IFO (G-IFO), farnesyloxy-IFO (F-IFO) and squalenoxy-IFO (SQ-IFO) NAs were further evaluated in comparison to their free formulation. Finally, pharmacokinetic parameters and maximal tolerated dose of the most potent preactivated IFO analog (G-IFO) were determined and compared to IFO, paving the way to in vivo studies.

Critical Parameters for Particle-Based Pulmonary Delivery of Chemotherapeutics

Targeted delivery of chemotherapeutics through the respiratory system is a potential approach to improve drug accumulation in the lung tumor, while decreasing their negative side effects. However, elimination by the pulmonary clearance mechanisms, including the mucociliary transport system, and ingestion by the alveolar macrophages, rapid absorption into the blood, enzymatic degradation, and low control over the deposition rate and location remain the main complications for achieving an effective pulmonary drug delivery. Therefore, particle-based delivery systems have emerged to minimize pulmonary clearance mechanisms, enhance drug therapeutic efficacy, and control the release behavior. A successful implementation of a particle-based delivery system requires understanding the influential parameters in terms of drug carrier, inhalation technology, and health status of the patient's respiratory system. This review aims at investigating the parameters that significantly drive the clinical outcomes of various particle-based pulmonary delivery systems. This should aid clinicians in appropriate selection of a delivery system according to their clinical setting. It will also guide researchers in addressing the remaining challenges that need to be overcome to enhance the efficiency of current pulmonary delivery systems for aerosols.

Self-Assembly of Amphiphilic Biotransesterified β-Cyclodextrins: Supramolecular Structure of Nanoparticles and Surface Properties

A series of β-cyclodextrin (βCD) amphiphilic derivatives with varying degrees of substitution were prepared by acylating βCDs on their secondary face using thermolysin to catalyze the transesterification. After dissolution in acetone, the βCD-C_n derivatives (n = 8, 10, 12, 14) were nanoprecipitated in water, where they self-organized into structured particles that were characterized using cryo-transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM) images and small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) data. Two types of morphologies and ultrastructures were observed depending on the total degree of substitution (TDS) of the parent derivative. The molecules with TDS < 5 formed nanospheres with a multilamellar organization, whereas those with TDS > 5 self-assembled into barrel-like (n = 8, 10, 12) or more tortuous (n = 14) particles with a columnar inverse hexagonal structure. In particular, faceted βCD-C₁₄ particles (TDS = 7) appeared to be composed of several domains with different orientations that were separated by sharp interfaces. Ultrastructural models were proposed on the basis of cryo-TEM images and the analysis of the contrast distribution in different projections of the lattice. Complementary compression isotherm experiments carried out at the air-water interface also suggested that differences in the molecular conformation of the series of derivatives existed depending on whether TDS was lower or higher than 5.

Enhanced anti-metastatic and anti-tumorigenic efficacy of Berbamine loaded lipid nanoparticles in vivo

Research on metastasis is gaining momentum for effective cancer management. Berbamine (BBM) has the potency to act as a therapeutic in multiple cancers and cancer metastasis. However, the major limitation of the compound includes poor bioavailability at the tumor site due to short plasma half-life. Here, our major objective involved development of lipid based nanoparticles (NPs) loaded with BBM with an aim to circumvent the above problem. Moreover its, therapeutic potentiality was evaluated through various in vitro cellular studies and in vivo melanoma primary and experimental lung metastatic tumor model in C57BL/6 mice. Results of different cellular experiments demonstrated enhanced therapeutic efficacy of BBM-NPs in inhibiting metastasis, cell proliferation and growth as compared to native BBM in highly metastatic cancer cell lines. Further, in vivo results demonstrated suppression of primary B16F10 melanoma tumor growth in C57BL/6 mice model treated with BBM-NPs than that of native BBM. Importantly, a moderately cytotoxic dose of BBM-NPs was able to significantly suppress the incidence of B16F10 cells lung metastasis in vivo. Results indicated development of an effective approach for aggressive metastatic cancer.

Can gene editing and silencing technologies play a role in the treatment of head and neck cancer?

Conventional treatment strategies have done little to improve the prognosis or disease-free survival in head and neck cancer (HNC) patients. Recent progress in our understanding of molecular aspects of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) has provided insights into the potential use of molecular targeted therapies in combination with current treatment strategies. Here we review the current understanding of treatment modalities for both HPV-positive and HPV-negative HNSCCs with the potential to use gene editing and silencing technologies therapeutically. The development of sequence-specific RNA interference (RNAi) with its strong gene-specific silencing ability, high target specificity, greater potency and reduced side effects, has shown it to be a promising therapeutic candidate for treating cancers. CRISPR/Cas gene editing is the newest technology with the ability to delete, mutate or replace genes of interest and has great potential for treating HNSCCs. We also discuss the major challenge in using these approaches in HNSCC; that being the choice of target and the ability to deliver the payload. Finally, we highlight the potential combination of RNAi or CRIPSR/Cas with current treatment strategies and outline the possible path to the clinic.

Novel nanoparticulate systems for lung cancer therapy: an updated review

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths in the world. Conventional therapy for lung cancer is associated with lack of specificity and access to the normal cells resulting in cytotoxicity, reduced cellular uptake, drug resistance and rapid drug clearance from the body. The emergence of nanotechnology has revolutionized the treatment of lung cancer. The focus of nanotechnology is to target tumor cells with improved bioavailability and reduced toxicity. In the recent years, nanoparticulate systems have extensively been exploited in order to overcome the obstacles in treatment of lung cancer. Nanoparticulate systems have shown much potential for lung cancer therapy by gaining selective access to the tumor cells due to surface modifiability and smaller size. In this review, various novel nanoparticles (NPs) based formulations have been discussed in the treatment of lung cancer. Nanotechnology is expected to grow fast in future, and it will provide new avenues for the improved treatment of lung cancer. This review article also highlights the characteristics, recent advances in the designing of NPs and therapeutic outcomes.

Cellular internalization and transport of biodegradable polyester dendrimers on a model of the pulmonary epithelium and their formulation in pressurized metered-dose inhalers

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of generation and surface PEGylation of degradable polyester-based dendrimers nanocarriers on their interactions with an in vitro model of the pulmonary epithelium as well as to assess the ability to formulate such carriers in propellant-based, portable oral-inhalation devices to determine their potential for local and systemic delivery of drugs to and through the lungs. Hydroxyl (-OH) terminated polyester dendrimers of generation 3 and 4 (G3, and G4) were synthesized using a divergent approach. G4 was surface-modified with PEG (1,000Da). All dendrimers and their building blocks were determined to be highly compatible with the model pulmonary epithelium, with toxicity profiles much more favorable than non-degradable polyamidoamine dendrimers (PAMAM). The transport of the species from the apical to basolateral side across polarized Calu-3 monolayers showed to be generation and surface-chemistry (PEGylation) dependent. The extent of the transport is modulated by their interaction with the polarized epithelium and their transient opening of the tight junctions. G3 was the one most efficiently internalized by the epithelium, and had a small impact on the integrity of the monolayer. On the other hand, the PEGylated G4 was the one least internalized by the polarized epithelium, and at the same time had a more pronounced transient impact on the cellular junctions, resulting in more efficient transport across the cell monolayer. PEGylation of the dendrimer surface played other roles as well. PEGylation modulated the degradation profile of the dendrimer, slowing the process in a step-wise fashion - first the PEG layer is shed and then the dendrimer starts degrading. PEGylation also helped increase the solvation of the nanocarriers by the hydrofluoroalkane propellant used in pressurized metered-dose inhalers, resulting in formulations with excellent dispersibility and aerosol quality (deep lung deposition of 88.5%), despite their very small geometric diameter. The combined in vitro and formulation performance results shown here demonstrated that degradable, modified polyester dendrimers may serve as a valuable platform that can be tailored to target the lung tissue for treating local diseases, or the circulation, using the lungs as pathway to the bloodstream.

Lung cancer and metastasis: new opportunities and challenges

Lung cancer continues to attract special attention since the real number of lung cancer mortality and incidence in 2014 was definitely higher than those estimated numbers according to the report from World Health Organization. The present special issue highly focuses on advanced discovery and development of lung cancer and metastasis and discusses about potential opportunities and challenges to be faced. The present issue explores clinical applications of cancer immunotherapies, gene therapies, radiotherapies, or target-oriented therapies. A new and novel methodology can be used to identify differential interactions of driver genes, cancer-predictive genes, subtype-specific genes, or disease-exclusive genes or gene pairs from imbalanced or heterogeneous datasets. We also demonstrate the importance of lung cancer-specific gene mutations, epigenetics, gene sequencing, heterogeneity, or biomarker discovery. Clinical bioinformatics is emphasized as a critical tool and merging science. Novel therapies are designed and expected on basis of oncogenic molecular aberrations in lung cancer.

Delivery of RNAi Therapeutics to the Airways-From Bench to Bedside

RNA interference (RNAi) is a potent and specific post-transcriptional gene silencing process. Since its discovery, tremendous efforts have been made to translate RNAi technology into therapeutic applications for the treatment of different human diseases including respiratory diseases, by manipulating the expression of disease-associated gene(s). Similar to other nucleic acid-based therapeutics, the major hurdle of RNAi therapy is delivery. Pulmonary delivery is a promising approach of delivering RNAi therapeutics directly to the airways for treating local conditions and minimizing systemic side effects. It is a non-invasive route of administration that is generally well accepted by patients. However, pulmonary drug delivery is a challenge as the lungs pose a series of anatomical, physiological and immunological barriers to drug delivery. Understanding these barriers is essential for the development an effective RNA delivery system. In this review, the different barriers to pulmonary drug delivery are introduced. The potential of RNAi molecules as new class of therapeutics, and the latest preclinical and clinical studies of using RNAi therapeutics in different respiratory conditions are discussed in details. We hope this review can provide some useful insights for moving inhaled RNAi therapeutics from bench to bedside.

Enabling personalized cancer medicine decisions: The challenging pharmacological approach of PBPK models for nanomedicine and pharmacogenomics (Review)

The existing tumor heterogeneity and the complexity of cancer cell biology critically demand powerful translational tools with which to support interdisciplinary efforts aiming to advance personalized cancer medicine decisions in drug development and clinical practice. The development of physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) models to predict the effects of drugs in the body facilitates the clinical translation of genomic knowledge and the implementation of in vivo pharmacology experience with pharmacogenomics. Such a direction unequivocally empowers our capacity to also make personalized drug dosage scheme decisions for drugs, including molecularly targeted agents and innovative nanoformulations, i.e. in establishing pharmacotyping in prescription. In this way, the applicability of PBPK models to guide individualized cancer therapeutic decisions of broad clinical utility in nanomedicine in real-time and in a cost-affordable manner will be discussed. The latter will be presented by emphasizing the need for combined efforts within the scientific borderlines of genomics with nanotechnology to ensure major benefits and productivity for nanomedicine and personalized medicine interventions.

RNA nanomedicines: the next generation drugs?

RNA therapeutics could represent the next generation personalized medicine. The variety of RNA molecules that can inhibit the expression of any mRNA using, for example, RNA interference (RNAi) strategies, or increase the expression of a given protein using modified mRNA together with new gene editing strategies open new avenues for manipulating the fate of diseased cells while leaving healthy cells untouched. In addition, these therapeutic RNA molecules can maximize the treatment of diseases and minimize its adverse effects. Yet, the promise of RNA therapeutics is hindered by the lack of efficient delivery strategies to selectively target these molecules into specific cells. Herein, we will focus on the challenges and opportunities of the delivery of therapeutic RNAi molecules into cancer cells with special emphasis on solid tumors. Solid tumors represent more than 80 percent of cancers and some are very challenging to treat, not merely due to physiological barriers but also since the tumor microenvironment (TME) is a complex milieu of accessory cells besides the cancerous cells. In this review, we will highlight various limiting factors to successful delivery, current clinical achievements and future outlook focusing on RNAi therapeutics to the TME.